AinShams University

Faculty of Engineering

CSE Department
CSE351s
Computer Networks: Sheet 5

Prepared by: Eng. Noha Wahdan

ANDREW S. TANENBAUM, DAVID J. WETHERALL, “Computer Networks”, 5th edition,
PRENTICE HALL, 2011.

Chapter 5 Problems

1. Give two example computer applications for which connection-oriented service is

appropriate. Now give two examples for which connectionless service is best.
File transfer, remote login, and video
on demand need connection-
oriented service. On the other hand,
credit card verification and other
point-of-sale terminals, electronic
funds transfer, and many forms of
remote database access are
inherently connectionless, with a
query going one way and the reply
coming back the other way.
The baseline here is that for
transaction processing systems (e.g., stores calling up to verify credit card purchases), the
overhead required to set up and clear a virtual circuit may easily dwarf the use of the circuit. If
the majority of the traffic is expected to be of this kind, the use of virtual circuits inside the
network makes little sense.
On the other hand, for long-running uses such as VPN traffic between two corporate offices,
permanent virtual circuits (that are set up manually and last for months or years) may be
useful.
2. Datagram networks route each packet as a separate unit, independent of all others. Virtual-
circuit networks do not have to do this, since each data packet follows a predetermined route.
Does this observation mean that virtual-circuit networks do not need the capability to route
isolated packets from an arbitrary source to an arbitrary destination? Explain your answer.
Virtual circuit networks most certainly need this capability in order to route connection setup
packets from an arbitrary source to an arbitrary destination.

3. Give three examples of protocol parameters that might be negotiated when a connection is
set up.
The negotiation could set the window size, maximum packet size, data rate, and timer values.
4. Assuming that all routers and hosts are working properly and that all software in both is free
of all errors, is there any chance, however small, that a packet will be delivered to the wrong
destination?
Yes. A large noise burst could garble a packet badly.
With a n-bit checksum, there is a probability of 2−n
that the error is undetected.
If the destination field or, equivalently, virtual-circuit
number, is changed, the packet will be delivered to
the wrong destination and accepted as genuine. Put
in other words, an occasional noise burst could
change a perfectly legal packet for one destination
into a perfectly legal packet for another destination.

Note: For an n-bit checksum, there are 2n possible

combinations for the checksum, i.e., any message leads to
one of 2n possible values.
The probability that a random message generates that
1
same specific checksum of the original message = 𝑛
2
6. Consider the network of Fig. 5-12(a). Distance vector routing is
used, and the following vectors have just come into router C: from
B: (5, 0, 8, 12, 6, 2); from D: (16, 12, 6, 0, 9, 10); and from E: (7, 6,
3, 9, 0, 4). The cost of the links from C to B, D, and E, are 6, 3, and
5, respectively. What is C’s new routing table? Give both the
outgoing line to use and the cost.

Node C (Before) d
Node C (After) d
A B C D E F
A B C D E F
B 5 0 8 12 6 2 6
B 5 0 8 12 6 2 6
C ꝏ 6,B 0 3,D 5,E ꝏ
C 11,B 6,B 0 3,D 5,E 8,B
D 16 12 6 0 9 10 3
D 16 12 6 0 9 10 3
E 7 6 3 9 0 4 5
E 7 6 3 9 0 4 5

Taking the minimum for each destination except C gives (11, 6, 0, 3, 5, 8).
The outgoing lines are (B, B, –, D, E, B).

7. If costs are recorded as 8-bit numbers in a 50-router network, and distance vectors are
exchanged twice a second, how much bandwidth per (full-duplex) line is chewed up by the
distributed routing algorithm? Assume that each router has three lines to other routers.
The routing table is 400 bits. Twice a second this table is written onto each line, so 800 bps are
needed on each line in each direction.

17. Describe two major differences between the ECN method and the RED method of
congestion avoidance.
1) The ECN method explicitly sends a congestion notification to the source by setting a bit,
whereas RED implicitly notifies the source by simply dropping one of its packets.
2) The ECN method drops a packet only when there is no buffer space left, whereas RED drops
packets before all the buffers are exhausted.

Note: The ECN method actually uses the two least significant (right-most) bits of the Traffic
Class field in the IPv4 or IPv6 header to report congestions. It does so by setting them to “11”
in case of congestion encountered.
11. Looking at the network of Fig. 5-6, how many packets are generated by a broadcast from B,
using

The sink tree is the tree formed by connecting the set of optimal routes from all sources to
a given destination.
A spanning tree is a subset of the network that includes all the routers but contains no
loops. Sink trees are spanning trees.

