Navigation and Meteorology

LECTURE NOTE
ON

MAR 321
NAVIGATION AND METEOROLOGY

(SECOND SEMESTER)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SEAMANSHIP SKILLS 3

CHAPTER 2: SHIP BRIDGE SYSTEM, NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT

AND AIDS 6

CHAPTER 3: DECK EQUIPMENT / MACHINERY 38

CHAPTER 4: INTRODUCTION TO CARGO STOWAGE 54

CHAPTER 5: ANCHORING AND MOORING OF SHIP 90

CHAPTER 6: LIFESAVING EQUIPMENT ONBOARD SHIP

Error! Bookmark not defined.108

CHAPTER 7: MERCHANT SHIP DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION

Error! Bookmark not defined.125

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO SEAMANSHIP SKILLS

1.1 Definition of Terminologies.

1 Navigation
Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the Process of monitoring and
controlling the movement of a craft or vessel from one place to another. Also it is
the art and science of safely and efficiently directing the movement of a vessel
from one point to another.

Piloting uses water depth and visible references, while dead reckoning uses courses
and distances from the last known position. More than just finding a vessel's
present location, safe navigation includes predicting future location, route planning
and collision avoidance. Nautical navigation in western nations, like air navigation,
is based on the nautical mile. Navigation also includes electronics such as Global
Positioning System (GPS) and Long Range Navigation (LORAN). Celestial
navigation involves taking sights by sextant on the planets, moon, stars, sun and
using the data with a nautical almanac and sight reduction tables to determine
positions. Ice navigation involves navigating and operating a ship within sea ice
conditions.

2. Meteorology
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, atmosphere phenomena and
atmospheric effects on our weather. The atmosphere is the gaseous layers of the
physical environment that surrounds a planet.

3. Seamanship
Seamanship is the art of operating a ship or boat. It involves topics and
development of specialized skills including: navigation and international maritime
law; weather, meteorology and forecasting; watch-keeping; ship-handling and
small boat handling; operation of deck equipment, anchors and cables; rope-work
and line handling; communications; sailing; engines; execution of evolutions such
as towing; cargo handling equipment, dangerous cargoes and cargo storage;
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dealing with emergencies; survival at sea and search and rescue; and firefighting.

It can also be said that Seamanship is the art or skill of handling, working, and
navigating a ship. The degree of knowledge needed within these areas is dependent
upon the nature of the work and the type of vessel employed by a mariner

4. Boats
The term boat refers to a non commissioned waterborne vessel that is not
designated as a service craft. A boat is capable of limited independent operation.
Officer/personnel boats, motor whale boats, and utility boats fit into this group.
Boats carried aboard ship that can be hoisted from and lowered into the water are
known as ship’s boats.

5. Ship
Ships are large, complex vehicles which must be self-sustaining in their
environment for long periods with a high degree of reliability. A ship is the product
of two main areas of skill, those of the naval architect and the marine engineer. The
naval architect is concerned with the hull, its construction, form, habitability and
ability to endure its environment.

The marine engineer is responsible for the various systems which propel and
operate the ship. More specifically, this means the machinery required for
propulsion, steering, anchoring and ship securing, cargo handling, air conditioning,
power generation and its distribution. Some overlap in responsibilities occurs
between naval architects and marine engineers in areas such as propeller design,
the reduction of noise and vibration in the ship's structure, and engineering services
provided to considerable areas of the ship.

A ship might reasonably be divided into three distinct areas: the cargo-carrying
holds or tanks, the accommodation and the machinery space. Depending upon the
type each ship will assume varying proportions and functions. An oil tanker, for
instance, will have the cargo-carrying region divided into tanks by two longitudinal
bulkheads and several transverse bulkheads. There will be considerable quantities
of cargo piping both above and below decks. The general cargo ship will have
various cargo holds which are usually the full width of the vessel and formed by
transverse bulkheads along the ship's length. Cargo handling equipment will be
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arranged on deck and there will be large hatch openings closed with steel hatch
covers. The accommodation areas in each of these ship types will be sufficient to
meet the requirements for the ship's crew, provide a navigating bridge area and a
communications center. The machinery space size will be decided by the particular
machinery installed and the auxiliary equipment necessary. A passenger ship,
however, would have a large accommodation area, since this might be considered
the 'cargo space'. Machinery space requirements will probably be larger because of
air conditioning equipment, stabilizers and other passenger related equipment.

1.2 Parts of a Ship

While a ship may be of many types from small to large and merchant to military;
they all have two points in common. One they are made of steel and composite
material and second; they all have three main parts i.e Navigation bridge, hull and
Engine room.
A ship has both visible and invisible but structural parts. While common visible
parts of a ship are; rudder, anchor, bow, keel, accommodation, propeller, mast,
bridge, hatch coves and bow thrusters. On other hand invisible but structural part
of ship consists of; bulkheads, frames, cargo holds, hopper tank, double bottom,
girders, cofferdams, side shell etc. Understanding ship construction is hard and
uneasy with common terms such as front, left, right and back; so we will look into
some of the common nautical terms used on ship. For a person facing bow ( The
most forward part of the ship ) for a moving ship; the side to his left hand is called
port while on his right is called starboard. Similarly; the side to his front is forward
and that to his back is called astern.

Port and Starboard unambiguously refer to the left and right side of the vessel, not
the observer. That is, the port side of the vessel always refers to the same portion
of the vessel structure, and does not depend on which way the observer is facing.
The port side is the side of the vessel which is to the left of an observer facing the
bow that is, facing forward towards the direction the vessel is heading when
underway and the starboard is the right of such an observer.

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Figure 1.1 Sides of a Marine Vessel

The diagrams below show some visible parts of a marine vessel.

A. Bow B. Stern
C. Accomodation D. Hull
E. Freeboard F. Draught
G. Afterdeck H. Foredeck
I. Forecastle J. Keel

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A. Propeller B. Rudder
C. Lifeboat D. Funnel
E. Main mast F. Radar scanners
G. Bridge H. Crane
I. Crane jib J. Hatch cover
K. Fore mast L. Anchor
M. Bow thruster

A. Engine room B. Popeller shaft

C. Load line D. Monkey island
E. Hold F. Tween deck
G. Lower hold H. Forepeak tank

Figure 1.2 Parts of a Marine Vessel

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Some other parts are described below.

1. Rudder:
This is the part of the steering apparatus of a boat or
ship. It is used to change the course of movement. It is
fastened outside the hull, usually at the stern. The most
common form consists of a nearly flat, smooth surface
of wood or metal hinged at its forward edge to the
sternpost. It operates on the principle of unequal water
pressures.

2. Propeller:
A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to
propel the ship by using the power generated and
transmitted by the main engine of the ship. The transmitted
power is converted from rotational motion to generate a
thrust which imparts momentum to the water, resulting in a
force that acts on the ship and pushes it forward.

3. Bossing:
Twin-screw or multi-screw vessels have propeller shafts
which leave the line of shell at some distance forward of
the stern. To support the shaft overhang, bossing or 'A'
brackets may be fitted. Bossing are a common feature on
the larger multiple-screw passenger ships and are in effect
a molding of the shell which takes in the line of shaft for
some distance.

4. Bilge keel:
Each of a pair of plates or timbers fastened under the
sides of the hull of a ship to provide lateral resistance
to the water, prevent rolling, and support its weight in
dry dock.

5. Load line disc:

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The waterline is the line where the hull of a ship meets the surface of the water, in
concept or reality. Specifically, it is also the name of a special marking, also
known as an international load line, Plimsoll line and water line (positioned
amidships), that indicates the draft of the ship and the legal limit to which a ship
may be loaded for specific water types and temperatures in order to safely maintain
buoyancy,[1] particularly with regard to the hazard of waves that may arise

6. Midship draft marks:

All the ships have draft marks in the forward, aft and
midship region. These marks are used to verify the draft
of the ship in any loading condition. Usually modern
ships have remote draft gauge to read the draft from the
control rooms, but they are not always reliable, and is
mainly used when the ship is sailing. In port or in dock,
the draft mark reading (visual of using a manual draft
gauge) is usually taken as the reliable reading.

7. Docking bridge:
A Docking bridge is a raised platform running from one side
to the other of a ship toward the stern, used by officers for
supervising docking operations.

8. Mainmast:
The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of
spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a
ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and
derricks, and giving necessary height to a navigation light,
look-out position, signal yard, control position, radio aerial
or signal lamp. Large ships have several masts, with the
size and configuration depending on the style of ship.
Nearly all sailing masts are guyed masts.

9. After derrick post:

A derrick is a lifting device composed at minimum of one
guyed mast, as in a gin pole, which may be articulated over a

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load by adjusting its guys. Most derricks have at least two components, either a
guyed mast or self-supporting tower, and a boom hinged at its base to provide
articulation, as in a stiff leg derrick. The most basic type of derrick is controlled by
three or four lines connected to the top of the mast, which allow it both to move
laterally and cant up and down. To lift a load, a separate line runs up and over the
mast with a hook on its free end, as with a crane. Forms of derricks are commonly
found aboard ships and at docking facilities. Some large derricks are mounted on
dedicated vessels, and known as floating derricks and sheer-legs. The derrick
derives its name from a type of gallows named after Thomas Derrick, an
Elizabethan era English executioner.

10. Bridge:
The bridge of a ship is the room or platform
from which the ship can be commanded.
When a ship is underway the bridge is
manned by an OOW (officer of the watch)
aided usually by an AB (able seaman)
acting as lookout. During critical
maneuvers the captain will be on the bridge
supported, perhaps, by an OOW as an extra
set of hands, an AB on the wheel and
sometimes a pilot if required.

11. Funnel:
A funnel is the smokestack or chimney on a ship
used to expel boiler steam and smoke or engine
exhaust. They are also commonly referred to as
stacks. The primary purpose of a ship's funnel(s) is
to lift the exhaust gases clear of the deck, in order
not to foul the ship's structure or decks, and to avoid
impairing the ability of the crew to carry out their
duties. In steam ships the funnels also served to help
induce a convection draught through the boilers.

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12. Radar mast:

The word "radar" stands for radio detection and

ranging—and that gives a pretty big clue as to what
it does and how it works. Imagine an airplane
flying at night through thick fog. The pilots can't
see where they're going, so they use the radar to
help them. Whether it's mounted on a plane, a ship,
or anything else, radar set needs the same basic set
of components: something to generate radio waves,
something to send them out into space, something
to receive them, and some means of displaying
information so the radar operator can quickly
understand it.

13. Fore derrick post:

It serves the same purpose as the aft derrick post; the
different is that it is situated at the fore of the ship.

14. Foremast:
The mast nearest the bow, or the mast forward of the main-mast

15. Winch platform:

This is a device that is used to pull in (wind up) or let out
(wind out) a rope or cable. Winches generally consist of a
frame, a drum that the wire wraps around and a motor to turn
the drum. The drums can hold wire as long as 15 kilometers
and some can lift up to 30 tons, so motors need a lot of torque
or turning power. Winding the wire back on the drum is
known as spooling; it is very important that the wire winds around the drum
properly otherwise it won’t fit back on.

16. Derrick boom: Boom derrick is a derrick with a boom which is attached to an
external structure. The external upright member of the structure serves as the mast,
and the boom is stepped in a fixed socket clamped to the upright. The boom is

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connected to at least three pulley systems to control the position of the boom. For
example, a pulley system is connected to the top of the boom and the higher area of
the external structure and two pulley systems near the top of the boom connected
on either side of the boom to the external structure. The position of the top of the
boom can be controlled by manipulating these pulley systems. The load is lifted
from a separate pulley system that is connected to the top of the boom.

17. Ventilator:
It is defined as a device used for the circulation of air
around a space to clean and refresh it, but not changing the
temperature. It also forms an integral part in the air
conditioning system. Shipboard ventilation not only
serves to ventilate the cargo spaces, but also for the human
living spaces. Thus, it removes carbon dioxide and enriches
the space with oxygen. By doing so, we are also decreasing
the heat that is present all around and the moisture that may be present also.

18. Hatch, Hatchway, or cargo hatchway:

Hatchway is the hole through which the cargo is loaded
into the ship. Traditionally this hole has been a source of
weakness in the structure, but modern technology has
provided large steel hatch covers that can slide back into
place at the flick of a lever. Ships with these are allowed
to load deeper than the older types covered only by
wooden boards and canvas

19. Forecastle:
Refers to the upper deck of a sailing ship forward of the
foremast, or the forward part of a ship with the sailors'
living quarters. Related to the latter meaning is the phrase
"before the mast" which denotes anything related to
ordinary sailors, as opposed to a ship's officers. In medieval
shipbuilding, a ship of war was usually equipped with a tall, multi-deck castle-like
structure in the bow of the ship. It served as a platform for archers to shoot down
on enemy ships, or as a defensive stronghold if the ship were boarded. A similar
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but usually much larger structure, called the aftcastle, was at the aft end of the ship,
often stretching all the way from the main mast to the stern.

