Recall: Fourier Transform of Impulse Response = Frequency Response
Note: H(𝜔) is complex in general.
Also, we showed that
Frequency response is transfer function evaluated along 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 (imaginary axis in the s-plane)
Frequency response and pole-zero plot
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot
ς𝑚
𝑖=1(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑖 )
Recall the transfer function in terms of poles and zeros (and gain) 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑛
ς𝑗=1(𝑠 − 𝑝𝑖 )
Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔
Consider one pair of complex-conjugate poles, as an example:
The vector from pole 𝑝2 to a test point 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔1 has
the magnitude 𝑗𝜔1 − 𝑝2 and phase ∠(𝑗𝜔1 − 𝑝2 )
(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝2 )
MIT OCW
A graphical method to evaluate the frequency response
The magnitude and phase angle of the complete
frequency response can therefore be written in
terms of the component vectors as follows:
ς𝑚
𝑖=1(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 )
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐾 𝑛
ς𝑗=1(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖 )
➢ The vector from zero 𝑧𝑖 to the point 𝑗𝜔
has length 𝑟𝑖 and angle 𝜑𝑖
➢ The vector from pole 𝑝𝑖 to the point 𝑗𝜔
has length 𝑞𝑖 and angle 𝜃𝑖
MIT OCW
A graphical method to evaluate the frequency response
ς𝑚
𝑖=1(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 )
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐾 𝑛
ς𝑗=1(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖 )
➢ vector from zero 𝑧𝑖 to the point 𝑗𝜔
has length 𝑟𝑖 and angle 𝜑𝑖
➢ vector from pole 𝑝𝑖 to the point
𝑗𝜔 has length 𝑞𝑖 and angle 𝜃𝑖
ς𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 𝑟1 … . 𝑟𝑚
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =𝐾 𝑛 =𝐾
ς𝑗=1 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖 𝑞1 … . 𝑞𝑛
𝑚 𝑛
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = ∠(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 ) − ∠ 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
= (𝜑1 + ⋯ + 𝜑𝑚 ) − (𝜃1 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑛 )
MIT OCW
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot: Example
One real pole
Consider a first-order system with a pole on the real axis at 𝑝1 = −1/𝜏. To draw frequency
response, draw the vector from the pole 𝑝1 to the point 𝑗𝜔 as the frequency 𝜔 is varied.
At 𝜔1 1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔1 =𝐾
𝑞1
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔1 = −𝜃1
At 𝜔2 1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔2 =𝐾
𝑞2
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔2 = −𝜃2
At frequencies further away from the pole, the
Note that 𝑞2 > 𝑞1 and 𝜃2 > 𝜃1 magnitude decreases and phase ‘lag’ increases
MIT OCW
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot: Example
𝜔→∞
One real pole
Frequency response
Pole-Zero Plot Frequency Response
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot: Example
One real pole
➢At 𝜔 = 0, the gain has a finite value (𝐾𝜏) and the phase-lag is 0°.
➢With increase in the input frequency 𝜔, the gain decreases because the
length of the vector to j𝜔 increases, and the phase lag also increases
because the angle of the vector becomes larger.
➢At very high input frequencies, the gain approaches 0 and phase angle
approaches 𝜋/2.
MIT OCW
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot: Example
Consider a second order system with a pair of complex-conjugate poles close to the imaginary axis.
A pair of complex-conjugate poles
A pair of vectors connect the two poles to the imaginary axis.
At 𝜔 = 0 At 𝜔 = 0 1 𝐾
𝑗𝜔 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐾 = 2
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1
𝑝1
× ∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = − 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 0° (360° 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 0°)
𝑞1
There is finite gain and zero phase lag at 𝜔 = 0
𝜎
𝑞2 = 𝑞1
𝑝2×
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot: Example
Consider a second order system with a pair of complex-conjugate poles close to the imaginary axis.
A pair of complex-conjugate poles
A pair of vectors connect the two poles to the imaginary axis.
