Cellular and Mobile Communications

19EC1163

Unit-5 : Multiple Access Schemes

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 Unit-5 : Multiple Access Schemes

 Multiplexing: FDD and TDD schemes,

 Multiple Access techniques :TDMA, FDMA and SDMA.
 Packet Radio - ALOHA,
 Random Access Protocols : CSMA. Spread Spectrum-CDMA,
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum.

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 Introduction
 Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share
simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum. The sharing of spectrum is
required to achieve high capacity by simultaneously allocating the available
bandwidth to multiple users. Fr high quality communications, this must be done
without severe degradation in the performance of the system.
 In a telephone system the subscriber is allowed to talk and listen simultaneously.
This is called Duplexing.
 Duplexing may be done using
 Frequency domain technique – Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
 Time domain technique – Time Domain Duplexing (TDD)

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 Introduction
 Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a finite amount
of radio spectrum. The sharing of spectrum is required to achieve high capacity by simultaneously
allocating the available bandwidth to multiple users. Fr high quality communications, this must be
done without severe degradation in the performance of the system.
 In a telephone system the subscriber is allowed to talk and listen simultaneously. This is called
Duplexing.
 Duplexing may be done using
 Frequency domain technique – Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
 Time domain technique – Time Domain Duplexing (TDD)

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 Introduction to Multiple Access
 Basic multiple access schemes available in a wireless communication system
 FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
 TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
 CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
 Above three techniques are further grouped depending on how the available bandwidth is
allocated to the users
 Narrow Band Systems
 Wide Band Systems
 N

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 Narrow Band Systems
 The available radio spectrum is divided into a large number of narrow band
channels.
 These channels are usually operated using FDD.
 In narrow band FDMA a user is assigned a particular channel which is not shared
by other users in the vicinity and if FDD is used , then the system is called
FDMA/FDD.
 Narrow band TDMA allows users to share the same channel but allocates a unique time
slot to users in time on a single channel. Large number of channels allocated using either
FDD or TDD, and each channel is shared using TDMA. Such systems are called
TDMA/FDD or TDMA/TDD access systems.

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 Wide Band Systems
 The available radio spectrum is divided into a large number of narrow band
channels.
 These channels are usually operated using FDD.
 In narrow band FDMA a user is assigned a particular channel which is not shared
by other users in the vicinity and if FDD is used , then the system is called
FDMA/FDD.
 Narrow band TDMA allows users to share the same channel but allocates a unique time
slot to users in time on a single channel. Large number of channels allocated using either
FDD or TDD, and each channel is shared using TDMA. Such systems are called
TDMA/FDD or TDMA/TDD access systems.
 CDMA allows all the transmitters to access the channel at the same time.
 TDMA and CDMA systems may use FDD or TDD multiplexing techniques.
 Other multiple access schemes are Space Division Multiple Access and Packet Radio.
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 FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
 Channels are assigned to the users on demand who requests service.
 During the period of the call , no other user can share the same frequency band.
 In FDD systems users are assigned a channel as a pair of frequencies.
 For forward channel
 For reverse channel

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 Features of FDMA
 FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.
 If the FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by other
users to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
 After the assignment of voice channel the base station and the mobile transmit
simultaneously and continuously.
 The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30Hz) as each channel
supports only one circuit per carrier. That is, FDMA is usually implemented in
narrowband systems.
 The symbol time is large as compared to the average delay spread. This implies
that the amount of intersymbol interference is low and thus little are no
equalization is required in FDMA narrowband systems.
 The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when compared to TDMA
systems, though this is changing as digital signal processing methods improve for
TDMA
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 Features of FDMA
 Since FDMA is continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits are needed for
overhead purpose( synchronization and framing bits) as compared to TDMA.
 FDMA systems have higher cell site system cost as compared to TDMA systems,
because of the single channel per carrier design, and the need to use costly band
pass filters to eliminate spurious radiation at the base station.
 The FDMA mobile units uses duplexes since both the transmitter and receiver
operate at the same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA
subscriber units and base stations.
 FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.