20. Freeing port, wash port:

Holes in the lower portion of a bulwark, which allow deck
wash to drain off into the sea. Some freeing ports have
swinging gates which allow water to drain off but which are
automatically closed by sea-water pressure.

21. Accommodation ladder:

An accommodation ladder is a portable flight of steps
down a ship's side. Accommodation ladders can be
mounted parallel or perpendicular to the ship's board. If
the ladder is parallel to the ship, it has to have an upper
platform. Upper platforms are mostly turnable. The lower
platform (or the ladder itself) hangs on a bail and can be
lifted as required. To prevent damage to boats going under
the ladder as the water level rises and falls, a boat fender
is fitted to the end of the ladder. The ladder has handrails
on both sides for safety. Accommodation ladders are constructed in such a way
that the steps are horizontal whatever the angle of inclination of the ladder. The
lower end the ladder/lower platform is based on a roll to compensate for the
motion of the ship in relation to the quay.

22. Mooring:
An oval or round casting fitted in the bulwark through which mooring lines are
passed

23. Fair-leader, Fair-lead:

A block, ring, or strip of plank with holes that serves as a
guide for the running rigging or any ship's rope and keeps it
from chafing
24. Anchor:
It is a device normally made of metal used to connect a vessel to the bed of a body
of water to resist movement

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25. Windlass:
A machine used on ships to let out and heave up equipment such as for example a
ship’s anchor or a fishing trawl.

26. Lifeboat:

A life boat is a small craft abroad a ship to allow for emergency escape.

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CHAPTER 2
SHIP BRIDGE SYSTEM, NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT AND
AIDS
2.0 Integrated Bridge System (IBS)
Generally, a Wheel House is the captain bridge where they have the navigational
equipment. The ship bridge serves as a controlling and commanding station for the
entire ship. We can control all the machinery, boiler, and ships navigation from the
bridge.

An Integrated Bridge System (IBS) is a combination of systems, which are

interconnected to allow a centralized monitoring of various navigational tools. IBS
allows acquiring and control of sensor information of a number of operations such
as passage execution, communication, machinery control, and safety and security.

Integrated bridge system (IBS) is a kind of navigation management system which

links other systems to provide all the details pertaining to ship’s navigation at one
place. It is to note that not all types of ships have the same type of IBS. The system
would vary according to the design of the ship’s bridge, various types of
equipment used by the ship, and general layout of the equipment of the bridge.

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Figure 2.1 Integrated bridge system

From the bridge the ship is nonna1ly navigated, and from there all activities on
deck can be seen and controlled by the Captain or Officer of the Watch. Today the
bridge of a modem ship is tota1ly enclosed by glass screens or windows to give
protection from weather. In addition to the steering wheel or steering controls, the
ship's main magnetic compass and a repeater from the gyroscopic compass are
normally situated on the bridge. It also houses a chart table, radar scanners and a
rich array of modem navigating and communication equipment. The type and
layout of the wheelhouse and the bridge, as well as bridge wings, varies according
to ship types and to the changes in modem technology in shipbuilding and
navigation.

2.1 Movable bridges

Some modern vessel designs include movable bridges, which may allow more
cargo, or may permit passage under low bridges. Most of this design is intended
for large containerships.

Figure 2.2 Integrated bridge system

2.2 Bridge / Navigation Equipment

Gone are the days when a ship navigation officer had to take help of
unconventional ways to plan and navigate a voyage at sea. Today, a ship officer
has myriad of marine navigation equipment which makes his life a lot simpler,
thanks to the advancement in technology. Moreover, present day seafarers are

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trained so as to know the functioning and operation of all modern day navigational
equipment that have made the journey at sea smoother and safer.

With modern day facilities and automation, a ship today has several advanced
navigation equipment systems which give accurate data for the voyage. Herein,
are up to 30 types of navigational equipment, both old and new, which are present
on all merchant ships.

Figure 2.3 Samples of Navigational Equipment

1. Gyro Compass
Gyro Compass is used for finding the right direction. Unlike magnetic compass,
gyro compass is not hampered by external magnetic field. It is used to find correct
North Position, which is also the earth’s rotational axis. Its repeater system must be
present in the steering platform for emergency steering.

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Figure 2.4 Gyro Compass

2. Radar
Radar (Radio aid to direction and rescue) is used to determine the distance of the
ship from land, other ships, or any floating object out at sea.
Marine radars are usually short range radars that are used by ships to pinpoint
locations about other ships and land in the area. The frequencies with which these
radars are operated are known as x-band or s-band frequencies. The x stands for
secret, as the ship radar was mainly a hidden frequency while used for the purpose
of tracking ship during the Second World War. The s stands for small range in the
second type.

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Figure 2.5 Rader

3. Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass works in conjunction with the magnetic field of the earth. It
is used to get planned direction for the voyage.

Figure 2.6 Magnetic Compass

4. Auto Pilot
Auto Pilot is a combination of hydraulic, mechanical, and electrical system and is
used to control the ship’s steering system from a remote location (Navigation
Bridge).
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5. Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA)

The Automatic Radar Plotting Aid displays the position of a ship and other vessels
nearby. The radar displays the position of the ships in the vicinity and selects the
course for the vessel by avoiding any kind of collision.

Figure 2.7 Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA)

6. Automatic Tracking Aid

Just like the ARPA, the automatic tracking aid displays the information on tracked
targets in graphic and numeric to generate a planned layout for a safer and collision
free course.

7. Speed & Distance Log Device

The device is used to measure the speed and the distance travelled by a ship from a
set point. By calculating the same, ETA of the ship is adjusted or given to the port
authority and agent.

8. Echo Sounder
This instrument is used to measure the depth of the water below the ship’s bottom
using sound waves.

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Figure 2.8 Echo Sounder

9. Electronic Chart Display Information System

The Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) is a development
in the navigational chart system used in naval vessels and ships. With the use of
the electronic chart system, it has become easier for a ship’s navigating crew to
pinpoint locations, and attaining directions are easier than before.

Figure 2.9 Electronic Chart Display and Information System

10. Automatic Identification system

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Automatic Identification System, more popularly known as AIS is a system which

helps to pinpoint the location and other navigational statistics of ships. AIS uses
very high frequency (VHF) radio channels as transmitters and receivers to send
and receive messages between ships which help to fulfill a lot of responsibilities.

Figure 2.10 Automatic Identification System

11. The Long Range Tracking and Identification (LRIT) System: Tracking
and Monitoring Ships
The Long Range Tracking and Identification (LRIT) is an international tracking
and identification system incorporated by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) under its Survival of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention to ensure a thorough
tracking system for ships across the world.
It came into existence on the 19th May 2006 and was incorporated formally
starting from January 2008. Based on these lines, those ships which were built on
or following 31st December 2008 were required to have this system of vessel
identification.

12. Rudder Angle Indicator

The Rudder angle indicator, as the name indicates, provides the angle of the
rudder. The display is provided on bridge to control the rate of turn and rudder
angle of the ship.

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Figure 2.11 Rudder angle indicator

13. Voyage Data Recorder

Just like in Airplanes, a ship is also provided with a black box known as Voyage
data recorder. It is said that the accident rate of ship is higher than that of an air
plane, as the former is bigger in size and carries several machineries in a harsh
environment, which makes it extremely important to have a voyage data recorder
on board.

14. Rate of turn indicator

It indicates how fast the ship is turning at steady rate, normally shown as number
of degree turned.

15. Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver

A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver is a display system used to show the
ship’s location with the help of Global positioning satellite in the earth’s orbit.
Marine GPS Systems have become an essential apparatus when it comes to marine
travelling. Just like their counterparts fixed in cars, Marine GPS Systems help
ships and boats stay on course especially in areas where the marine life-forms
thrive. Also, Marine GPS Systems enable shipmen to pinpoint the location of other
ships so as to avoid any collision in the waters and thus cause damage to people
and cargo aboard the ships. It is important to note that Marine GPS Systems come
with protective waterproofing, have buttons and dials which can be operated even
through gloves and most important of all offer easy usability to all kinds of marine
travelers.

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Figure 2.12 Marine GPS System

16. Sound Reception System

This system is required for a ship with fully enclosed type bridge. It enables the
navigating officer inside the cabin to listen to the sound signals and fog horn from
other ships.

Figure 2.13 Sound Reception System

17. Ship Whistle

A ship’s horn is known as whistle and it is generally provided in duplicate. One is
driven by air and the other is electrically operated.

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Figure 2.14 Ship Whistle

18. Daylight Signaling Lamp

They are light signaling devices used for emergency signaling in the day time.

19. Pilot Card

It is an informative booklet provided to the ship’s pilot. It consists of the
dimension, draught, turning circle, maneuvering, and propulsion equipment etc. of
the vessel for safe maneuvering.

20. Voyage Plan

A voyage Plan must be present on board for referring past voyage plans or
planning a future voyage.

Figure 2.15 Voyage Plan

21. Forecastle Bell

It is used to mark the presence of the ship in fog or bad weather and sound the
alarm in case of any emergency.
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22. Maneuvering Booklet

In this booklet the performance of the propulsion plant and the ship during
maneuvering in different weathers and situations is recorded for quick reference.

23. Black Ball Shape

It is a day time signaling shape used to determine the characteristics of vessel with
different arrangement of ball shapes. For e.g. a vessel at anchor will show a
blackball at foremost end of the forecastle.

Figure 2.16 Black Ball Shape

24. Record of Navigation Activities

All the navigational activities must be recorded and kept on board for ready
reference. This is a mandatory and the most important log book.

25. Record of Maintenance of Navigational Equipment

Hard copy of the record must be present on board ships for ready reference of port
and regulatory authorities and must be signed by master and duty officers of the
ship.

26. Wheelhouse Posters

It should always be present in the Navigation Bridge, it displays a detailed
information of maneuvering characteristics of the ship.

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Figure 2.17 Wheelhouse Posters

27. Transmitting Heading Devise

They are used to display the information of the vessel’s true heading.

28. Black Diamond Shape

When the ship is being towed or when a vessel is unable to manoeuvre on itself, a
black diamond shape is shown during the day time.

29. Ship Flags

Various types of ship flags with different colors and signs are used to indicate a
ship’s position. Signal flags as they are commonly known, have been used since
the ancient times and are still used on all vessels.

Figure 2.18 Ship Flags

30. Nautical chart

A nautical chart is a graphic representation of a maritime area and adjacent coastal
regions. Depending on the scale of the chart, it may show depths of water and
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heights of land (topographic map), natural features of the seabed, details of the
coastline, navigational hazards, locations of natural and human-made aids to
navigation, information on tides and currents, local details of the Earth's magnetic
field, and human-made structures such as harbors, buildings and bridges. Nautical
charts are essential tools for marine navigation; many countries require vessels,
especially commercial ships, to carry them. Nautical charting may take the form of
charts printed on paper or computerized electronic navigational charts.

Figure 2.19 Nautical chart

31. Nautical Almanac

Nautical almanac is used to determine the position in the sky of a celestial body
after a sight has been taken.

32. Chip log and sand glass

The Chip log and sand glass serve to measure the ship's speed through the water.

33. Navigational Lights

All marine vessels, whether big or small are required to have night lights as a part
of the navigation systems. This system was introduced in the year 1838 by the
United States and then was followed by the United Kingdom in 1849. In the year
1889, the International Maritime Conference was established by the United States
to establish proper guidelines to prevent marine accidents. In the year 1897, these
rules were officially adopted internationally.

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While driving on a road, a driver is required to have headlights on the vehicle.

Similarly even boats and ships are required to have lights. Such lights, known as
marine navigation lighting, form a very important part of the marine navigation
systems.

When road and rail transport is used, at night time, there are proper lighting
systems available to guide them. These lights help to prevent any major accident
from happening. Marine navigation however does not have any such lighting
system, making it all the more important to have marine navigation lighting set up
on ships and boats.

The colour of the lights that were required to be used was specified by a set of
rules passed in the UK. On the basis of this rule, three colours were chosen: red,
green and white. Even today, the marine navigation lighting consists of these
three colours.

Figure 2.20 Navigational Lights

There is a pattern in which these lights are set up on the ships and boats. The
pattern can be explained below:
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i. There is a light at the right-hand side of the boat (known as the starboard
side) which is green in colour.

ii. There is a light at the left-hand side of the boat (known as the port side)
which is red in colour.

iii. A red light is also placed at the back of the boat (known as the stern side).

iv. The mast of the boat also has to have night lights. The colour of this light is
white in colour. But it needs to be noted that if vessel is bigger – like a ship, then
there need to be two lights as mast lights.

These lights work in such a manner that they can indicate an approaching ship
about the position of another ship in its path. By understanding the position and the
angle of the lights mentioned, the person at the helm (steering) of the opposite ship
can clearly understand how much change needs to be done in the ship’s route.

