PH612- Fabrication Technology :
PH606 M.Tech (NDT)
Metal forming processes
Dr. N. Gopalakrishnan
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NIT-T
E.mail: ngk@nitt.edu
Courtesy: Dr.RGN, IIT-G Ref: Fundamentals of Modern manufacturing: Materials, Process, systems by M.P Groover, 4th Edition, John Wiely
Metal forming processes
Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is deformed
plastically to take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such deformation
are called die, punch etc. depending on the type of process.
Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of the workpiece material is
required.
Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming
stretching
General classification of metal forming processes
Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Forging
Wire drawing
Extrusion
Rolling
Bulk forming: It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape change. The
surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively small. Mostly done in hot working conditions.
Rolling: In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab or plate is compressed between two
rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is reduced. The rotating rolls draw
the slab into the gap and compresses it. The final product is in the form of sheet.
Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours. The die
shapes are imparted into the final part.
Extrusion: In this, the workpiece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to take the
shape of the die hole as its cross section.
Wire or rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled through the die
opening to take the cross-section.
Classification of basic sheet forming processes
Bending Deep drawing shearing
Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting operations performed on metal
sheets, strips, and coils. The surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal is relatively high.
Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the sheets.
Bending: In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to give a bend shape (angle shape)
usually in a straight axis.
Deep (or cup) drawing: In this operation, forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave
shape like a cup, is performed by stretching the metal in some regions. A blank-holder is used to
clamp the blank on the die, while the punch pushes into the sheet metal. The sheet is drawn into
the die hole taking the shape of the cavity.
Shearing: This is nothing but cutting of sheets by shearing action.
Cold working, warm working, hot working
Cold working: Generally done at room temperature or slightly above RT.
Advantages compared to hot forming:
(1) closer tolerances can be achieved; (2) good surface finish; (3) because of strain
hardening, higher strength and hardness is seen in part; (4) grain flow during
deformation provides the opportunity for desirable directional properties; (5) since no
heating of the work is involved, furnace, fuel, electricity costs are minimized, (6)
Machining requirements are minimum resulting in possibility of near net shaped
forming.
Disadvantages: (1) higher forces and power are required; (2) strain hardening of the
work metal limit the amount of forming that can be done, (3) sometimes cold forming-
annealing-cold forming cycle should be followed, (4) the work piece is not ductile
enough to be cold worked.
Warm working: In this case, forming is performed at temperatures just above room
temperature but below the recrystallization temperature. The working temperature is
taken to be 0.3 Tm where Tm is the melting point of the workpiece.
Advantages: (1) enhanced plastic deformation properties, (2) lower forces required, (3)
intricate work geometries possible, (4) annealing stages can be reduced.
Hot working: Involves deformation above recrystallization temperature,
between 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.
Advantages: (1) significant plastic deformation can be given to the sample,
(2) significant change in workpiece shape, (3) lower forces are required, (4)
materials with premature failure can be hot formed, (5) absence of
strengthening due to work hardening.
Disadvantages: (1) shorter tool life, (2) poor surface finish, (3) lower
dimensional accuracy, (4) sample surface oxidation
Bulk forming processes
Forging
It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two
dies, using either impact load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.
It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace,
and other applications. The components include engine crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts etc.
Category based on temperature : cold, warm, hot forging
Category based on presses:
impact load => forging hammer; gradual pressure => forging press
Category based on type of forming:
Open die forging, impression die forging, flashless forging
In open die forging, the work piece is
compressed between two flat platens or dies,
thus allowing the metal to flow without any
restriction in the sideward direction relative to
the die surfaces.
Open die forging
impression die forging
flashless forging
In impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape that is given to the work
piece during compression, thus restricting the metal flow significantly. There is some
extra deformed material outside the die impression which is called as flash. This will
be trimmed off later.
In flashless forging, the work piece is fully restricted within the die and no flash is
produced. The amount of initial work piece used must be controlled accurately so
that it matches the volume of the die cavity.
Open die forging
A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between two flat die
halves which is like compression test. This also known as upsetting or upset forging.
Basically height decreases and diameter increases.
Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet and die surfaces,
homogeneous deformation occurs. In this, the diameter increases uniformly
throughout its height.
In ideal condition, = ln (ho/h). h will be equal to hf at the end of compression, will
be maximum for the whole forming. Also F = f A is used to find the force required for
forging, where f is the flow stress corresponding to at that stage of forming.
Start of compression Partial compression Completed compression
In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous as
bulging occurs because of the presence of friction at the die-billet interface.
This friction opposes the movement of billet at the surface. This is called
barreling effect.
The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio of
the workpart increases, due to the greater contact area at the billet die
interface. Temperature will also affect the barreling phenomenon.
Start of Partial Completed
compression compression compression
In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, F = Kf f A by
considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio. Here,
Where Kf = forging shape factor, = coefficient of friction, D = work piece diameter, h = work
piece height
Typical load-stroke curve
Effect of D/h ratio on load:
in open die forging
Compression Load
µ2 > µ1
µ2
µ1
µ0
Effect of h/D ratio on barreling: D/h
Long cylinder: h/D >2 Cylinder having h/D < 2 Frictionless compression
with friction
Closed die forging
Closed die forging called as impression die forging is performed in dies which has the
impression that will be imparted to the work piece through forming.