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 Nonlinear effects in FDMA
 In FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna at the base station. The
power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near saturation for
maximum efficiency, are non linear. The nonlinearities cause signal spreading in
the frequency domain and generate intermodulation (IM). This IM radiation can
interfere with other channels in the FDMA systems.
 Spreading of spectrum results in adjacent channel interference.
 The harmonics are generated with the system band will cause interference to
other users in the mobile system. The harmonics generated outside the mobile
radio band cause interference to adjacent mobile services.

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 Case Study/Example
 AMPS – Advanced Mobile Phone systems is based on FDMA/FDD.
 Each channel will hand two simplex channels which are frequency duplexed with a
45MHz split.
 In AMPS, analog narrow band frequency modulation is used to modulate the carrier.
 The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is given
by B  2B
t guard
N
Bc

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 TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
 TDMA systems transmit data in buffer-and-burst method.,
thus transmission for any user is non continuous.
 The transmission from various users is interlaced into a
repeating frame structure. Each frame consists of a
number of slots. Each frame is made up of a preamble, an
information message and trail bit.
 In TDMA/TDD half of time slot is used for forward
channel and remaining half is used for reverse channel
respectively. Similar frame structure is used in
TDMA/FDD system, but carrier frequencies would be
different for forward and reverse channels.

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TDMA Frame Structure

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 TDMA Features
 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes use of
non overlapping time slots. The number of time slots per frame depends on several
factors, such as modulation technique, available band-width, etc.
 Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts.
This results in low battery consumption, since the subscriber transmitter can be turned off
when not in use (which is most of the time).
 Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler
for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base stations during idle time slots.
An enhanced link control, such as that pro-vided by mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can
be carried out by a subscriberby listening on an idle slot in the TDMA frame.
 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplex-ers are not
required. Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a duplexerinside the subscriber unit is
all that is required to switch between transmit-ter and receiver using TDMA.

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 TDMA Features
 Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission rates
are generally very high as compared to FDMA channels.
 In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. If the transmitted signal at the edges of a
time slot are suppressed sharply in order to shorten the guard time, the transmitted
spectrum will expand and cause interference to adjacent channels.
 High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because ofburst
transmissions. TDMA transmissions are slotted, and this requires the receivers to be
synchronized for each data burst. In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users,
and this results in the TDMA systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA
 TDMA has an advantage in that it is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots
per frame to different users. Thus bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users
by concatenating or reassigning time slots based on priority.

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 Efficiency of TDMA
 The frame efficiency nf , is the percentage of bits from frame which contains transmitted
data.
 The number of over head bits per frame is given by

bOH  N r br  N t bp  N t bg  N r bg
Nr - Number of reference bursts per frame
Nt - Number of traffic bursts per frame
br - Number of overhead bits per reference bursts
bp - Number of overhead bits per preamble in each slot
bg - Number of equivalent bits in each guard time interval

 The total number of bits per frame is

 b 
n f  1  OH   100%
 bT  17
 Efficiency of TDMA
 Total number of TDMA channel slots that can be provided by TDMA system are
mBtot  2 Bguard  Where ‘m’ is the maximum number of TDMA
N
Bc users supported on each radio channel

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 SSMA - Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
 A pseudo-noise (PN) sequence converts a narrow band signal to a wide noise like signal
before transmission.
 SSMA also provides immunity to multipath interference and robust multiple access
capability.
 SSMA become bandwidth efficient in a multiple user environment.
 Two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques are
 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
 Direct Sequence Multiple Access (DS) or Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

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 FHMA - Frequency Hopped Multiple Access
 FHMA is a digital multiple access system in which carrier frequencies of the individual
users are varied in a pseudorandom fashion within a wide band channel.
 The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts which are transmitted on different
carrier frequencies. The instantaneous bandwidth of any one transmission burst is much
smaller than the total spread bandwidth.
 The pseudorandom change of the carrier frequencies of the user randomizes the
occupancy of a specific channel at any given time, thereby allowing for multiple access
over a wide range of frequencies.
 In the FH receiver, a locally generated PN code is used to synchronize the receivers
instantaneous frequency with that of the transmitter.
 At any given point in time, a frequency hopped signal only occupies a single, relatively
narrow channel since narrowband FM or FSK is used.
 The difference between FHMA and a traditional FDMA system is that the frequency
hopped signal changes channels at rapid intervals. The difference between FHMA and a
traditional FDMA system is that the frequency hopped signal changes channels at rapid
intervals. 22
 FHMA - Frequency Hopped Multiple Access
 If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is greater than the symbol rate then the
system is referred to as a fast frequency hopping system.
 If the channel changes at a rate less than or equal to the symbol rate, it is called slow
frequency hopping.
 FHMA systems often employ energy efficient constant envelope modulation. Inexpensive
receivers may be built to provide non coherent detection of FHMA. This implies that
linearity is not an issue, and the power of multiple users at the receiver does not degrade
FHMA performance.