Figure 2.21 Navigational Light positions

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The visibility range of such lights varies between three miles to six miles. The
lights that are used for ships and bigger boats have a longer range of visibility as
compared to the smaller boats. There is also a concept known as all-round light
that certain smaller boats can opt for. If a boat is installed with an all-round light (it
is a light fixed to the mast), then there is no need for any further separate lights for
the stern and the two sides of the boat.

If it becomes clear that two boats are on the opposite sides of the same route, then
depending on certain marine rules and standards one of the boats has to alter its
course. The choice of the boat that has to alter its course depends on the size and
certain other specifications. In order to be clear about these aspects, a mariner has
to have a complete knowledge about the system of marine lights functions.

2.3 Navigational aid

A navigational aid (also known as aid to navigation, ATON, or navaid) is any sort
of marker which aids the traveler in navigation; the term is most commonly used to
refer to nautical or aviation travel. Common types of such aids include
lighthouses, buoys, fog signals, and day beacons.

Unlike the roads and highways that we drive on, the waterways we go boating on
do not have road signs that tell us our location, the route or distance to a
destination, or of hazards along the way. Instead, the waterways have Aids to
Navigation (or ATONs), which are all of those man-made objects used by mariners
to determine position or a safe course.

These aids also assist mariners in making a safe landfall, mark isolated dangers,
enable pilots to follow channels, and provide a continuous chain of charted marks
for precise piloting in coastal waters. The U.S. Aids to Navigation System is
intended for use with nautical charts, which provide valuable information
regarding water depths, hazards, and other features that you will not find in an atlas
or road map.

The term "aids to navigation" includes buoys, day beacons, lights, lightships,
radio beacons, fog signals, marks and other devices used to provide "street"
signs on the water. Aids to Navigation include all the visible, audible and
electronic symbols that are established by government and private authorities for
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piloting purposes. The Coast Guard is the agency responsible for maintaining aids
to navigation

2.4 Types of Aids to Navigation

The term "aids to navigation" encompasses a wide range of floating and fixed
objects (fixed meaning attached to the bottom or shore), and consist primarily of:

1. Buoys
Buoys are floating objects that are anchored to the bottom. Their distinctive shapes
and colors indicate their purpose and how to navigate around them.

2. Beacons
Beacons are structures that are permanently fixed to the sea-bed or land. They
range from structures such as light houses, to single-pile poles. Most beacons have
lateral or non-lateral aids attached to them. Lighted beacons are called "Lights",
unlighted beacons are "Day Beacons". Both Buoys and Beacons may have lights
attached, and may have a sound making device such as a gong, bell or horn. Both
Buoys and Beacons may be called "marks".

Depending on where you sail, you may see several differences in how navigational
marks are colored, numbered, or lighted. Regardless of the location, buoys and
beacons are placed in very specific locations, to mark either a particular side of a
waterway, or some other navigational feature.

The "Lateral" system is the familiar Red Right Returning system, meaning that
on all navigable waters returning from sea, the red even-numbered marks are on
the starboard (right) side of the channel and the green odd-numbered marks are on
the port (left) side of the channel. Numbers on the marks ascend when traveling
from sea to harbor--if you don't have a compass and become disoriented on the
water, you will always know you are heading upstream if the buoy numbers get
larger as you travel.

2.4.1 Port Side Odd Numbered Aids

Port side numbered aids are green in color; odd numbered and may be lighted. Port
side marks are located on the left side of the waterway as you travel upstream, and

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the buoy numbers will increase as you head upstream. (Chart depictions are shown
next to the marks) Port-Side Buoys have a cylindrical above-water appearance, like
a can or drum floating on its axis, commonly referred to as "CAN" buoys.

Beacons - Port side beacons have square marks attached to them, with two shades
of color and a reflective border.

Figure 2.22 Port Side Buoys and Beacons

2.4.2 Starboard Side Even Numbered Aids

Starboard aids are red in color, evenly numbered and will be on your right side as
you travel upstream. Buoy numbers increase as you head upstream, and may have
a red light. Starboard-side buoys have an above-water appearance like that of a
cylinder topped with a cone, pointed end up. The cone may come to a point or be
slightly rounded, commonly referred to as "NUN" buoys. Starboard-side Beacons
have triangular marks attached to them, with two shades of color and a reflective
border.

Figure 2.23 Starboard Side Buoys and Beacons

1.4.3 Safe Water Marks

These marks are used to mark fairways, mid-channels, and offshore approach
points. They have unobstructed water on all sides. These marks may be lettered,
and may be lighted with a white light. They may also have a red top mark.

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Figure 2.24 Fair way Buoys

1.4.4 Isolated Danger Marks

These indicate a danger which may be passed on all sides. They are erected on, or
moored on or near danger. They should not be approached closely without special
caution. They may be lighted, and they may be lettered.

Figure 2.25 Danger Marks

2.4.5 Special Marks

Special marks have no lateral significance (meaning they don't tell you which side
of the channel or river you may be on). These marks are used to mark a special
feature or area. These include area limits for anchorages, fishing grounds, or
dredging/spoil areas. These buoys may be lighted, and if they are it will be a fixed
or flashing yellow light. Shape is optional, but usually follows the shape of the
navigation buoys that it is positioned near.

Figure 2.26 Special Marks

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2.4.5 Mooring Buoys

Mooring buoys come in two different shapes; spherical and cylindrical. Both have
white bodies with a solid blue horizontal band on the center of the buoy. Mooring
buoys may have a white reflector, or a white light attached to them. Mooring buoys
are the only buoys to which you may legally tie your boat. Buoys are generally
placed in marked anchorage areas, and you must take caution if you are traveling
near buoy areas. Check your state boating guide for particular operating
restrictions in anchorage areas.

Figure 2.26 Mooring Buoys

2.5 Signals
Signal flags with single-letters written on them are used in communication between
ships at sea. This signal is very urgent, important, or common. Table 1.1 contains
the signal later, the words and their individual meanings.

Table 2.1 Signal latters, words and their meanings

LETTER SPELLING WORD MEANING
A Alpha I have a diver down ;keep well clear at slow speed."
"I am taking in or discharging or carrying dangerous
B Bravo goods."
C Charle Affirmative
D Delta "Keep clear of me ;I am maneuvering with difficulty."
E Echo "I am altering my course to starboard."
F Foxtrot "I am disabled; communicate with me."
G Golf "I require a pilot."
H Hotel "I have a pilot on board."
"I am on fire and have dangerous cargo on board : keep
I India well clear of me." or "I am leaking dangerous cargo."

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"I am on fire and have dangerous cargo on board : keep

J Juliet well clear of me." or "I am leaking dangerous cargo."
K Kilo "I wish to communicate with you."
In harbour: "The ship is quarantined." At sea :"You should
L Lima stop your vessel instantly."
"My vessel is stopped and making no way through the
M Mike water."
N November "Negative."
O Oscar "Man over board."
In harbor : All persons should report onboard as the vessel
is about to proceed to sea At sea : It may be used by fishing
vessels to mean : "My nets have come fast up on an
P Papa obstruction."
Q Quebec "My vessel is 'healthy' and I request free pratique."
R Romeo Distance range in nautical miles
S Sierra "I am operating astern propulsion."
T Tango "Keep clear of me ; I am engaged in pair trawling."
U Uniform "You are running into danger."
V Victor "I require assistance."
W Whiskey "I require medical assistance."
"Stop carrying out your intentions and watch for my
X Xray signals."
Y Yankee "I am dragging my anchor."
Z Zulu "I require a tug." Or "I am shooting nets."

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CHAPTER 3
DECK MACHINERY / EQUIPMENT

3.1 Introduction
Deck Machinery and Equipment are the various items of machinery and equipment
found outside of the machinery space or machinery control room of modern cargo
ship.
The ship deck machinery comprises of various equipment which can be classified
basically into three categories:
i. Mooring equipment,
ii. Anchor handling equipment, and
iii. Cargo handling equipment.

Other items include lifeboats and life rafts, emergency equipment, watertight
doors, stabilizers, hatch covers and bow thrusters. Deck machineries are designed
in various types and drive systems.
The operations of mooring, cargo handling and anchor handling all involve
controlled pulls or lifts using chain cables, wire or hemp ropes. The drive force and
control arrangements adopted will influence the operations. Several methods are
currently in use, and these will be examined before considering the associated
equipment.

3.2 Sources of Power for Deck Machinery

There are three forms of power currently in use to drive deck machinery and
equipment. They are: steam, hydraulic and electric powers, each got its advantages
and disadvantages for particular duties or locations.

1. Steam Powered Deck Machinery

With a steam powering and control system the steam pipelines are run along the
deck to the various machines. Steam is admitted first to a directional valve and
then to the steam admission valve. Double-acting steam engines, usually with two
cylinders, are used to drive the machinery. Additional back pressure valves are
used with mooring winches to control tension when the machine is stalled or
brought to a stop by the load. Arrangements must also be made, often associated
with the back pressure valve, to counteract the fluctuations in main steam line

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pressure as a result of other users of steam.

The steam-powered system was widely used on tankers since it presented no fire or
explosion risk, but the lengths of deck pipe work and the steam engines themselves
presented considerable maintenance tasks which have generally resulted in their
replacement by hydraulically powered equipment.

2. Hydraulic Systems Deck Machinery

The open-loop circuit takes oil from the tank and pumps it into the hydraulic
motor. A control valve is positioned in parallel with the motor. When it is open the
motor is stationary; when it is throttled or closed the motor will operate. The
exhaust oil returns to the tank. This method can provide step less control, i.e.
smooth changes in motor speed. The live-line circuit, on the contrary, maintains a
high pressure from which the control valve draws pressurized oil to the hydraulic
motor (in series with it), as and when required.

In the closed-loop circuit the exhaust oil is returned directly to the pump suction.
Since the oil does not enter an open tank, the system is considered closed.
Low-pressure systems use the open-loop circuit and are simple in design as well as
reliable. The equipment is, however, large, inefficient in operation and overheats
after prolonged use.

Medium-pressure systems are favoured for marine applications, using either the
open or closed circuit. Smaller installations are of the open-loop type. Where
considerable amounts of hydraulic machinery are fitted the live-circuit, supplied by
a centralized hydraulic power system, would be most economical.

3. Electrical Powered Deck Machinery

Early installations used D.C. supply with resistances in series to provide speed
control. This inefficient power-wasting method was one possibility with D.C, but a
better method was the use of Ward Leonard control. The high cost of all the
equipment involved in Ward Leonard control and its maintenance is, however, a
considerable disadvantage.
Machines operated on an A.C. supply require a means of speed control with either
pole-changing or slip-ring motors being used. Slip-ring motors require low starting
currents but waste power at less than full speed and require regular maintenance.

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Pole-changing motors are of squirrel cage construction, providing for perhaps three
different speeds. They require large starting currents, although maintenance is
negligible.

Apart from the advantages and disadvantages for each of the drive and control
methods, all electric drives have difficulty with heavy continuous overloads. Each
system has its advocates and careful design and choice of associated equipment
can provide a satisfactory installation.

3.3 Classification of Deck Machinery

3.3.1 Mooring equipment,

Mooring Equipment is a set of fittings and mechanisms aboard a ship that are used
to warp and secure the ship when it is moored at a dock, at the wall of a lock, to
buoys, or alongside another vessel.

Mooring Equipment comprises of:

1. Deck Mechanisms
2. Deck Fittings.

A ship’s mooring equipment includes mechanisms, such as winches and capstans

that are used to take in and pay out mooring lines, which are ropes or steel cables.
It also includes the following fittings: bitts and cleats, around which the mooring
lines are made fast; stoppers, which temporarily hold the mooring lines; mooring
chocks, rollers, and mooring pipes, which are used to change the direction of the
mooring lines; manually operated or mechanized reels, on which the mooring lines
are stowed; and line throwers, which throw the mooring lines from the ship.

3.3.1.1 Deck Mechanisms for Mooring

1. Mooring Winches
A winch (Figure 3.1) is a marine deck equipment device for handling wires or
ropes and works by spooling the wire or rope on a drum with a horizontal axis. The
winch can be powered by electric or hydraulic motors; steam winches were once
common but are now obsolete.
It can also be said that a Winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in (wind
up) or let out (wind out) or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope or wire rope or
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cable. In its simplest form, it consists of a spool (or drum) attached to a hand crank.
More complex designs have gear assemblies and can be powered by electric,
hydraulic, pneumatic or internal combustion drives. It might include a solenoid
brake and/or a mechanical brake or ratchet and pawl which prevent it unwinding
unless the pawl is retracted.

Figure 3.1 Winch

The duty of a deck winch is to lift and lower a load by means of a fixed rope on a
barrel, or by means of whipping the load on the warp ends, to top or luff the
derricks, and to warp the ship. In fulfilling these duties it is essential that the winch
should be capable of carrying out the following requirements;

i. Lift the load at suitable speeds

ii. Hold the load from running back
iii. Lower the load under control and take up the slack on the slings without
undue stress
iv. Drop the load smartly on the skids by answering the operator’s application
without delay
v. Have good acceleration and retardation.