In the intermediate stage, the initial billet deforms partially giving a bulged shape.
During the die full closure, impression is fully filled with deformed billet and further
moves out of the impression to form flash.
In multi stage operation, separate die cavities are required for shape change. In the
initial stages, uniform distribution of properties and microstructure are seen. In the final
stage, actual shape modification is observed. When drop forging is used, several blows
of the hammer may be required for each step.
Starting stage Intermediate Final stage with
stage flash formation
The formula used for open die forging earlier can be used for closed die
forging, i.e.,
F = Kf f A
Where F is maximum force in the operation; A is projected area of the part
including flash, f is flow stress of the material, Kf is forging shape factor.
Now selecting the proper value of flow stress is difficult because the strain
varies throughout the work piece for complex shapes and hence the
strength varies. Sometimes an average strength is used. Kf is used for
taking care of different shapes of parts. Table shows the typical values of Kf
used for force calculation. In hot working, appropriate flow stress at that
temperature is used.
The above equation is applied to find the maximum force during the
operation, since this is the load that will determine the required capacity of
the press used in the forging operation.
Impression die forging is not capable of making close tolerance objects.
Machining is generally required to achieve the accuracies needed. The basic
geometry of the part is obtained from the forging process, with subsequent
machining done on those portions of the part that require precision finishing
like holes, threads etc.
In order to improve the efficiency of closed die forging, precision forging was
developed that can produce forgings with thin sections, more complex
geometries, closer tolerances, and elimination of machining allowances. In
precision forging operations, sometimes machining is fully eliminated which is
called near-net shape forging.
Flashless forging
The three stages of flashless forging is shown below:
In flashless forging, most important is that the work piece volume must
equal the space in the die cavity within a very close tolerance.
If the starting billet size is too large, excessive pressures will cause damage
to the die and press.
If the billet size is too small, the cavity will not be filled.
Because of the demands, this process is suitable to make simple and
symmetrical part geometries, and to work materials such as Al, Mg and their
alloys.
Coining is a simple application of closed die forging in which fine details in the
die impression are impressed into the top or/and bottom surfaces of the work
piece.
Though there is little flow of metal in coining, the pressures required to
reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are at par with other impression
forging operations.
Starting of cycle Fully compressed Ram pressure
removed and
ejection of part
Making of coin
Forging hammers, presses and dies
Hammers:
Hammers operate by applying an impact loading on the work piece. This is
also called as drop hammer, owing to the means of delivering impact energy.
When the upper die strikes the work piece, the
impact energy applied causes the part to take
the form of the die cavity. Sometimes, several
blows of the hammer are required to achieve
the desired change in shape.
Drop hammers are classified as:
Gravity drop hammers, power drop hammers.
Gravity drop hammers - achieve their energy
by the falling weight of a heavy ram. The force
of the blow is dependent on the height of the
drop and the weight of the ram. Drop hammers
Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by
pressurized air or steam.
Presses:
The force is given to the forging billet gradually, and not like impact force.
Mechanical presses: In these presses, the rotating motion of a drive motor
is converted into the translation motion of the ram. They operate by means
of eccentrics, cranks, or knuckle joints. Mechanical presses typically
achieve very high forces at the bottom of the forging stroke.
Hydraulic presses : hydraulically driven piston is used to actuate the ram.
Screw presses : apply force by a screw mechanism that drives the vertical
ram. Both screw drive and hydraulic drive operate at relatively low ram
speeds.
Forging dies:
Parting line: The parting line divides the upper die from the lower die. In other
words, it is the plane where the two die halves meet. The selection of parting
line affects grain flow in the part, required load, and flash formation.
Draft: It is the amount of taper given on the sides of the part required to
remove it from the die.
Draft angles: It is meant for easy removal of part after operation is completed.
3° for Al and Mg parts; 5° to 7° for steel parts.
Webs and ribs: They are thin portions of the forging that is parallel and
perpendicular to the parting line. More difficulty is witnessed in forming the
part as they become thinner.
Fillet and corner radii: Small radii limits the metal flow and increase stresses
on die surfaces during forging.
Flash: The pressure build up because of flash formation is controlled proper
design of gutter and flash land.
Swaging:
Swaging is used to reduce the diameter of a tube or a rod at the end of the
work piece to create a tapered section. In general, this process is conducted
by means of rotating dies that hammer a workpiece in radial direction inward
to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies. A mandrel is required to control the
shape and size of the internal diameter of tubular parts during swaging.
Swaging
Radial forging:
This operation is same as swaging,
except that in radial forging, the dies do
not rotate around the work piece,
instead, the work is rotated as it feeds
into the hammering dies.
Diameter reduction of solid work Tube tapering Swaging to form a groove on
the tube
Swaging with different die profiles
Swaging the edge of a cylinder