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CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access

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 CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
 In CDMA systems, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth
signal called the spreading signal.
 The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate which is orders of
magnitudes greater than the data rate of the message. All users in a CDMA system, use the same
carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously.
 Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is approximately orthogonal to all other
code words. The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific
desired codeword. All other code-words appear as noise due to decorrelation.
 For detection of the message signal, the receiver needs to know the codeword used by the
transmitter. Each user operates independently with no knowledge of the other users.
 In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor after
decorrelation. If the power of each user within a cell is not controlled such that they do not
appear equal at the base station receiver, then the near-far problem occurs. The near-far problem
occurs when many mobile users share the same channel. In general, the strongest received
mobile signal will capture the demodulator at a base station. In CDMA, stronger received signal
levels raise the noise floor at the base station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby
decreasing the probability that weaker signals will be received.
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 CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
 To combat the near-far problem, power control is used in most CDMA implementations.
Power control is pro-vided by each base station in a cellular system and assures that each
mobile within the base station coverage area provides the same signal level to the base
station receiver. This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the base
station receiver and drowning out the signals of far away subscribers.
 Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly sampling the radio signal
strength indicator (RSSID) levels of each mobile and then sending a power change
command over the forward radio link. Despite the use of power control within each cell,
out-of-cell mobiles provide interference which is not under the control of the receiving
base station.

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 CDMA Features
 Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency. Either TDD or FDD may be
used.
 Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit. Increasing the number of users
in a CDMA system raises the noise floor in a linear manner. Thus, there is no absolute
limit on the number of users in CDMA. Rather, the system performance gradually
degrades for all users as the number of users is increased, and improves as the number of
users is decreased.
 Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the signal is spreadover a large
spectrum. If the spread spectrum bandwidth is greater than thecoherence bandwidth of the
channel, the inherent frequency diversity will mitigate the effects of small-scale fading.
 Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems. Consequently, the symbol (chip)
duration is very short and usually much less than the channel delay spread. Since PN
sequences have low autocorrelation, multipath which is delayed by more than a chip will
appear as noise. A RAKE receiver can be used to improve reception by collecting time
delayed versions of the required signal. 27
 CDMA Features
 Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use macroscopic spatial diversity toprovide soft
handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can simul-taneously monitor a
particular user from two or more base stations. The MSC may chose the best version of
the signal at any time without switching frequencies.
 Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-jamming arises from thefact that the
spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the
despreading of a particular PN code, non-zero contributions to the receiver decision
statistic for a desired user arise from the transmissions of other users in the system.
 The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired user has a high detected
power as compared to the desired user.

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 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
 Hybrid CMDA/FDMA (FCDMA)
 Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (DS/FHMA)
 Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)
 Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH)

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 Hybrid CMDA/FDMA (FCDMA)
 This technique can be used as an alternative to the DS-CDMA techniques.
 The available wideband spectrum is divided into a number of sub spectras with smaller
bandwidths. Each of these smaller sub-channels becomes a narrowband CDMA system
having processing gain lower than the original CDMA system. This hybrid system has an
advantage in that the required bandwidth need not be contiguous and different users can
be allotted different sub spectrum bandwidths depending on their requirements.
 The capacity of this FDMA/CDMA technique is calculated as the sum of the capacities of
a system operating in the subspectra.

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 Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (DS/FHMA)
 This technique consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center frequency is
made to hop periodically in a pseudorandom fashion.
 Direct sequence, frequency hopped systems have an advantage in that they avoid the near-
far effect. However, frequency hopped CDMA systems are not adaptable to the soft
handoff process since it is difficult to synchronize the frequency hopped base station
receiver to the multiple hopped signals.