As frequency increases,
1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔1 =𝐾
𝑞1 𝑞2
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔1 = −(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )
when 𝜔 nears a pole, say 𝑝1 , the length 𝑞1 is minimum
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 reaches a maximum
There is an increase in the value of the magnitude function
over a range of frequencies close to the pole.
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot: Example
Consider a second order system with a pair of complex-conjugate poles close to the imaginary axis.
A pair of complex-conjugate poles
A pair of vectors connect the two poles to the imaginary axis.
𝑞1 𝑗𝜔 At very high frequencies, both 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 → ∞
At 𝜔 → ∞
𝑝1 1
× 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐾 →0
𝑞1 𝑞2
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = − 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 → (−90° − 90°) = −180°
𝜎
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 → 0,
𝑞2 ∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 →180°
𝑝2×
Frequency Response and the Pole-Zero Plot: Example
Consider a second order system with a pair of complex-conjugate poles close to the imaginary axis.
A pair of complex-conjugate poles
Pole-Zero Plot Frequency response
Bode Plot of the Frequency Response
Recall: graphical method to evaluate the frequency response
ς𝑚
𝑖=1(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 )
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐾 𝑛
ς𝑗=1(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖 )
➢ vector from zero 𝑧𝑖 to the point 𝑗𝜔
has length 𝑟𝑖 and angle 𝜑𝑖
➢ vector from pole 𝑝𝑖 to the point
𝑗𝜔 has length 𝑞𝑖 and angle 𝜃𝑖
ς𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 𝑟1 … . 𝑟𝑚
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =𝐾 𝑛 =𝐾
ς𝑗=1 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖 𝑞1 … . 𝑞𝑛
𝑚 𝑛
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = ∠(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 ) − ∠ 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
= (𝜑1 + ⋯ + 𝜑𝑚 ) − (𝜃1 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑛 )
MIT OCW
Bode’s Plot
The idea in Bode’s method is to plot magnitude curves using a logarithmic scale and
phase curves using a linear scale.
This strategy allows us to plot a high-order 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) by simply adding the separate
terms graphically.
Magnitude
𝑟1 … . 𝑟𝑚
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =𝐾
𝑞1 … . 𝑞𝑛
𝑟1 … . 𝑟𝑚
20 log10 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 20 log10 𝐾
𝑞1 … . 𝑞𝑛
= 20 log10 𝐾 + 20 log10 𝑟1 + ⋯ + 20 log10 𝑟𝑚 − 20 log10 𝑞1 … − 20 log10 𝑞𝑛
Addition of the logarithms of the individual terms provides the logarithm of the magnitude
of the composite expression
Bode’s Plot
Phase 𝑚 𝑛
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = ∠(𝑗𝜔 − 𝑧𝑖 ) − ∠ 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
= (𝜑1 + ⋯ + 𝜑𝑚 ) − (𝜃1 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑛 )
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = (𝜑1 + ⋯ + 𝜑𝑚 ) − (𝜃1 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑛 )
Phases of the individual terms are added directly to obtain the phase of the composite
expression
The frequency response is typically presented as two curves:
(1) the logarithm of magnitude versus log ω and (2) the phase versus log ω.
Plotting the Frequency Response: Bode Plot
Magnitude is plotted as 20 log10 𝑀(𝜔) 𝑣𝑠. log10 𝜔
1
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠+2
Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔
in the system transfer function
1 2 − 𝑗𝜔
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = 2
𝑗𝜔 + 2 𝜔 + 4
Magnitude frequency response Phase is plotted as 𝜑 𝜔 𝑣𝑠. log10 𝜔
1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑀(𝜔) =
𝜔2 + 4
Phase frequency response
−1
𝜔
∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝜑 𝜔 = − tan
2
Nise, Chapter 10
The Bode Diagram and its Asymptotic Approximations
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram
The first task when drawing a Bode diagram is to rewrite the transfer function so that
all the poles and zeros are written in the form (1+s/ω0).
Consider the transfer function:
Let us draw the magnitude and phase of this function when s=jω
Note that this expression is made up of four terms, a constant (0.1), a real zero (at
s=-1), and two real poles (at s=-10 and s=-100).