(a) reverse path forwarding?

The reverse path forwarding algorithm takes five rounds to finish. The packet recipients on
these rounds are AC, DFIJ, DEGHHIIJKN, EFHLLMOO, GMLH, respectively. A total of 28 packets
are generated.
(b) the sink tree?
The sink tree needs fewer packets because there are no loops. It takes 4 rounds (depth of the
tree). The packet recipients of these rounds are AC, FDIJ, KGHEN, LMO, respectively.
So, the sink tree needs 14 packets.
12. Consider the network of Fig. 5-15(a). Imagine that one new line is added, between F and
G, but the sink tree of Fig. 5-15(b) remains unchanged. What changes occur to Fig. 5-15(c)?

Node F currently has two descendants, A and D. It now acquires a third one, G, not circled
because the packet that follows IFG is not on the sink tree.
Node G acquires a second descendant, in addition to D, labeled F. This, too, is not circled as it
does not come in on the sink tree.

13. Compute a multicast spanning tree for router C in the following network for a group with
members at routers A, B, C, D, E, F, I, and K.
Multiple spanning trees are possible. One of them is:
16. A datagram network allows routers to drop packets whenever they need to. The probability of a
router discarding a packet is p. Consider the case of a source host connected to the source router,
which is connected to the destination router, and
then to the destination host. If either of the routers
discards a packet, the source host eventually times
out and tries again. If both host-router and router-
router lines are counted as hops, what is the mean
number of
(a) hops a packet makes per transmission?
First, recall that the general law for calculating the expected value (mean value) is
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

∑ (𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒) × 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏(𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒)

Possible number of hops for each transmission: 1, 2, or 3.

The probability that the packet makes one hop only = The probability that it gets dropped at the 1 st
router = p.
The probability that it makes two hops is = The probability that it makes it through the 1st router and
gets dropped at the 2nd router = (1 − p) × p.
The probability that it makes three hops is = The probability that it makes it through the 1 st router and
makes it through the 2nd router = (1 − p)2.
Expected number of hops per transmission = 1 × 𝑝 + 2 × 𝑝(1 − 𝑝) + 3 × (1 − 𝑝)2
= 𝑝 + 2𝑝 − 2𝑝2 + 3 + 3𝑝2 − 6𝑝 = 𝑝2 − 3𝑝 + 3
(b) transmissions a packet makes?
Probability of successful transmission in each trial = The probability that it makes it through the 1st
router and makes it through the 2nd router = (1 − p)2.
Expected number of transmissions (trials) =
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

∑ (𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

× 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

=
∞

∑(𝑖) × 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 (𝑖)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑖=1
If the probability of success is the same in each trial → Expected number of transmissions becomes
1 1
= (1−𝑝)2
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

(c) hops required per received packet?

Total expected number of hops = Expected number of hops per transmission × Expected number of
𝑝2 −3𝑝+3
transmissions =
(1−𝑝)2
 Leaky Bucket Token Bucket
Maintains a Maintains an
fixed output average output
rate. rate (Fixed
It doesn’t allow capacity).
the output A conforming flow
packet stream can contain traffic
to be bursty. with an average
rate up to the rate
at which tokens
are added to the
bucket and have a
burstiness
determined by the
depth of the
bucket.

18. A token bucket scheme is used for traffic shaping. A new token is put into the bucket every
5 μsec. Each token is good for one short packet, which contains 48 bytes of data. What is the
maximum sustainable data rate?
1 token every 5 μsec = 48×8 bits every 5 μsec = 384 bits every 5 μsec
384 Bits → 5 μsec
? Bits → 1 sec
384
Maximum data rate = = 76.8 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
5×10−6

19. A computer on a 6-Mbps network is regulated by a token bucket. The token bucket is filled
at a rate of 1 Mbps. It is initially filled to capacity with 8 megabits. How long can the computer
transmit at the full 6 Mbps?
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐵)
𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑆) =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑀) − 𝑇𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑅)
𝐵 8×106
𝑆 = = = 1.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀−𝑅 6×106 − 1×106
20. The network of Fig. 5-34 uses RSVP with multicast trees for hosts 1 and 2 as shown.
Suppose that host 3 requests a channel of bandwidth 2 MB/sec for a flow from host 1 and
another channel of bandwidth 1 MB/sec for a flow from host 2. At the same time, host 4
requests a channel of bandwidth 2 MB/sec for a flow from host 1 and host 5 requests a
channel of bandwidth 1 MB/sec for a flow from host 2. How much total bandwidth will be
reserved for these requests at routers A, B, C, E, H, J, K, and L?