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 Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)
 In a TCDMA (also called TDMA/CDMA) system, different spreading codes are assigned
to different cells. With in each cell, only one user per cell is allotted a particular time slot.
Thus at anytime, only one CDMA user is transmitting in each cell. When a handoff takes
place, the spreading code of the user is changed to that of the new cell. Using TCDMA has
an advantage in that it avoids the near-far effect since only one user transmits at a time
within a cell.

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 Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH)
 This multiple access technique has an advantage in severe multipath or when severe co-
channel interference occurs. The subscriber can hop to a new frequency at the start of
anew TDMA frame, thus avoiding a severe fade or erasure event on a particular channel.
This technique has been adopted for the GSM standard, where the hop-ping sequence is
predefined and the subscriber is allowed to hop only on certain frequencies which are
assigned to a cell. This scheme also avoids co-channel interference problems between
neighboring cells if two interfering base station transmitters are made to transmit on
different frequencies at different times. The use of TDFH can increase the capacity of
GSM by several times.

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SDMA – Space Division Multiple Access

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 SDMA – Space Division Multiple Access
 SDMA controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
 SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antennas.
 Adaptive antennas will likely be used to simultaneously steer energy in the direction of
many users at once and appear to be best suited for TDMA and CDMA base station
architecture.
 Firstly, the base station has complete control over the power of all the transmitted signals
on the forward link. However, because of different radio propagation paths between each
user and the base station, the transmitted power from each subscriber unit must be
dynamically controlled to prevent any single user from driving up the interference level
for all other users.
 Second, transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the subscriber unit, therefore
there are limits on the degree to which power may be controlled on the reverse link. If the
base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired user so that more energy is
detected from each subscriber, then the reverse link for each user is improved and less
power is required.
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 SDMA – Space Division Multiple Access
 Adaptive antennas used at the base station (and eventually at the subscriber units) promise
to mitigate some of the problems on the reverse link. In the limiting case of infinitesimal
beamwidth and infinitely fast tracking ability, adaptive antennas implement optimal
SDMA, thereby providing a unique channel that is free from the interference of all other
users in the cell.
 With SDMA, all users within the system would be able to communicate at the same time
using the same channel. In addition, a perfect adaptive antenna system would be able to
track individual multipath components for each user and combine them in an optimal
manner to collect all of the available signal energy from each user. The perfect adaptive
antenna system is not feasible since it requires infinitely large antennas.

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 Packet Radio (PR) - Introduction
 In packet radio (PR) access techniques, many subscribers attempt to access a single
channel in an uncoordinated (or minimally coordinated) manner.
 Transmission is done by using bursts of data. Collisions from the simultaneous
transmissions of multiple transmitters are detected at the base station receiver, in which
case an ACK or NACK signal is broadcast by the base station to alert the desired user (and
all other users) of received transmission.
 The ACK signal indicates an acknowledgment of a received burst from a particular user
by the base station, and a NACK (negative acknowledgment) indicates that the previous
burst was not received correctly by the base station.
 By using ACK and NACK signals, a PR system employs perfect feedback, even though
traffic delay due to collisions may be high.
 Packet radio multiple access is very easy to implement but has low spectral efficiency and
may induce delays.

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 Packet Radio (PR) - Introduction
 The subscribers use a contention technique to transmit on a common channel. ALOHA
protocols, developed for early satellite systems, are the best examples of contention
techniques. ALOHA allows each subscriber to transmit whenever they have data to send.
 The transmitting subscribers listen to the acknowledgment feedback to determine if
transmission has been successful or not. If a collision occurs, the subscriber waits a
random amount of time, and then retransmits the packet. The advantage of packet
contention techniques is the ability to serve a large number of subscribers with virtually no
overhead. The performance of contention techniques can be evaluated by the throughput
(T ), which is defined as the average number of messages successfully transmitted per unit
time, and the average delay (D) experienced by a typical message burst.

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 Packet Radio Protocols
 In order to determine the throughput, it
is important to determine the vulnerable
period, Vp, which is defined as the time
interval during which the packets are
susceptible to collisions with
transmissions from other users
 The Packet A will suffer a collision if
other terminals transmit packets during
the period t to t+2τ.
 Even if only a small portion of packet A
sustains a collision, the interference
may render the message useless.