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram
Rewrite the function (with 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔) as four individual phasors
Next, we will write 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)|∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔), that is, as a single phasor
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)|∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔), where
We can draw each phase term separately, and then simply add (or subtract) them. The
magnitude term is not so straightforward because the magnitude terms are multiplied.
To simplify this, the Bode Plot uses magnitude in logarithmic form, that is,
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔
20 log10 |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = 20 log10 |0.1| + 20 log10 |1 + 𝑗𝜔/1| − 20 log10 1+ − 20 log10 |1 + |
10 100
Constant term Real zero Real pole Real pole
A logarithmic form transforms the multiplications and divisions of the individual terms to
additions and subtractions. Another benefit is that there are just two types of terms: a
constant term and terms of the form 20·log10(|1+jω/ω0|).
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram for a Constant Term
Example
➢ For a constant term, the magnitude plot is a straight line.
➢ The phase plot is also a straight line, either at 0° (for a positive constant) or ±180° (for a
negative constant).
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram for a Real Pole
Consider a real pole 1 1
𝐻 𝑠 = 𝑠 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝜔
1+ 1+𝑗
𝜔0 𝜔0
The frequency 𝜔0 is called the break frequency or the corner frequency
Magnitude
1 1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝜔 =
1+𝑗 2
𝜔0 𝜔
1+
𝜔0
Phase
1 𝜔 −1
𝜔
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = ∠ 𝜔 = −∠ 1 + 𝑗 𝜔 = − tan
1+𝑗 0 𝜔0
𝜔0
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram for a Real Pole
For 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔0 (low frequencies)
Magnitude
1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = →1 20 log10 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 →0
𝜔 2
1+
𝜔0
Phase
−1
𝜔
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = − tan → 0°
𝜔0
At 𝜔 = 𝜔0 (break frequency)
Magnitude
1 1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = → 20 log10 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 → −3 𝑑𝐵
2 2
𝜔
1+
𝜔0
Phase
𝜔
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = − tan−1 → −45°
𝜔0
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram for a Real Pole
For 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔0 (high frequencies)
Magnitude
1 1 𝜔0 𝜔0
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = → 𝜔 =
𝜔 20 log10 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 → 20 log10
𝜔 2
𝜔0 𝜔
1+ It is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade going through
𝜔0
the break frequency at 0 dB. For every factor of 10 increase in
Phase frequency, the magnitude drops by 20 dB
−1
𝜔
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = − tan → −90°
𝜔0
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram for a Real Pole
The piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for phase follows the low frequency asymptote at 0° until one tenth
the break frequency (0.1·ω0) then decrease linearly to meet the high frequency asymptote at ten times the break
frequency (10·ω0). This line is shown above.
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram for Repeated Real Pole
1 1
𝐻 𝑠 = 2 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 2
𝑠 𝜔
1+ 1+𝑗
𝜔0 𝜔0
Magnitude 2 2
1 1 𝜔
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝜔 = 2 20 log10 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = −20 log10 1+
1+𝑗 𝜔 𝜔0
𝜔0 1+
𝜔0
1 𝜔 𝜔 −1
𝜔
∠𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = ∠ 2 = −∠ 1 + 𝑗 −∠ 1+𝑗 = −2 tan
Phase 𝜔 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝜔0
1+𝑗
𝜔0
Note that the slope of the high-freq. asymptote is -40 dB/decade and the phase goes
from 0 to -180°. The effect of repeating a pole is to double the slope of the
magnitude to -40 dB/decade and the slope of the phase to -90°/decade.
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
Drawing the Bode Diagram for Repeated Real Pole
➢ For a simple real pole the piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for magnitude is at 0 dB until the break
frequency and then drops at 20 dB per decade (i.e., the slope is -20 dB/decade). An nth order pole has a
magnitude slope of -20·n dB/decade at high frequencies.
➢ The phase plot is at 0° until one tenth the break frequency and then drops linearly to -90° at ten times the
break frequency. For an nth order pole, phase drops to -90°·n.
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeHow.html