In addition when the winch is electrically driven the requirements are:

i. Prevent the load being lowered at a speed which will damage the motor
armature
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ii. Stop the load running back should the power supply fail
iii. Prevent the winch starting up again when the power is restored until the
controller has been turned to the correct position.

There are two basic types of mooring winches. They are: Automatic mooring
winches and Non- automatic mooring winches
The Automatic Mooring Winches provide the manual control facilities of the non-
automatic winches. However, in addition, they incorporate a control feature such
that, in the "automatic" setting, the winch may be overhauled and wire is paid off
the barrel at a predetermined maximum tension. In addition, wire is recovered at a
lower tension should it tend to become slack.

2. Mooring Capstan
A capstan is defined as a vertical-axle rotating machine developed for use on
sailing ships to multiply the pulling force of seamen when hauling ropes, cables,
and hawsers. The principle is similar to that of the windlass, which has a horizontal
axle. It is a cast steel drum mounted on a vertical spindle with the largest diameters
at top and bottom and the smallest in the middle to allow the rope around it to
surge up or down as the number of turns are increased. The drum is fixed to the
spindle by keys. Capstan with a warping head installed on deck of a ship mainly
used for ship anchoring, mooring, weight pulling and so on.

The classifications of capstan are based on the following;

i. According to power type there are mainly electric marine capstan, hydraulic
marine capstan, manual marine capstan, pneumatic marine capstan and gas
powered capstan.
ii. According to material of the marine capstan, stainless steel capstan, bronze
capstan and aluminum capstan.
iii. According to the two shaft center line orientation, there are vertical marine
capstan and horizontal marine capstan.

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Figure 3.2 Capstan

3. Mooring Windlass
A Windlass can also be defined as a horizontal-axle rotating machine developed
for use on sailing ships to multiply the pulling force of seamen when hauling ropes,
cables, and hawsers.
This equipment is self-contained and normally one electric or hydraulic motor
drives two cable lifters and two warp ends. The latter may not be declutch able and
so will rotate when the cable lifters are engaged. There is some variation in the
detailed design of cable lifters and in their drives.

Figure 3.3 Windlass

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3.3.1.2 Deck Fittings for Mooring

The ship deck machinery also comprises of deck fittings such as bitts and cleats
around which the mooring lines are made fast; stoppers, which temporarily hold
the mooring lines; mooring chocks, rollers, and mooring pipes, which are used to
change the direction of the mooring lines; manually operated or mechanized reels,
on which the mooring lines are stowed; and line throwers, which throw the
mooring lines from the ship.

i. Bitts
Bitts are heavy metal bed plates with two iron or steel posts. They are used on
ships for securing mooring or towing lines. Usually there is a set forward and after
each chock. It may be a single bitts or a double bitt

Figure 3.4 Mooring Bits

ii. Chocks
A chock is defined as a guide for a mooring line, or steel towing wire which
enables the line to pass through a ship bulwark or other barrier. Chocks are heavy
fittings secured to the deck. Lines are passed through them to bollards on the pier.
The types of chocks used are closed, double and single chocks.

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Figure 3.5 Mooring Chocks

iii. Cleats

Cleats in nautical contexts are a device for securing a rope. They are of various
types such as; horn cleat, cam cleat, jam cleat, etc.

Figure 3.6 Mooring Cleats

3.3.1.2 Deck Machinery for Anchor Handling

An anchor is a device, normally made of metal, used to connect a vessel to the bed
of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. A sea
anchor is a drogue, not in contact with the seabed, used to control a drifting vessel.
Anchors can either be temporary or permanent. Permanent anchors are used in the
creation of a mooring, and are rarely moved; a specialist service is normally
needed to move or maintain them. Vessels carry one or more temporary anchors,
which may be of different designs and weights. Anchors are heavy forging or
casting shaped to grip the sea bottom, and by means of a cable or rope, holds a ship
or other floating structure in a desired position regardless of wind and current.
There are various types of anchors such as: stock-anchors, stockless anchors
(SPEK or HALL type), High Holding Power (HHP) anchors, Super Holding Power
(SHHP) anchors.
Anchoring equipment is designed for the temporary mooring of a vessel within a
harbor or sheltered area when the vessel is awaiting berth, etc. It is assumed that
under normal circumstances a ship will use only one bow anchor and chain cable at
a time.

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1. Anchor Winch, Windlass and Capstan

As stated already in mooring equipment, Anchor winch, windlass and Capstan are
also marine deck equipment used for handling wires or ropes and works by
spooling the wire or rope on a drum with a horizontal or vertical axes as the case
may be. They can be powered by electric or hydraulic motors; steam winches were
once common but are now obsolete.

2. Anchor Chain or Anchor Cable

This is a heavy chain used for holding a vessel at anchor. The total length of the
chain is to be divided in approximately equal parts between the two bower anchors.
The inboard ends of the chain cables are to be secured to the ship’s structure by
means which enable, in case of emergency, an easy slipping of the chain cables to
sea.

Figure 3.7 Anchor and Anchor chain

3.3.1.3 Deck Machinery for Cargo Handling

Cargo handling is the activity of moving goods on and off ships, planes, trucks,
etc. Cargo handling equipment varies depending upon the type of cargo.
Equipment used for loading/discharging operations: e.g. cargo cranes, side-loading
system with conveyors, side shifters, elevators, belt conveyors, RO-RO cargo
handling gear and cargo pumping systems. Cargo handling equipment at ports
generally includes cranes, forklifts, container handlers (e.g., top picks and side
picks), and bulk handling equipment, such loaders.

Tankers are fitted with pumping systems and pumps, with small cranes to handle
hoses from shore, and with tank cleaning machines and inert-gas generating
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systems. Most dry-bulk carriers depend on shore side facilities for cargo loading
and discharge, but some bulk carriers have self-unloading features with conveyors
below the cargo holds or with cranes on deck. Reefer vessels are designed with
refrigerated cargo holds fitted with large cargo-refrigeration systems.

1. Cargo Cranes
A crane (Figure 3.8) is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope,
wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials
and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and
transporting them to other places. Cranes are commonly employed in the transport
industry for the loading and unloading of freight, in the construction industry for
the movement of materials, and in the manufacturing industry for the assembling
of heavy equipment. Shipboard cranes of various types and capacities are still
required for multi-purpose cargo vessels, geared bulk carriers, feeders, reefers,
heavy lift vessels and some forest product carriers. Manufacturers offer crane
designs and special handling attachments (container spreaders, rotators and grabs)
to suit all dry cargo trades. Computer-based cargo spotting systems enable even
relatively unskilled operators to cope with the pendulum effects and centrifugal
forces. They also help in keeping containers or other cargo units constantly aligned
with a given axis, regardless of slewing motion and other external forces. Such
electronic aids substantially improve productivity.

Other benefits of the electronics aid in cargo cranes include: reduced operator
fatigue, improved safety and lower cargo and ship structure damage. Cranes have
replaced derricks on many modern ships. Generally they are considered as an
alternative to the union purchase rig. Deck cranes have a number of advantages,
the rigging time being negligible, and the crane is able to pick up and land
permitted loads anywhere within its working radius. There is some controversy
regarding the merits of cranes as opposed to the union purchase rig, but evidence is
available to show that the crane is perhaps less efficient with very light loads.
Cranes may often be positioned on the ship’s center line, but this may require an
extremely long jib when the ship’s beam is large and a reasonable outreach is
desired. Transverse positional cranes may then be fitted which, when not under
load, can be moved port or starboard and secured to work the hatch and give the
desired outreach. Alternatively fixed cranes, one at each end of the hatch, may be

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placed at opposite corners. This is an arrangement which is useful in discharging to

port and starboard simultaneously. There is also a crane which is mounted on a
hatch cover section capable of travelling under load along the hatch coaming in the
longitudinal direction. Various types of crane exist for particular duties, for
example a general duties crane using a hook and a grabbing crane for use with bulk
cargoes.
Three separate drives provide the principal movements: a hoisting motor for lifting
the load, a luffing motor for raising or lowering the jib, and a slewing motor for
rotating the crane. The operator's cab is designed to provide clear views of all the
cargo working area so that the crane operator can function alone. The crane is
usually mounted on a pedestal to offer adequate visibility to the operator. For
occasional heavy loads arrangements for two cranes to work together, i.e.
twinning, can be made with a single operator using a master and slave control
system in the two cranes. A common revolving platform will be necessary for this
arrangement. The operating medium for deck crane motors may be hydraulic or
electric, utilizing circuits referred to earlier.

Figure 3.8 Cargo Crane

2. Forklifts
A forklift (also called lift truck, jitney, fork truck, fork hoist, and forklift truck) is a
powered industrial truck used to lift and move materials over short distances.

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Figure 3.9 Forklift

3. Derricks
A derrick (Figure 3.10) is a lifting device composed at minimum of one guyed
mast, as in a gin pole, which may be articulated over a load by adjusting its guys.
Most derricks have at least two components, either a guyed mast or self-supporting
tower, and a boom hinged at its base to provide articulation, as in a stiff leg
derrick.
The most basic type of derrick is controlled by three or four lines connected to the
top of the mast, which allow it both to move laterally and cant up and down. To lift
a load, a separate line runs up and over the mast with a hook on its free end, as
with a crane. Forms of derricks are commonly found aboard ships and at docking
facilities. Some large derricks are mounted on dedicated vessels, and known as
floating derricks and sheer legs.
The term derrick is also applied to the framework supporting a drilling apparatus in
an oil rig.

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Figure 3.10 Derrick

 Types of Derricks

There are various types of derrick based on how the tower or mast is set up and the
use of boom:
1. A-frame Derrick
In an A-frame derrick, the tower is set up from two poles or masts with their
bottom ends spread from each other and their top ends joint together. There are
crossbars to connect the two poles, forming a letter "A" shape tower. The tower is
ground anchored to provide support. A boom is hinged from the lowest cross bar
and extends outward and upward. When an A-frame derrick is used in a vessel, it is
called floating A-frame derrick.

2. Basket Derrick
A basket derrick is a derrick without a boom that is supported by a rope-and-pole

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system that forms a basket. The basket is constructed from a group of poles to form
a polygon. There are crossbars between the pole members to strengthen their
support. The supporting ropes are tied to the top of the basket poles on one end and
joined together on the other end at a lower elevation than the top of the basket
poles to form the base for the derrick tower.

3. Breast Derrick
A breast derrick is a derrick without a boom with a mast constructed from two
upright members. The upright members are more spread at their bottom ends than
their top ends. There are crossbars to join the two members from the bottom to the
top to form a mast. Without the use of boom, the top crossbar is also used to
connect to a sheave or a block that is used for lifting the load. The mast is
prevented from tipping forward by guys connected to its top.

4. Boom Derrick
A Boom derrick is a derrick with a boom which is attached to an external structure.
The external upright member of the structure serves as the mast, and the boom is
stepped in a fixed socket clamped to the upright. The boom is connected to at least
three pulley systems to control the position of the boom. For example, a pulley
system is connected to the top of the boom and the higher area of the external
structure and two pulley systems near the top of the boom connected on either side
of the boom to the external structure. The position of the top of the boom can be
controlled by manipulating these pulley systems. The load is lifted from a separate
pulley system that is connected to the top of the boom.

5. Gin pole Derrick

Gin pole derrick (also known as standing derrick or pole derrick) is a derrick
without a boom with single tower or mast supported by 4 guy wires (two side guys,
fore guy and rear guy). Its guys are so arranged from its top as to permit leaning
the mast in any direction. The base of the tower is hinged and the top of the tower
is connected to a pulley system for load lifting. As this is a simple derrick system,
it is considered to be used by some agencies as an improvised rescue derrick in an
emergency situation where no suitable rescue derrick or crane is available.

6. Guy Derrick
Guy derrick (also known as boom derrick) is a fixed guyed mast derrick that can be

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rotated and connected to a boom. The mast is in upright position with the base that
can make the mast rotate, but not to be lean in any direction. The top of the mast is
connected to many guy wires which are anchored to the ground to support the load.
At the base, the mast is also connecting to the bottom end of the boom. The boom
extends outward and upward to the desired position. The top of the boom is a
pulley system that is connected to the top of the mast to control how far the boom
is to be from the mast.

7. Stiff leg Derrick

The Stiff leg derrick, also known as a Scotch derrick, is a derrick with a boom
similar to a guy derrick, but instead of using guy wires to secure the top of the
mast, it uses two or more stiff members, called stiff legs, which are capable of
resisting either tensile or compressive forces. Sills may also be used to connect
between the bottom ends of the stiff legs and the base of the mast. There may be a
counterweight to place on the sills behind the stiff legs in heavy load lifting. Stiff
leg derrick on a vessel is called a floating stiff leg derrick. Derricks are especially
useful for high rise rigging, jobs that cover a long period of time, or jobs when the
impact to the street/pedestrian traffic is a concern.