The bandwidths in MB/sec are as follows: A: 2, B: 0, C: 1, E: 3, H: 3, J: 3, K: 2, and L: 1.

22. Consider the user of differentiated services with expedited forwarding. Is there a
guarantee that expedited packets experience a shorter delay than regular packets? Why or
why not?
There is no guarantee. If too many packets are expedited, their channel may have even worse
performance than the regular channel.
23. Suppose that host A is connected to a router R 1, R 1
is connected to another router, R 2, and R 2 is connected
to host B. Suppose that a TCP message that contains 900
bytes of data and 20 bytes of TCP header is passed to the IP code at host A for delivery to B.
Show the Total length, Identification, DF, MF, and Fragment offset fields of the IP header in
each packet transmitted over the three links. Assume that link A-R1 can support a maximum
frame size of 1024 bytes including a 14-byte frame header, link R1-R2 can support a maximum
frame size of 512 bytes, including an 8-byte frame header, and link R2-B can support a
maximum frame size of 512 bytes including a 12-byte frame header.

• An IPv4 datagram mainly consists of a 20-byte header part (or more if the optional
part isn’t zero), and a body (payload) part.
• The Total length includes everything in the datagram—both header and data.
• The Identification field is needed to allow the destination host to determine which
packet a newly arrived fragment belongs to. All the fragments of a packet contain the
same Identification value.
• DF bit stands for Don’t Fragment. It is an order from the sender to the routers not to
fragment the packet (An error message will be returned to the sender if this is not
possible).
• MF stands for More Fragments. All fragments except the last one have this bit set.
• The Fragment offset tells where in the current packet this fragment belongs. All
fragments except the last one in a datagram must be a multiple of 8 bytes (The offset
unit is 8 bytes).
• Fragmentation is done by the network layer when the maximum size of datagram is
greater than maximum size of data that can be held in a frame i.e., its Maximum
Transmission Unit (MTU). The network layer divides the datagram received from the
transport layer into fragments so that data flow is not disrupted.
1. Link A-R1:
Since Link A-R1 allows a network packet of 1024-14 = 1010 Bytes
And we only need 940 Bytes (900 bytes data + 20 bytes TCP header + 20 bytes IP header),
there will be no fragmentation here.
Length = 940; ID = x; DF = 0; MF = 0; Offset = 0

2. Link R1-R2:
Link R1-R2 allows a network packet of 512 - 8 = 504 Bytes (MTU), so we need fragmentation.
→ If we use the 1st fragment length of 504 bytes total → The payload would be 504 – 20 bytes
IP header = 484 (Not divisible by 8) ××
We need to get the nearest possible payload that is divisible by 8:
484/8=60.5 → 60×8=480
→ So, the 1st fragment will contain: 480 bytes payload (460 bytes data + 20 Bytes TCP Header)
+ 20 Bytes IP header.
→ The 2nd fragment will contain 440 bytes payload (920 Total Transport layer packet – 480
bytes in 1st fragment) + 20 Bytes IP header.
→ The offset of the 1st fragment is 0.
→ The offset of the 2nd fragment is 480/8 = 60.
So, the 2 packets will be:
(1) Length = 500; ID = x; DF = 0; MF = 1; Offset = 0
(2) Length = 460; ID = x; DF = 0; MF = 0; Offset = 60
3. Link R2-B:
Link R2-B allows a network packet of 512 - 12 = 500 Bytes (MTU). Both of the received packets
(fragments) are allowed to pass through without fragmentation.
So, the 2 packets will be:
(1) Length = 500; ID = x; DF = 0; MF = 1; Offset = 0
(2) Length = 460; ID = x; DF = 0; MF = 0; Offset = 60
24. A router is blasting out IP packets whose total length (data plus header) is 1024 bytes.
Assuming that packets live for 10 sec, what is the maximum line speed the router can operate
at without danger of cycling through the IP datagram ID number space?
The packet “Identification” field is 16 bits, which gives us an ID number space of 216 packets.
This means that we run out of sequence number (cycle) after 216 packets
= 216 packets × 1024 bytes/packet × 8 bits/byte = 216+10+3 = 229bits
229 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
If the bit rate of the line is B bits/sec → Time to transmit the full cycle packets =
𝐵 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐

We need that the 1st packet lifetime ends right at the end of transmitting the full cycle, so we
can start a new sequence ID cycle.
229 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
The 1st packet lifetime = 10 sec → ≥ 10
𝐵 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐

229 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
→B≤ → B ≤ 53,687,091 𝑏𝑝𝑠
10 𝑠𝑒𝑐

This is the maximum bit rate. If we use a lower bit rate, the 1st packet lifetime will end before
we send the full sequence (no problem).
If we use a higher bit rate, we’ll run out of sequence numbers before the 1st packet times out,
and thus we can’t start another cycle, which indeed causes a problem.