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 Packet Radio Protocols
 To study packet radio protocols, it is assumed that all packets sent by all users have a constant
packet length and fixed, channel data rate, and all other users may generate new packets at
random time intervals. Furthermore, it is assumed that packet transmissions occur with a
Poisson distribution having a mean arrival rate of 1 packets per second. If τ is the packet
duration in seconds, then the traffic occupancy or throughput R of a packet radio network is
given by

R  
 Where R is the normalized channel traffic (measured in Erlangs) due to arriving and buffered
packets, and is a relative measure of the channel utilization. If R > 1, then the packets generated
by the users exceed the maximum transmission rate of the channel. Thus, to obtain a reasonable
throughput, the rate at which new packets are generated must lie within 0<R<1. Under
conditions of normal loading, the throughput T is the same as the total offered load, L. The load
L is the sum of the newly generated packets and the retransmitted packets that suffered
collisions in previous transmissions. The normalized throughput is always less than or equal to
unity and may bethought of as the fraction of time (fraction of an Erlang) a channel is utilized.
The normalized throughput is given as the total offered load times the probability of successful
transmission, ie. 40
 Packet Radio Protocols
 The normalized throughput is always less than or equal to unity and may bethought of as
the fraction of time (fraction of an Erlang) a channel is utilized. The normalized
throughput is given as the total offered load times the probability of successful
transmission, ie.

T = RPr[no collision] = λτPr[no collision]

 where Pr[no collision] is the probability of a user making a successful packet transmission.
The probability that n packets are generated by the user population during a given packet
duration interval is assumed to be Poisson distributed and is given as

R neR
Pr n  
n!
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 Packet Radio Protocols
 A packet is assumed successfully transmitted if there are no other packetstransmitted
during the given packet time interval. The probability that zeropackets are generated (i.e.,
no collision) during this interval is given by

Pr 0  e  R
 Based on the type of access, contention protocols are categorized as random access,
scheduled access, and hybrid access.
 In random access, there is no coordination among the users and the messages are
transmitted from the users as they arrive at the transmitter.
 Scheduled access is based on a coordinated access of users on the channel, and the users
transmit messages within allotted slots or time intervals.
 Hybrid access is a combination of random access and scheduled access.

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 Pure ALOHA
 The pure ALOHA protocol is a random access protocol used for data transfer. A user
accesses a channel as soon as a message is ready to be transmitted.
 After a transmission, the user waits for an acknowledgment on either the same channel or
a separate feedback channel.
 In case of collisions, (ie., when a NACK is received), the terminal waits for a random
period of time and retransmits the message.
 As the number of users increase, a greater delay occurs because the probability of collision
increases.
 For the ALOHA protocol, the vulnerable period is double the packet duration. Thus, the
probability of no collision during the interval of 2τ is found by evaluating Pr(n) given as

Pr n  
2 R  e 2 R
n
at _ n  0
n!

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 Pure ALOHA
 One may evaluate the mean of previous equation to determine the average number of
packets sent during 2τ (This is useful in determining the average offered traffic). The
probability of no collision is

Pr(0) = e -2R

 The throughput of the ALOHA protocol found using

T = RPr[no collision] = λτPr[no collision]

T  Re 2 R

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 Slotted ALOHA
 Adaptive

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
 Adaptive

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 Slotted ALOHA
 In slotted ALOHA, time is divided into equal time slots of length greater than the packet
duration τ.
 The subscribers each have synchronized clocks and transmit a message only at the
beginning of a new time slot, thus resulting in a discrete distribution of packets. This
prevents partial collisions, where one packet collides with a portion of another.
 As the number of users increase, a greater delay will occur due to complete collisions and
the resulting repeated transmissions of those packets originally lost.
 The number of slots which a transmitter waits prior to retransmitting also determines the
delay characteristics of the traffic.
 The vulnerable period for slotted ALOHA is only one packet duration, since partial
collisions are prevented through synchronization.
 The probability that no other packets will be generated during the vulnerable period is e -R.
 The throughput for the case of slotted ALOHA is thus given by T = Re-R .
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Slotted ALOHA

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 ALOHA SLOTTED ALOHA
Frame Transmission The user can transmit the data frame The user has wait till the next time
whenever the station has the data to be slot start , to transmit the data
transmitted. frame.