3.4 Applications Of Ship Deck Machinery

Below are some of the applications of machineries used aboard a ship's deck:

1. Winch:
Winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in (wind up) or let out (wind out)
or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope or wire rope or cable.

2. Capstan:
Capstan is used on sailing ships to multiply the pulling force of seamen when
hauling ropes, cables, and hawsers.

3. Mooring Windlass:
Windlass is an electric and hydraulic driven motor used for cable lifting.

4. Bitts:
Bitts are used on ships for securing mooring or towing lines.

5. Chocks:

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Chocks are used as a guide for a mooring line, or steel towing wire which enables
the line to pass through a ship bulwark or other barrier.

6. Anchor Chain/Cable:
Anchor Chain/Cable is a heavy chain used for holding a vessel at anchor.

7. Anchoring Windlass:
Anchoring Windlass is used to raise and lower the anchors and to handle the
forward mooring lines.

8. Cargo Cranes:
Cargo Cranes are mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to
other places.

9. Derricks:
Derricks are also used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other
places.

10. Forklifts:
Forklift is a powered industrial truck used to lift and move materials over short
distances.

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CHAPTER 4
CARGO STOWAGE

4.1 Introduction
Cargo can be goods, materials, merchandise, or wares carried onboard an aircraft,
ship, train, or truck, and for which an air waybill, or bill of lading, or other receipt
is issued by the carrier. It includes livestock, but usually does not include bunkers
(fuel for powering the vessel or vehicle), accompanying baggage, vessel or
vehicle's equipment and spare parts, mail, and stores. Personnel carried onboard
are classified as crew or passengers.

In economics, cargo or freight are goods or produce being conveyed – generally

for commercial gain – by ship, boat, or aircraft, although the term is now often
extended to cover all types of freight, including that carried by train, van, truck, or
intermodal container. The term cargo is also used in case of goods in the cold-
chain, because the perishable inventory is always in transit towards a final end-use,
even when it is held in cold storage or other similar climate-controlled facility.
Multi-modal container units, designed as reusable carriers to facilitate unit load
handling of the goods contained, are also referred to as cargo, especially by
shipping lines and logistics operators. When empty containers are shipped each
unit is documented as a cargo and when goods are stored within, the contents are
termed as containerized cargo.

4.2 Useful Terminologies Concerning Conventional Cargo

Stowage
1. Dunnage:
Dunnage is the material to protect cargo, and ensure good stowage. Ceiling is a
surface of three-inch boards put on top of the tanks. One use of wood dunnage is to
make sure that water from sweating/condensation will trickle into the bilges and to
ensure that ventilation is efficient, and that fresh air reaches the cargo. Cargo
battens are wood battens used in the hold to keep the cargo away from the ship's
side and to allow the necessary through ventilation.

2. Lockups:

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Lockups are parts of the holds for cargoes of special value. They can be locked
against pilfering.

3. Broken stowage:
This means stowage space which cannot be used on account of it being too small.
4. Battening down:
This means closing the hatch watertight.

5. Hatch coaming:
This is an upright steel wall, in the shape of a shallow box without top or bottom, is
put around the entry to the hold, which helps to keep out water.

6. Hatchway beams:
These are made of steel and are laid thwart ships.

7. Tarpaulins:
These are large sheets of canvas, spread over the whole hatch. Their edges are
turned inwards and forced hard against coaming with a long bar of steel called a
batten (hence: battening down).
8. Shore gang:
This consists of a gang foreman, a hatchway man, winch man, stevedores. And a
Tally clerk (The Tally clerk checks each part of the cargo).

9. Shifting boards:
They are used to stop grain from shifting.

10. Homogeneous cargo:

They are any roll cargo of equal stowage factor.
11. Cargo plan:
Shows longitudinal sections of the ship and the spaces reserved for the various
items.

12. Leakage:
This is the entrance or escaping of a fluid through a hole.

13. Drainage:
A process of draining, to make gradually dry or empty.

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14. Moisture:
Slight wetness, penetrating dampness.

15. Contamination
A state of being stained or corrupted by contact.

16. Taint:
This is to impregnate with a tinge, assume the characteristics of another cargo
stowed in the same hold.

17. Chafe:
To wear away, rub, cause friction.

18. Vermin:
Noxious animals of small size as flies, lice, fleas, bedbugs, cockroaches, mice, rats,
etc.

19. Wastage:
Loss by use, decay, evaporation or leakage.

20. Pilferage:
Petty theft.

21. Package:
Cargo packaged as a single unit.

22. Parcel:
Departed part of cargo, especially oil, which is all of one nature or is for one
consignee or port.

23. Consignment:
Goods sent for shipment.

24. Shipment:
Goods sent for shipment by sea.

25. Shipload:
This is a full load for a ship.

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4.3 Types of Cargo Carrying Vessels

A cargo ship primary purpose is to transport goods across the sea, from one port to
another. Cargoes carried by ships are of two kinds: bulk cargoes and general
cargoes. Bulk cargoes may be either solid (grain, ore, coal, green, sugar, sulphur,
cement etc.) or liquid (oil products, wine, fresh water, spirits). All bulk cargoes are
usually shipped in bulk without tare. General cargoes represent various goods
differently packed. Goods packed in bags, cases, bales and drums are
considered as general cargoes. It frequently happens that some varieties of cargo
are carried on deck. It is to be understood that in this case “on deck” means on an
uncovered space and that the cargo is exposed to weather.

Many classes of dangerous goods, such as acids and gas cylinders are carried on
deck. Small consignments of goods which may damage other cargo are also given
deck stowage. Cargo carried on deck is shipped at “shipper’s risk”, unless
contracted otherwise, and bills of lading are qualified accordingly, but nevertheless
responsibility falls upon the ship to counteract to any possibility of loss and
damage.

Proper means of fastening the cargo must be provided by lashing; protection from
the sun and weather can be obtained by the use of tarpaulins where necessary for
certain cargoes. All reasonable amounts of wooden dunnage must be laid to
provide drainage courses.
Units of especially heavy cargo are frequently carried on deck. Locomotives,
Lorries, crates of heavy machinery such as transformers and extremely large
lengths of heavy timber (logs) find suitable stowage on deck. These cargoes will
require wire and chain lashings connected to ring bolts and provided with bottle
screws for tightening and shoring with timber, and the building of cradles and
beds.
Modern dry cargo ship designs maximize hold space. A typical mid-size ship may
have five or six holds; three or four forward of the machinery space and
superstructure, and one or two aft. The machinery spaces and superstructure are
usually located about three quarters aft. Older designs typically have three holds
forward of the superstructure and two aft. Holds aft of the accommodation and
machinery spaces improve the trim of the vessel when partially loaded, and
provide the ship and propeller immersion. Small freighters often have machinery

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and accommodation spaces aft of all cargo holds. Deadweight of modern general
cargo liners ranges from 9,000 to 25,000 tons; speeds range from 17 to 22 knots.
Tramps are typically smaller and slower, with speeds ranging from 13 to 18 knots.

The speed-to-length ratio is generally 0.87 or less as higher ratios are usually not
economical. Laden drafts are as deep as channels to the intended terminal ports
allow, typically in the 26 to 29 foot range. Hull depth is selected to provide the
desired draft and satisfy statutory freeboard requirements. Depth of the double
bottom is kept low to maximize cargo space. One or more tween decks may be
fitted to facilitate flexibility in cargo loading and unloading, cargo segregation, and
to improve stability. There may be watertight doors in the bulkheads on the tween
decks levels. Denser cargoes are carried in the lower holds with high stowage
factor products normally stowed in the tween decks. Refrigerated spaces may be
built into the tween decks.

Cargo carrying ships have large spaces below their decks to hold cargo. Bulk
carriers are built to carry dry cargo and tankers to carry liquids.
To begin, cargoes shall be divided into dry, liquid and specialized, with each of
these divided further into sub categories. Dry cargoes include bulk, general and
break-bulk, containers; reefer and Ro-Ro. Liquid cargoes are predominantly oil
based but may also include chemicals and liquefied gasses. Specialized cargoes
include passengers, livestock and heavy-lift/project.
The following are the different types of cargo transportation vessels, used to carry
cargos in their cargo holds, to move them from one part of the world to another.

1. Dry Cargo Ships:

Historically, dry cargo vessels were the mainstay of the world's merchant fleet,
known as general cargo vessels. They would be "geared", that is equipped with
their own cargo loading equipment, usually in the form of derricks. The cargo
would be stowed in different holds and the speed and effectiveness of the loading
and/unloading processes would depend on the skill of the ship's crew and the port
workers or "Stevedores". Such ships would sometimes operate a regular service
between two or more ports as "liners", but could also operate in the "tramp trade"
where vessels would go wherever they were required.

i. Bulk Carriers:

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For dry cargoes with a high weight to cost ratio such as coal, grain, cement and
ore, economies of scale have produced the modern bulk carrier. These usually
large vessels are divided up into several separate holds covered by hatches. In port,
cargo is loaded by conveyor and spouts or by crane and grab. Some bulk carriers
are geared (usually a crane is located between each hatch) to allow the loading and
unloading of cargo at berths without the need for shore equipment.
For unloading, cranes with grabs are the norm although specialized equipment may
be used for certain cargoes. When vessels unload using cranes and grabs, personnel
and vehicles will often be placed inside the holds to assist the process. Cargo will
usually be unloaded into hoppers and will then be transferred by conveyor to silos
or open storage; smaller vessels may discharge directly into road vehicles.

Figure 4.1 Bulk Cargo Ship

ii. General Cargo Vessels:

Although largely replace by bulk and container carriers, general cargo vessels still
operate throughout the world. Cargo is usually in the form of pallets or bags and is
known as break-bulk. There may be specialized handling facilities for such cargo,
but usually loading and unloading is carried out using cranes and straps (for boxes)
or slings (for bags). Loose or irregular cargo is also carried, in this case the vessel's
crew and port stevedores will pack the cargo to minimize damage and maximize
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the utilization of space.

Figure 4.2 Bulk Cargo Ship

iii. Container Vessels:

Containers have become the main way of transporting manufactured goods around
the world. A container can be transferred between truck, train and ship relatively
easily and is a standard size to simplify transportation. Containers can
accommodate anything from foodstuffs to electrical equipment to automobiles.
Containers are also used to transport bagged and palletized goods, liquids and
refrigerated cargo.

Standard containers are measured as TEUs (Twenty-foot Equivalent Units) and are
generally 20 feet (1 TEU) or 40 feet (2 TEUs) long. All standard shipping
containers are 8 feet wide and 8 feet 6 inches tall. There are also longer, taller and
even shorter standard sizes, but these are less common.
Container ships are made up of several holds, each equipped with "cell guides"
which allow the containers to slot into place. Once the first layers of containers
have been loaded and the hatches closed, extra layers are loaded on top of the
hatches. Each container is then lashed to the vessel but also to each other to
provide integrity. Containers are usually loaded by specialized cranes or even
general purpose cranes with container lifting attachments but some small container
vessels are geared to allow self-loading/discharging.

Container vessels are used predominantly on liner routes and are some of the
biggest vessels afloat. Ultra Large Container Vessels (ULCVs) such as the Emma

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Maersk (lead ship of the Maersk E-Class vessels) are able to carry approximately
15,000 TEU (depending on container weight). Large container vessels are
restricted by their size to certain ports around the world and are also unable to
transit certain areas due to draft or, in the case of canals beam, restrictions.

Figure 4.3 Container Ship

iv. Reefer Vessels:

Ships designed to carry a refrigerated cargo usually comprising perishable goods
such as fruit or meats are known as "Reefer Vessels". Cargo is stowed in holds
which are then sealed and temperature controlled. Traditional reefer vessels have
been largely replaced by the use of reefer containers which may be carried on
board a container vessel. Reefer containers only need a power source to function
although they are usually loaded to allow the crew to inspect them during the
voyage.

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Figure 4.4 Reefer Ship

v. Ro-Ro Vessels:
Roll on-Roll off or Ro-Ro vessels come in many forms including vehicle ferries
and cargo ships carrying truck trailers but the major type used for the transport of
road vehicles is the car carrier. These slab-sided vessels feature multiple vehicle
decks comprising parking lanes, linked by internal ramps with access to the shore
provided by one or more loading ramp. Cargo capacity of such vessels is measured
in Car Equivalent Units (CEU) and the largest car carriers afloat today have a
capacity of over 6,000 CEU.

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Figure 4.5 RO-RO Ship

2. Liquid Cargo Ships:

These vessels, collectively known as tankers, carry a range of liquid cargoes.
Tankers were first developed in the mid nineteenth century when the use of iron
allowed liquids to be carried in bulk economically and without leakage. Like the
case of the bulk carrier, economies of scale have driven up the size of tankers and
today the largest examples have a carrying capacity or "deadweight" of over
400,000 tons.