25. An IP datagram using the Strict source routing option has to be fragmented. Do you think
the option is copied into each fragment, or is it sufficient to just put it in the first fragment?
Explain your answer.
The Strict source routing option gives the complete path from source to destination as a
sequence of IP addresses. The datagram is required to follow that exact route. It is most useful
for system managers who need to send emergency packets when the routing tables have been
corrupted, or for making timing measurements.
Since the information is needed to route every fragment, the option must appear in every
fragment.
26 Suppose that instead of using 16 bits for the network part of a class B address originally,20
bits had been used. How many class B networks would there have been?

In class B, 2 bits from the network portion are fixed as 10 for class identification.
Number of bits for network address = 20 – 2 = 18 bits.
Number of possible network address = 218 = 262,144 addresses.
Number of possible networks = 262,144 – 2 = 262,142 networks.
Addresses of all zeros or all ones are not allowed as they have a special meaning.

27. Convert the IP address whose hexadecimal representation is C22F1582 to dotted decimal
notation.
1) Convert the address to binary and separate each 8 bits:
11000010.00101111.00010101.10000010

2) Convert each 8 bits to decimal:

[Link]
28. A network on the Internet has a subnet mask of [Link]. What is the maximum
number of hosts it can handle?
1) Convert the subnet to binary (Each decimal number is converted to 8 binary bits):
11111111. 11111111. 11110000.00000000
2) Count the number of zeros in the subnet mask, as it represents the host portion.
3) Number of possible host addresses = 212 = 4096 addresses.
4) Number of possible hosts = 4096 – 2 = 4094 hosts.
This is because the first host address (all zeros) is not allowed as it represents network
address. Additionally, the last address (all ones) is reserved for network broadcast.
So, these 2 addresses are always reserved in any network, and never given to any host.
30. A large number of consecutive IP addresses are available starting at [Link]. Suppose
that four organizations, A, B, C, and D, request 4000, 2000, 4000, and 8000 addresses,
respectively, and in that order. For each of these, give the first IP address assigned, the last IP
address assigned, and the mask in the w.x.y.z/s notation.
First of all, IP address ranges will be allocated in blocks of power of 2. So, the four
organizations will be allocated IPs as A:4096 (212), B:2048(211), C:4096(212) and D:8192(213).
Remaining unused IPs are wasted. IPs will be allocated to the organizations contiguously.
This means that A needs 12 bits for host portion, B needs 11 bits for host portion, C needs 12
bits for host portion, and D needs 13 bits for host portion.
A’s network mask will be [Link]/20.
B’s network mask will be [Link]/21.
C’s network mask will be [Link]/20.
D’s network mask will be [Link]/19.

1ST IP ADDRESS LAST IP ADDRESS

A 11000110.00010000.00000000.00000000 11000110.00010000.00001111.11111111
[Link] [Link]
B 11000110.00010000.00010000.00000000 11000110.00010000.00010111.11111111
[Link] [Link]
C 11000110.00010000.00100000.00000000 11000110.00010000.00101111.11111111
[Link] [Link]
D 11000110.00010000.01000000.00000000 11000110.00010000.01011111.11111111
[Link] [Link]
31. A router has just received the following new IP addresses: [Link]/21, [Link]/21,
[Link]/21, and [Link]/21. If all of them use the same outgoing line, can they be
aggregated? If so, to what? If not, why not?
The 1st address: 00111001.00000110.01100000.00000000
The 2nd address: 00111001.00000110.01101000.00000000
The 3rd address: 00111001.00000110.01110000.00000000
The 4th address: 00111001.00000110.01111000.00000000
The 4 addresses share a common prefix of 19 bits. So, they can be aggregated to [Link]/19.
32. The set of IP addresses from [Link] to [Link] has been aggregated to
[Link]/17. However, there is a gap of 1024 unassigned addresses from [Link] to
[Link] that are now suddenly assigned to a host using a different outgoing line. Is it now
necessary to split up the aggregate address into its constituent blocks, add the new block to
the table, and then see if any reaggregation is possible? If not, what can be done instead?
[Link]/17 address is: 00011101.00010010.00000000.00000000
Currently, the router has an entry in its forwarding table stating that if an incoming IP address
matches this range, it will be forwarded to a specific output port. The matching occurs if the
incoming IP address matches the network part (colored in green) of the given range.
Now, we want to assign a range of addresses to a different output port.
The first address of this range is [Link]: 00011101.00010010.00111100.00000000
The last address of this range is [Link]: 00011101.00010010.00111111.11111111
They have a matching prefix of 22 bits: [Link]
So, the new range that we want to assign is [Link]/22.
Compare the binary representation of this address range with the binary representation of the
existing address range ([Link]/17), and you’ll find that they’re identical in the green part.
Specifically, the new range that we want to assign is a subset of the old one, and we want to
assign this subset to another output port.
Now, the question is: We need that any incoming IP address that matches this new range to be
assigned to a different port from the old range. Would that be a problem? Do we need to
delete the old global entry and add split address subsets that represent each address range?
The answer is No, it is sufficient here to add one new table entry: [Link]/22 for the new
block. If an incoming packet matches both [Link]/17 and [Link]./22, the longest
matching one wins. This rule makes it possible to assign a large block to one outgoing line but
make an exception for one or more small blocks within its range.
So, the router’s forwarding table becomes:
Destination Address Range Link Interface
[Link]/17 0
00011101.00010010.00000000.00000000
[Link]/22 1
00011101.00010010.00111100.00000000
Otherwise 2