Time In pure aloha, time is continuous. In slotted aloha time is discrete.

Successful The probability of successful transmission of The probability of successful

Transmission the data frame is transmission of the data frame is
S=R*e^(-2R) S=R*e^(-R)

Synchronization The time is not globally synchronized. The time is globally sychronized.

Throughput The maximum throughput occurs at R=1/2. The maximum throughput occurs at
R=1.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
 ALOHA protocols do not listen to the channel before transmission, and therefore do not
exploit information about the other users. By listening to the channel before engaging in
transmission, greater efficiencies may be achieved.
 CSMA protocols are based on the fact that each terminal on the network is able to monitor
the status of the channel before transmitting information. If the channel is idle (i.e., no
carrier is detected), then the user is allowed to transmit a packet based on a particular
algorithm which is common to all transmitters on the network.
 In CSMA protocols, detection delay and propagation delay are two important parameters.
Detection delay is a function of the receiver hardware and is the time required for a
terminal to sense whether or not the channel is idle. Propagation delay is a relative
measure of how fast it takes for a packet to travel from a base station to a mobile terminal.
With a small detection time, a terminal detects a free channel quite rapidly, and small
propagation delay means that a packet is transmitted through the channel in a small
interval of time relative to the packet duration.
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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
 Propagation delay is important, since just after a user begins sending a packet, another
user may be ready to send and may be sensing the channel at the same time. If the
transmitting packet has not reached the user who is poised to send, the latter user will
sense an idle channel and will also send its packet, resulting in a collision between the two
packets. Propagation delay impacts the performance of CSMA protocols. If tp is the
propagation time in seconds, Rb, is the channel bit rate, and m is the expected number of
bits in a data packet, then the propagation delay td, (in packet transmission units)can be
expressed as
t p Rb
td 
m

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 CSMA Strategies
 1-persistent CSMA — The terminal listens to the channel and waits for transmission until
it finds the channel idle. As soon as the channel is idle, the terminal transmits its message
with probability one.
 non-persistent CSMA — In this type of CSMA strategy, after receiving a negative
acknowledgment the terminal waits a random time before retransmission of the packet.
This is popular for wireless LAN applications, where the packet transmission interval is
much greater than the propagation delay to the farthermost user.
 P-persistent CSMA — p-persistent CSMA is applied to slotted channels. When a channel
is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted in the first available slot with probability p or
in the next slot with probability 1-p.

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 CSMA Strategies
 CSMA/CD — In CSMA with collision detection (CD), a user monitors its transmission
for collisions. If two or more terminals start a transmission at the same time, collision is
detected, and the transmission is immediately aborted in mid stream. This is handled by a
user having both a transmitter and receiver which is able to support listen-while-talk
operation. For a single radio channel, this is done by interrupting the transmission in order
to sense the channel. For duplex systems, a full duplex transceiver is used.
 Data sense multiple access (DSMA) — DSMA is a special type of CSMA that relies on
successfully demodulating a forward control channel before broadcasting data back on a
reverse channel. Each user attempts to detect a busy-idle message which is interspersed on
the forward control channel. When the busy-idle message indicates that no users are
transmitting on the reverse channel, a user is free to send a packet. This technique is used
in the cellular digital packet data (CDPD) cellular network.

51
 CSMA -CA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
Multiple Access protocols
 CHANNELIZATION PROTOCOLS

Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is

shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations.
channelization protocols: FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.

CONTROLLED ACCESS
In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to
send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations. There are three
popular controlled-access methods .
Reservation
Polling
Token Passing
 Random access protocols
In random access or contention methods, no station is superior to another station
and none is assigned the control over another.

First, there is no scheduled time for a station to transmit. Transmission is random

among the stations. That is why these methods are called random access.
Second, no rules specify which station should send next. Stations compete with one
another to access the medium. That is why these methods are also called contention
methods.

Examples: Aloha ,CSMA,CSMA/CA,CSMA/CD

 CarrierSense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMAICA's three strategies: the inter-
frame space, the contention window, and acknowledgments,
Flow diagram for CSMAICA