Tankers are divided into separate tanks into which the cargo is pumped via a
pipeline system. Modern tankers have large and segregated ballast tanks to allow
them to sit lower in the water on the return 'empty' journey to improve stability.
Many tankers also feature systems to add an inert gas to the tanks to reduce the risk
of fire and explosion.

i. Crude Carriers:
The largest ships afloat are the Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCCs) and the Ultra
Large Crude Carriers (ULCCs). These ships are designed to load crude oil and
transport it to refineries around the world where it can be processed into petroleum
products. The largest crude carriers often load and unload at offshore buoys and
terminals as they are too large to enter most ports.

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Figure 4.6 Crude Carrier

3. Product Carriers:
These vessels, which are generally smaller than crude carriers, transport the refined
products from larger terminals to smaller ports around the world. Products carried
can include petroleum, jet fuel, diesel, asphalt, lubricating oil and tar. Smaller
tankers are also used to transport non-petroleum bulk liquids such as molasses and
palm oil.

i. Chemical Carriers:
These ships usually have deadweight of 5,000-40,000 tons and often have
specialized cargo systems suited to the type of cargo carried. These systems can
include heating or cooling apparatus and advanced cleaning systems to ensure the
purity of a cargo is maintained when loaded into a tank that may have previously
carried something different.

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Figure 4.7 Chemical Carrier

ii. Liquefied Gas Carriers:

These ships began as converted oil tankers but have evolved into highly
specialized purpose-built vessels. Designed to carry Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG) or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) under pressure, the cargo tanks are
generally spherical for strength. LNG carriers are usually larger than those carrying
LPG; the largest LNG carriers are the 'Q-Flex' vessels with a gas capacity of up to
266,000 cubic meters.

Figure 4.7b Liquefied Gas Carrier

4.4 Types of Container Units and Designs for Shipping Cargo

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Container units form the most integral part of the entire shipping industry, trade,
and transport. These shipping containers are the structures that store various kinds
of products that need to be shipped from one part of the world to another. Moving
containers protect contents on the long journeys they make and ensure they make it
back to you in one piece.
As such, depending on the type of products to be shipped or the special services
needed from them, container units may vary in dimension, structure, materials,
construction etc. various types of shipping containers are being used today to meet
requirements of all kinds of cargo shipping. Some of the most common types of
shipping containers in use today are mentioned below.

1. Dry storage container

The most commonly used shipping containers are the dry storage containers. They
come in various dimensions standardized by the International Standard
Organization (ISO). They are used for shipping of dry materials and come in size
of 20ft, 40 ft and 10ft.

Figure 4.8 Dry Storage Container

2. Flat rack container

With collapsible sides, these are like simple storage shipping containers where the
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sides can be folded so as to make a flat rack for shipping of wide variety of goods.

Figure 4.9 Flat Rack Container

3. Open top container

With a convertible top that can be completely removed to make an open top so that
materials of any height can be shipped easily.

Figure 4.10 Open Top Container

4. Tunnel container
Container storage units provided with doors on both ends of the container, they are
extremely helpful in quick loading and unloading of materials.

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Figure 4.11 Tunnel Container

5. Open side storage container

These storage units are provided with doors that can change into completely open
sides providing a much wider room for loading of materials.

Figure 4.12 Open Side Container

6. Double doors container

They are kind of storage units that are provided with double doors, making a wider
room for loading and unloading of materials. Construction materials include steel,
iron arc in standardized sizes of 20ft and 40ft.

Figure 4.13 Double Doors Container

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7. Refrigerated ISO containers

These are temperature regulated shipping containers that always have a carefully
controlled low temperature. They are exclusively used for shipment of perishable
substances like fruits and vegetables over long distances.

Figure 4.14 Refrigerated Container

8. Insulated or thermal containers

These are the shipping storage containers that come with a regulated temperature
control allowing them to maintain a higher temperature.
The choice of material is so done to allow them long life without being damaged
by constant exposure to high temperature. They are most suitable for long distance
transportation of products.

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Figure 4.15 Insulated or Thermal Container

9. Tanks
Tanks are container storage units used mostly for transportation of liquid materials,
they are used by a huge proportion of entire shipping industry. They are mostly
made of strong steel or other anti-corrosive materials providing them with long life
and protection to the materials.

Figure 4.16 Tanks

10. Cargo storage roll container

This is a foldable container, it is one of the specialized container units made for
purpose of transporting sets or stacks of materials. They are made of thick and
strong wire mesh along with rollers that allows their easy movement. Availability
in a range of colored wire meshes make these shipping container units a little more
cheerful.

Figure 4.17 Cargo Storage Roll Container

11. Half height containers

Another kind of shipping containers is the half height containers. Made mostly of

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steel, these containers are half the height of full sized containers. They are used
especially for goods like coal, stones etc. which need easy loading and unloading.

Figure 4.18 Half Height Container

12. Car carriers

Car carriers are container storage units made especially for shipment of cars over
long distances. They come with collapsible sides that help a car fit snugly inside
the containers without the risk of being damaged or moving from the spot.

Figure 4.19 Car Carriers

13. Intermediate bulk shift containers

These are specialized storage shipping containers made solely for the purpose of
intermediate shipping of goods. They are designed to handle large amounts of
materials and made for purpose of shipping materials to a destination where they
can be further packed and sent off to final spot.

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Figure 4.20 Intermediate Bulk Shift Container

14. Drums
As the name suggests, circular shipping containers, made from a choice of
materials like steel, light weight metals, fiber, hard plastic etc. they are most
suitable for bulk transport of liquid materials. They are smaller in size but due to
their shape, may need extra space.

Figure 4.21 Drum

15. Special purpose containers

Not the ordinary containers, these are the container units, custom made for
specialized purposes. Mostly, they are used for high profile services like shipment
of weapons and arson. As such, their construction and material composition
depends on the special purpose they need to cater to. But in most cases, security
remains the top priority.
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Figure 4.22 Special Purpose Container

16. Swap bodies

They are a special kind of containers used mostly in Europe. Not made according
to the ISO standards, they are not standardized shipping container units but
extremely useful all the same. They are provided with a strong bottom and a
convertible top making them suitable for shipping of many types of products.

Figure 4.23 Special Purpose Container

4.5 Ship / Cargo Hold

A ship's hold or cargo hold is a space for carrying cargo. The inner space of a
ship between the limber boards of a double bottom and the decks is designed for
carrying cargoes. We call this space a hold. Holds have different capacity. Big
vessels have cargo holds divided into several separate compartments by watertight
bulkheads. Each dry-cargo vessel has four or five holds. The holds have bilges
which serve to give way for flowing the water which may condensate on metal
bulkheads or collect on wooden flooring. The water collected in the bilges is
pumped out by a hold pump. To protect the bilges from corrosion they are covered
with cement or special anticorrosion substance, besides they are protected by
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limber boards.

The double bottom is covered with removable wooden flooring. Cargo battens or
"spar ceiling", as they are often called, comprises portable wooden battens fitted to
the inner edges of the frames and so form sheathing to the ship's side. "Spar
ceiling" is made up of boards and arranged either horizontally or vertically
between frames. The purpose of this wooden sheathing is to prevent packages of
cargo from damage by moisture which may collect on the side of the ship. The
space so formed between the "spar ceiling" and the ship's side helps to provide a
complete air space around the cargo and thereby improves ventilation. The "spar
ceiling" should al-ways be kept in a good state. Each hold has a hatchway. The
hatchway is the rectangular opening in the ship's deck. The vertical plating around
the hatchway is called hatchway coaming.

Figure 4.24 Cargo Hold

Cargo in holds may be either packaged in crates, bales, etc., or unpackaged (bulk
cargo). Access to holds is by a large hatch at the top. Ships have had holds for
centuries; an alternative way to carry cargo is in standardized shipping containers,
which may be loaded into appropriate holds or carried on deck.

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Figure 4.25 Cargo Holds separated by Bulkheads

4.6 Different Types and Designs of Hatch Covers Used For Ships
Hatch covers of ships are designed to be efficient and cost effective, as an initial
investment and during service, and at the same time should suit the demands of the
various types of cargo vessels. The major objective of hatch covers and coamings
on ships is to prevent the ingress of water into the cargo hold and protect the goods
from being damped and damaged.

Hatch covers also act as a barrier to the ship’s internal structure by enduring the
green water loads in extreme weather, which can damage the internal structure of
ship due to corrosion. The various types or hatch covers that are mainly used on
board are as follows;
1. Lifting type
2. Rolling type
3. Folding type
4. Stacking cover type
5. Sliding type
6. Roll stowing type

1. Lifting type Hatch Cover

Lifting type or lift away type hatch covers are generally used on container ships,
whereas rolling type are used on bulk carriers (to be specific side-rolling). Rolling
type can be divided into end rolling, side rolling, and piggy back & telescopic.

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Folding type hatch covers are basically used on general cargo ships. However,
these may vary depending on the stowage space and the type of cargo that
is carried.

The Lift away type hatch covers can be classified into two types –
i. Single panel covers,
ii. Multi panel covers.

Figure 4.26 Lifting type Hatch Cover

Single panel cover consists of a single cover for each opening, these can be seen
mainly on bulk carriers. In case of multi panel covers, a single hold is covered via
multiple number of covers, these are most commonly observed in cellular
container ships in the case of longitudinal joints, and for multipurpose cargo ship
in case of transverse joints.

2. Rolling type Hatch Cover

Rolling type hatch covers consists of two covers at the end of the hatchway.
Wheels are fitted which help in the sliding of the panel either athwartship in case
of side rolling or longitudinally in case of end rolling. These type of hatch covers
are usually fitted on large ships. Hydraulic rams are required to raise them to
rolling position as they are extremely heavy and have very large dimensions.

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3. Folding type Hatch Cover

Folding type hatch covers consists of two flat type topped panels which are
operated via hydraulic arms. These may be fitted on both weather deck as well as
tween deck. A major advantage in the design of folding type hatch covers is its
large size which means less number of panels.

Figure 4.27 Folding type Hatch Cover

4. Stacking cover type

These types of facility are used on ships having relatively smaller hatch cover. It
consists of a hydraulically powered lifting crane facility whose purpose is to lift the
covers longitudinally and stack it together at one end or over any empty stowage
tank. It is relatively cheap and is used mostly in barges.

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Figure 4.28 Stacking type Hatch Cover

Designing a hatch cover does not mean just designing the cover and its coaming,
there are various key components which ensure that the hatch cover stays intact
and effective for a very long period. The key parts are as follows;
i. Bearing pads
ii. Securing devices: cleats & wedges
iii. Pontoons and panels
iv. Operating mechanism
v. Stoppers
vi Drains & non-return valves
vii. Compression bars

It should be ensured that the maintenance of the above-mentioned components is

done on a regular basis in order to ensure the safety of the cargo and the
effectiveness of the hatch cover and coamings.

4.7 Bulkhead (Partition)

A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship It means partitioning, and
walls used to divide a given area. To make it easier for a common man to
understand bulk heads are like the walls that divide your house to create different

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rooms. On ships these partitions also exist, separating different segments of the
vessel.

Figure 4.29 Ship Bulkheads

4.8 Collision Bulkhead

A collision bulkhead is the forward-most bulkhead in a ship. There are two factors
that determine the position of a forward collision bulkhead. The final position of
the collision bulkhead is so decided that it takes into consideration both the factors
listed below:

Factor 1: Position based on flood-able length calculations.

Factor 2: Position based on the classification society code books. Most of the
classification society rules have an allowable range of distance at which the
collision bulkhead can be placed from the forward-most point of the ship’s hull.
This distance is usually a function of the length of the ship and factors related to
the shape of its bow.
Factor 3: Position based on SOLAS rule, which states that the collision
bulkhead should be located aft of the forward perpendicular at a distance not less
than 5 percent of the ship’s length of the ship or 10 meters (whichever is less). The
distance must also not exceed 8 percent of the ship’s length.

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However, the position of the collision bulkhead should be such that maximum
cargo storage volume is achieved.
The collision bulkhead is a heavily strengthened structure; its main purpose being
limiting the damage of a head-on collision to the part of the bow forward to it. To
limit the damage to its forward region also means that the collision bulkhead is
watertight bulkhead. It is usually vertically stiffened with sections of scantlings
higher than those on the surrounding structures. It is also stiffened by triangular
stringers of higher scantling, called panting stringers. Panting stringers are usually
provided at every 2 meters from the bottom, forward of the collision bulkhead.

Figure 4.30 Collision Bulkheads

4.9 Cargo-Handling Equipment on Board

1 Bulk Cargo Handling Equipment
So far as dry bulk cargoes are concerned, handling facilities may be in the form of
power-propelled conveyor belts, usually fed at the landward end by a hopper (a
very large container on legs) or grabs, which may be magnetic for handling ores,
fixed to a high capacity travel1ing crane or travel1ing gantries. These gantries
move not only parallel to the quay, but also run back for considerable distances,
and so cover a large stacking area, and are able to plumb the ship's hold.