If an incoming address is:

• 00011101.00010010.01001100.00000110 → Matches the 1st range and thus goes to
interface 0.
• 00011101.00010010.00111101.11001010 → Matches the 2nd range and thus goes to
interface 1 (Even though it also matches the 1st larger range).
• 00011101.00110010.00111101.11001010 → Doesn’t match any range and thus goes to
interface 2.
33. A router has the following (CIDR) entries in its routing table:
Address/mask Next hop
[Link]/22 Interface 0
10000111.00101110.00111000.00000000
[Link]/22 Interface 1
10000111.00101110.00111100.00000000
[Link]/23 Router 1
11000000.00110101.00101000.00000000
default Router 2

For each of the following IP addresses, what does the router do if a packet with that
address arrives?
(a) [Link]
10000111.00101110.00111111.00001010
It matches the 2nd address. So, it will be routed to Interface 1.

(b) [Link]
10000111.00101110.00111001.00001110
It matches the 1st address. So, it will be routed to Interface 0.

(c) [Link]
10000111.00101110.00110100.00000010
It doesn’t match any of the 3 ranges. So, it will be routed to the default Router 2.
(d) [Link]
11000000.00110101.00101000.00000111
It matches the 3rd address. So, it will be routed to Router 1.
(e) [Link]
11000000.00110101.00111000.00000111
It doesn’t match any of the 3 ranges. So, it will be routed to the default Router 2.
34. Many companies have a policy of having two (or more) routers connecting the company to
the Internet to provide some redundancy in case one of them goes down. Is this policy still
possible with NAT? Explain your answer.
After NAT is installed, it is crucial that all the packets pertaining to a single connection pass in
and out of the company via the same router, since that is where the mapping is kept. If each
router has its own IP address and all traffic belonging to a given connection can be sent to the
same router, the mapping can be done correctly and multihoming with NAT can be made to
work.
35. You have just explained the ARP protocol to a friend. When you are all done, he says: ‘‘I’ve
got it. ARP provides a service to the network layer, so it is part of the data link layer.’’ What do
you say to him?
You say that ARP does not provide a service to the network layer, it is part of the network
layer and helps provide a service to the transport layer. The issue of IP addressing does not
occur in the data link layer. Data link layer protocols are like protocols 1 through 6 in Chap. 3,
HDLC, PPP, etc. They move bits from one end of a line to the other.
40. IPv6 uses 16-byte addresses. If a block of 1 million addresses is allocated every picosecond,
how long will the addresses last?
With 16×8 bit addresses → There are 2128 possible addresses
1×106 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
If the allocation rate is = 1018 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1×10−12 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
2128 3.4×1038
The addresses will last for = = 3.4 × 1020 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 1013 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
1018 1018

41. The Protocol field used in the IPv4 header is not present in the fixed IPv6 header. Why not?
The Protocol field tells it which transport process to give the packet to (TCP or UDP).
Intermediate routers do not need this information, so it is not needed in the main header.
Actually, it is there, but disguised. The “Next header” field of the last (extension) header is
used for this purpose.

42. When the IPv6 protocol is introduced, does the ARP protocol have to be changed? If so,
are the changes conceptual or technical?
Conceptually, there are no changes. Technically, the IP addresses requested are now bigger, so
bigger fields are needed.