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These two types of equipment are suitable for handling coal and ores. In the case
of bulk sugar or when the grab is also used, the sugar would be discharged into a
hopper, feeding by gravity a railway wagon or road vehicle below.
Elevators or silos are normally associated with grain. They may be operated by
pneumatic suction which sucks the grain out of the ship's hold.

Belt conveyor Hopper

Ship unloaders
Figure 4.31 Dry Bulk Cargo Handling Equipment

2. Liquid Cargo Handling Equipment

The movement of liquid bulk cargo, crude oil and derivatives, from the tanker is
undertaken by means of pipelines connected to the shore-based storage tanks.
Pumping equipment is provided in the tanker storage plant or refinery ashore, but
not on the quayside. In view of the dangerous nature of such cargo, it is common
practice to build the special berths a small distance from the main dock system on
the seaward side.

Oil cargo is discharged from the ship’s tanks, via the cargo piping system to the
main ship’s manifold usually situated amidships, on either port or starboard side.
From there by means of shore-based loading arms oil is transferred to the shore

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manifold and is then distributed to shore-based storage tanks on the oil terminal.
The loading arm hose must be flanged oil-tight to the ship’s manifold so that oil
spills can be avoided.

Terminal manifold ships manifold

Loading arms
Figure 4.32 Liquid Cargo Handling Equipment

3. General Cargo Handling Equipment

With regard to general cargo (goods, merchandise, commodities), also referred to
as break bulk cargo, almost 90 percent of all such cargo in most liner cargo trades
today is containerized. Meanwhile the system of dockers handling cargo will
continue, but doubtless every effort will be made to expand the a1ready extensive
use of various types of mechanized cargo-hand1ing equipment.

General cargo is handled by cranes on the quay, floating cranes or by the ship's
own cargo gear (deck cranes, derricks, etc.). Attached to such lifting gear is a
shackle which links the crane or derrick with the form of cargo-handling
equipment being used. For most lifts a hook is used.

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There are numerous types of tools or loose gear that can be attached to the
shipboard or shore-based lifting gear. They include the sling or strop, which is
probably the most common form of loose gear. Such equipment, generally made of
rope, is ideal for hoisting strong packages, such as wooden cases or bagged cargo,
which is not likely to sag or be damaged when raised. Similarly, snotters or canvas
slings are suitable for bagged cargo.

Chain slings, however, are used for heavy slender cargoes, such as timber or steel
rails. Can or barrel hooks are suitable for hoisting barrels or drums. Cargo nets are
suitable for mail bags and similar cargoes that are not liable to be crushed when
hoisted. Heavy lifting beams are suitable for heavy and long articles such as
locomotives, boilers or railway passenger coaches. Cargo trays and pallets, the
latter being wooden or of steel construction, are ideal for cargo of moderate
dimensions, which can be conveniently stacked, such as cartons, bags, or small
wooden crates or cases.

Container Fittings Chain Sling Twistlock

Cargo Net Hooks Twistlock

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Figure 4.32 Liquid Cargo Handling Equipment

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Figure 4.33 General Cargo Handling Equipment

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Wire Sling Drum/Barrel Keg

Casks Cargo Hooks

Crates Plate Clamp

Pallet Lifting Gear

Modern Cargo Handling

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Figure 4.34 Types of Packing and Lifting Equipment/Gear

4.10 Cargo Protection Facilities Onboard Ship

With incidences of maritime terrorism and hijacking on the rise, issues pertaining
to security of merchant ships have also come under scanner. The International Ship
and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code has therefore been brought into action to
enhance the security standards of the ships and ports which entertain these ships.

A ship at the port and a ship at the sea have almost an equal amount of threat to its
security. Several steps have been taken to enhance the security of ships both at the
ports and at the sea. It is only through an organized and cooperative structure
between the ports (Port Facility Security Officer-PFSO) and the shipping company
(Ship Security and Company Security officer), can the level of security be
improved.

If you are a part of a ship’s crew (no matter which department you belong to), it is
your duty to take all measures required to protect the security of your ship and its
crew. Having the right attitude can save the ship and its crew from all unwanted
troubles. Mentioned below are some ways in which you can help to enhance the
security of your ship.

1. Be Vigilant – Always:
All the crew members (either on or off duty) must always be vigilant at all times.
An alert crew can eradicate a problem way before any emergency situation can
take place.

2. Guard the Gate:

It you are duty officer while the ship is at port, make sure that the gangway is
properly guarded and no one enters the ship without an ID check or authorization
of ship’s captain. Also keep a close watch on the records of entry and exit of
visitors.

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Figure 4.35 Security of Ship

3. Ask and Interrogate:

If you see a visitor without an ID card or find an unfamiliar person, do not hesitate
to ask and interrogate him for his identity. Ensuring that all the entries in the ship
are authorized is the first step towards enhancing ship’s security.

4. Know Your Duties Well:

Each crew member onboard ships have been assigned with a particular duty for
every security level. She/he must know the duties listed on his/her part and should
perform them efficiently

5. Continuous Monitoring:
Monitor the restricted areas of the ship at regular intervals of time to ensure no
person has entered without permission. Also make sure that only one entry point is
available to ship’s accommodation area and the same is manned all the time

6. Supervising Cargo Operations:

It is very important for ship officers to know which cargo is being loaded along
with its whereabouts. Several cases of stowaway have been registered in the past
during cargo operation on ships. Keep a proper check on stevedores and the cargo
which is being loaded on the ships.

7. Equipment Availability:
Ensure that security and communication equipment tools are readily available and
are in proper working condition

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8. Update Your Knowledge:

Knowledge of current issues such as various reasons of security threats, detection
of dangerous substances, unauthorized devices and their effect is an important
aspect of ship’s security system. This can be achieved by providing regular training
and literature updates to the ship’s crew. Marine Insight provided weekly updates
on subscription.

9. Identify the Weaknesses:

Every system has its weakness and if not identified in early stages, can lead to
dangerous situations. Survey your security plan, crew performance, security
equipment, duties of ship security officer etc. and phase out every loop hole out of
them.

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CHAPTER 5
ANCHORING AND MOORING OF SHIP

5.1 Introduction
An anchor is a device, normally made of metal, used to connect a vessel to the bed
of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. It is
also a heavy forging or casting shaped to grip the sea bottom, and by means of a
cable or rope, holds a ship or other floating structure in a desired position
regardless of wind and current.
The word was derived from a Latin word ancora, which itself comes from the
Greek (ankura). Anchors can either be temporary or permanent.
Permanent anchors are used in the creation of a mooring, and are rarely moved; a
specialist service is normally needed to move or maintain them. Vessels carry one
or more temporary anchors, which may be of different designs and weights.

Figure 5.1 Ship Anchor

A sea anchor is a drogue, not in contact with the seabed, used to control a drifting
vessel. Anchors achieve holding power either by "hooking" into the seabed, via
sheer mass, or a combination of the two. Permanent moorings use large masses
(commonly a block or slab of concrete) resting on the seabed. Semi-permanent
mooring anchors (such as mushroom anchors) and large ship's anchors derive a
significant portion of their holding power from their mass, while also hooking or
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embedding in the bottom. Modern anchors for smaller vessels have metal flukes
which hook on to rocks on the bottom or bury themselves in soft seabed.

Figure 5.2 An anchor head at the sea bed

The vessel is attached to the anchor by the rode (commonly called the anchor
cable or anchor chain in larger vessels), which is made of chain, cable, rope, or a
combination of these. The ratio of the length of rode to the water depth is
known as the scope; generally, the rode should be between 5 and 10 times the
depth of the seabed, giving a scope of 5:1 or 10:1; the larger the number, the
shallower the angle is between the cable and the seafloor, and the less upwards
force is acting on the anchor. A 10:1 scope gives the greatest holding power, but
also allows for much more drifting due to the longer amount of cable paid out.
Anchoring with sufficient scope and/or heavy chain rode brings the direction of
strain close to parallel with the seabed. This is particularly important for light,
modern anchors designed to bury in the bottom, where scopes of 5– to 7-to-1 are
common, whereas heavy anchors and moorings can use a scope of 3-to-1, or less.

Since all anchors that embed themselves in the bottom require the strain to be
along the seabed, anchors can be broken out of the bottom by shortening the rope
until the vessel is directly above the anchor; at this point the anchor chain is "up
and down", in naval parlance. If necessary, motoring slowly around the location of
the anchor also helps dislodge it. Anchors are sometimes fitted with a tripping line
attached to the crown, by which they can be unhooked from rocks or coral.

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The term aweigh describes an anchor when it is hanging on the rope and is not
resting on the bottom. This is linked to the term to weigh anchor, meaning to lift
the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. An anchor is
described as aweigh when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled
up to be stowed. Aweigh should not be confused with under way, which describes
a vessel which is not moored to a dock or anchored, whether or not the vessel is
moving through the water.

Anchoring is one of the many important operations coming under the responsibility
of deck officers. It involves the use of critical shipboard equipment and requires
high level of situational awareness. The key responsibility of the deck officer at an
anchor station is to use the anchoring machinery and available man power for
carrying out the operation safely and efficiently in accordance with the master’s
instructions.

Mooring: Mooring literally refers to the rope (line) tying and untying of ships
during berthing or unberthing, or even during ship-to-ship operations at sea. It
involves tying the vessel to a buoy in the water. The buoy is attached by a chain to
some form of ground tackle- normally a concrete block. There is normally a short
line attached to the top of the buoy, with a float on the other end. Moorings are
commonly used on rivers or harbours where space is limited and are permanent or
semi-permanent arrangements, in many places, visitor moorings are often removed
over the winter season. Moorings can be hired / purchased for long term “parking”
of a boat much cheaper than a marina berth.

Mooring operation is one of the important tasks that seafarers have to perform on
ship’s deck. Technically, the operation may seem simple but there are several
dangers associated with it. As a seafarer, you must have heard about “Death Traps”
on ships and how crew members have lost lives during mooring operation.

Working on the ship’s deck is not an easy task. Deck crew has to consider various
safety precautions and understand working of deck machinery and systems, along
with cargo operation equipment. When it comes to mooring operations, additional
precautions need to be taken to ensure personal and crew members’ safety.
Each vessel has been designed with mooring arrangements such that ropes and
wires of recommended strength can help it moor safely alongside a berth, floating

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platform, buoy or a jetty. Fundamentally a vessel has to be positioned alongside a

jetty or a berth, between mooring buoys, to a mooring buoy, to another ship or
barge and then made fast using her own anchors, mooring lines or shore lines.

Anchoring: Anchoring is like mooring, but it is for a very short term and
temporary in nature. You drop your anchor and tie off your vessel. This is not as
stable as mooring, as the anchor may not hold the boat and the boat may drag the
anchor. Also, an anchored boat usually has someone onboard and a moored boat
usually does not.

5.2 History of the anchor

The earliest anchors were probably rocks, and many rock anchors have been found
dating from at least the Bronze Age. Pre-European canoes used one or more
hollowed stones, tied with flax ropes, as anchors. Many modern moorings still rely
on a large rock as the primary element of their design. However, using pure mass
to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring; a large
enough rock would be nearly impossible to move to a new location.

The ancient Greeks used baskets of stones, large sacks filled with sand, and
wooden logs filled with lead. Such anchors held the vessel merely by their weight
and by their friction along the bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the
construction of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them with
teeth, or "flukes", to fasten them into the bottom.

5.2.1 Admiralty Pattern

The Admiralty Pattern, "A.P.", or simply "Admiralty", and also known as
"Fisherman", is the anchor shape most familiar to non-sailors. It consists of a
central shank with a ring or shackle for attaching the rode. At the other end of the
shank there are two arms, carrying the flukes, while the stock is mounted to the
other end, at ninety degrees to the arms. When the anchor lands on the bottom, it
will generally fall over with the arms parallel to the seabed. As a strain comes onto
the rode, the stock will dig into the bottom, canting the anchor until one of the
flukes catches and digs into the bottom.

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Figure 5.3 An Admiralty Pattern anchor

This basic design remained unchanged for centuries, with the most significant
changes being to the overall proportions, and a move from stocks made of wood to
iron stocks in the late 1830s and early 1840s. Since one fluke always protrudes up
from the set anchor, there is a great tendency of the rode to foul the anchor as the
vessel swings due to wind or current shifts. When this happens, the anchor may be
pulled out of the bottom, and in some cases may need to be hauled up to be re-set.
In the mid-19th century, numerous modifications were attempted to alleviate these
problems, as well as improve holding power, including one-armed mooring
anchors. The most successful of these patent anchors, the Trotman Anchor,
introduced a pivot where the arms join the shank, allowing the "idle" arm to fold
against the shank.

An Admiralty Pattern anchor; ideally, when this anchor rests on the seafloor, it is
turned 90 degrees, so the sharp point of one fluke is dug into the bottom, the other
is pointing straight up, and the arms are lying level on the seafloor
Handling and storage of these anchors requires special equipment and procedures.
Once the anchor is hauled up to the hawse pipe, the ring end is hoisted up to the
end of a timber projecting from the bow known as the cathead. The crown of the
anchor is then hauled up with a heavy tackle until one fluke can be hooked over the
rail. This is known as "catting and fishing" the anchor. Before dropping the anchor,
the fishing process is reversed, and the anchor is dropped from the end of the
cathead.

5.2.2 Stockless anchor

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The stockless anchor, patented in England in 1821, represented the first significant
departure in anchor design in centuries. Though their holding-power-to-weight
ratio is significantly lower than admiralty pattern anchors, their ease of handling
and stowage aboard large ships led to almost universal adoption. In contrast to the
elaborate stowage procedures for earlier anchors, stockless anchors are simply
hauled up until they rest with the shank inside the hawsepipes, and the flukes
against the hull (or inside a recess in the hull).
While there are numerous variations, stockless anchors consist of a set of heavy
flukes connected by a pivot or ball and socket joint to a shank. Cast into the crown
of the anchor is a set of tripping palms, projections that drag on the bottom, forcing
the main flukes to dig in.

Figure 5.4 A Stockless anchor

5.2.3 Small boat anchors

Until the mid-20th century, anchors for smaller vessels were either scaled-down
versions of admiralty anchors, or simple grapnels. As new designs with greater
holding-power-to-weight ratios, a great variety of anchor designs has emerged.
Many of these designs are still under patent, and other types are best known by
their original trademarked names

5.2.4 Grapnel anchor

A traditional design, the grapnel is merely a shank with four or more times. It has a
benefit in that, no matter how it reaches the bottom, one or more tines will be

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aimed to set. In coral, or rock, it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the
structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and
may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard. Its weight also
makes it relatively easy to move and carry, however its shape is generally not very
compact and it may be awkward to stow unless a collapsing model is used.
Grapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or
mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines
with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. On the other hand, it is
quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line from
the crown, it is impossible to retrieve.

5.2.5 Herreshoff anchor

This was designed by the famous yacht designer L. Francis Herreshoff. It is
essentially the same pattern as an admiralty anchor, albeit with small diamond
shaped flukes or palms. The novelty of the design lay in the means by which it
could be broken down into three pieces for stowage. In use, it still presents all the
issues of the admiralty pattern anchor.

5.2.6 Northill anchor

This was originally designed as a lightweight anchor for seaplanes, this design
consists of two plough-like blades mounted to a shank, with a folding stock
crossing through the crown of the anchor.

Figure 5.5 A Northill anchor

5.2.7 CQR Plough Anchor

This is so named due to its resemblance to a traditional agricultural plough (or
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more specifically two ploughshares), many manufacturers produce a plough-style

design, all based on or direct copies of the original CQR (Secure), a 1933 design
patented in the UK (US patent in 1934) by mathematician Geoffrey Ingram Taylor.
Ploughs are popular with cruising sailors and other private boaters. They are
generally good in all bottoms, but not exceptional in any. The CQR design has a
hinged shank, allowing the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than
breaking out, while other plough types have a rigid shank. Plough anchors are
usually stowed in a roller at the bow.

Figure 5.6 A CQR Plough Anchor

5.2.8 Delta anchor

The Delta was developed in the 1980s for commercialization by British marine
manufacturer Simpson–Lawrence.

5.2.9 Danforth anchor

American Richard Danforth invented the Danforth pattern in the 1940s for use
aboard landing craft. It uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat triangular
flukes are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom
(and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the
bottom type). Tripping palms at the crown act to tip the flukes into the seabed. The
design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop high resistance. Its
lightweight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to
store.

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Figure 5.7 A Danforth Anchor

5.2.10 Bruce or claw anchor

This is a claw-shaped anchor designed by Peter Bruce from the Isle of Man in the
1970s. Bruce gained his early reputation from the production of large-scale
commercial anchors for ships and fixed installations such as oil rigs. The Bruce
and its copies, known generically as "claws", have become a popular option for
small boaters. It was intended to address some of the problems of the only general-
purpose option then available, the plough. Claw-types set quickly in most seabeds
and although not an articulated design, they have the reputation of not breaking out
with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the
force.

Figure 5.8 A Bruce Anchor

Claw type anchors have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms and grass. They offer

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a fairly low holding-power-to-weight ratio and generally have to be oversized to

compete with newer types. On the other hand, they have a good reputation in
boulder bottoms, perform relatively well with low rode scopes and set fairly
reliably. They cannot be used with hawsepipes.

5.3 Recent designs

In recent years there has been something of a spurt in anchor design. Primarily
designed to set very quickly, then generate high holding power, these anchors
(mostly proprietary inventions still under patent) are finding homes with users of
small to medium-sized vessels. For recent design of anchors, there are basically
two categories. They are;
1. Temporal Anchors, and
2. Permanent Anchors

1. Temporal Anchors
Temporary Anchors are used aboard ships. They are easily removed after
anchorage. Examples of temporal anchor are;
i. Deadweight Anchor. A deadweight anchor is any heavy object placed
on the seafloor to resist vertical and/or lateral loading. It can be fabricated from
concrete and steel and configured to enhance lateral capacity.

ii. Drag Anchor. A drag anchor is similar to an inverted “kite” that is placed
on the seafloor and dragged laterally until the anchor fluke trips and then
penetrates the seafloor to a depth that depends upon load, anchor weight, anchor
configuration and seafloor properties.

iii. Pile Anchor. Pile anchors are used where less expensive anchors such as
deadweight, drag and plate anchors cannot be used. The most common piles are
long slender tubular piles (L/D ratio > ~10), which are typically fabricated from
rolled steel sections.

iv. Plate Anchor. Plate anchors are large plates that resist extraction when
embedded deeply into the seafloor. Plates can be driven, vibrated, jetted, augured,
shot (launched ballistically downward) or dragged into the seafloor.
v. Mushroom anchor: The mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed
is composed of silt or fine sand. It is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head

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becoming buried in the silt. A counterweight is often provided at the other end of
the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried.
A mushroom anchor will normally sink in the silt to the point where it has
displaced its own weight in bottom material, thus greatly increasing its holding
power. These anchors are only suitable for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely
upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand
bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight
until it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight

2. Permanent anchors
Permanent Anchors are used as moorings where the vessel such as a lightship or an
object such as a buoy is to be permanently sited. It can also be said that permanent
anchors are used where the vessel is permanently or semi-permanently sited, for
example in the case of light-vessels or channel marker buoys. The anchor needs to
hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe storm, but needs to be
lifted only occasionally, at most – for example, only if the vessel is to be towed
into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these
circumstances, especially if the anchor need never be lifted at all, may be to use a
pile driven into the seabed.

Permanent anchors come in a wide range of types and have no standard form. A
slab of rock with an iron staple in it to attach a chain would serve the purpose, as
would any dense object of appropriate weight (for instance, an engine block).
Modern moorings may be anchored by sand screws, which look and act very much
like oversized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in
(or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or by a variety of other non-mass
means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use
three or more conventional anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to
a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves, one or more anchors will
be aligned to resist the force. Other types of Permanent anchors are;

i. Screw anchor
Screw anchors can be used to anchor permanent moorings, floating docks, fish
farms, etc. These anchors must be screwed into the seabed with the use of a tool, so
require access to the bottom, either at low tide or by use of a diver. Hence they can

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be difficult to install in deep water without special equipment.

Weight for weight, screw anchors have a higher holding than other permanent
designs, and so can be cheap and relatively easily installed, although may not be
ideal in extremely soft mud.

ii. High-holding-power anchors

There is a need in the oil-and-gas industry to resist large anchoring forces when
laying pipelines and for drilling vessels. These anchors are installed and removed
using a support tug and pennant/pendant wire. Some examples are the Stevin
range anchors. These large plate (Stevmanta) anchors are used for permanent
moorings.

5.4 Anchoring Techniques

The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor,
laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. The
ship will seek a location which is sufficiently protected; has suitable holding
ground, enough depth at low tide and enough room for the boat to swing.
The location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down
current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should
be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should be lowered quickly
but under control until it is on the bottom. The vessel should continue to drift back,
and the cable should be veered out under control so it will be relatively straight.

Once the desired scope is laid out, the vessel should be gently forced astern,
usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the
anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor are
dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig
in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set.
If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged too far, it should be
retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)
There are techniques of anchoring to limit the swing of a vessel if the anchorage
has limited room:

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Figure 5.9 An Anchor winch onboard a vessel

5.5 Mooring
Mooring refers to any permanent structure to which a vessel may be secured.
Examples include quays, wharfs, jetties, piers, anchor buoys, and mooring buoys.
A ship is secured to a mooring to forestall free movement of the ship on the water.
An anchor mooring fixes a vessel's position relative to a point on the bottom of a
waterway without connecting the vessel to shore. As a verb, mooring refers to the
act of attaching or securing a vessel to a structure. The term probably stems from
the Dutch verb meren (to moor), which has been used in English since the end of
the 15th century.

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Figure 5.10 A dockworker placing a mooring line on a bollard.

A vessel can be made fast to any variety of shore fixtures from trees and rocks to
specially constructed areas such as piers and quays. The word pier is used in the
following explanation in a generic sense.
Mooring is often accomplished using thick ropes called mooring lines or hawsers.
The lines are fixed to deck fittings on the vessel at one end and to fittings such as
bollards, rings, and cleats on the other end.
Mooring requires cooperation between people on a pier and on a vessel. Heavy
mooring lines are often passed from larger vessels to people on a mooring by
smaller, weighted heaving lines. Once a mooring line is attached to a bollard, it is
pulled tight. Large ships generally tighten their mooring lines using heavy
machinery called mooring winches or capstans.

The heaviest cargo ships may require more than a dozen mooring lines. Small
vessels can generally be moored by four to six mooring lines. Mooring lines are
usually made from manila rope or a synthetic material such as nylon. Nylon is easy
to work with and lasts for years, but it is highly elastic. This elasticity has
advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage is that during an event, such as
a high wind or the close passing of another ship, stress can be spread across several
lines. However, should a highly stressed nylon line break, it may part

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catastrophically, causing snapback, which can fatally injure bystanders. The effect
of snapback is analogous to stretching a rubber band to its breaking point between
your hands and then suffering a stinging blow from its suddenly flexing broken
ends. Such a blow from a heavy mooring line carries much more force and can
inflict severe injuries or even sever limbs. Mooring lines made from materials such
as Dyneema and Kevlar have much less elasticity and are therefore much safer to
use. However, such lines do not float on water and they do tend to sink. In
addition, they are relatively more expensive than other sorts of line.

Some ships use wire rope for one or more of their mooring lines. Wire rope is hard
to handle and maintain. There is also risk associated with using wire rope on a
ship's stern in the vicinity of its propeller.
Mooring lines and hawsers may also be made by combining wire rope and
synthetic line. Such lines are more elastic and easier to handle than wire rope, but
they are not as elastic as pure synthetic line. Special safety precautions must be
followed when constructing a combination mooring line. The types of mooring in
use are;
1. Timber staging Mooring.
This type of mooring consists of piling and decking. Piling would need to be
undertaken by a contractor. It still allows wildlife such as water voles to access the
bank and, provided there are spaces left in the decking for light to penetrate,
bankside vegetation will continue to grow. It is suitable for a river or broad where
there is not a large tidal range.

2. Quay heading and piling mooring.

The Quay heading and piling Mooring is suitable for most tidal range. This
relatively complicated mooring structure needs more robust anchoring and creates
a less natural edge to the river bank, resulting in a continuous line of piles which
are visible at low tide. This would result in a continuous line of piles. As this is a
more complicated mooring structure, there is a need for a more robust anchoring
system of the piles. This design is suitable for most tidal ranges but consider the
use of vertical fenders/rubbing strips in areas of high tidal range.

3. Pontoon Mooring:
The Pontoon Mooring is relatively quick to install. It needs a secured anchorage or
piling. You will need to consider access to the bank. It is not a solution for narrow
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channels as can impede navigation. It is suitable for wider navigations or broads

and areas of mid to high tidal range. It provides protection to the natural bank
behind

4. Swing or Trot Mooring.;

This is a single buoy permanently fixed to the seabed by a cable to provide a
mooring. The vessel will move with the wind or current so is best suited to broads
in areas where there are not strong currents. This is a buoy which is permanently
fixed to the bed to provide stationary mooring. One buoy is called a swing mooring
and the vessel will move with the wind or current.

5. Dolphin Mooring.
This is a number of vertical piles driven into the river/broad bed connected with
horizontal beams to which a vessel can moor. It is suitable for rivers and broads in
most tidal ranges.

6. King post Mooring:

This is either a single piled post or two posts allowing fore and aft mooring. If
there is one post, the boat will move with the wind or current. It is suitable for
rivers if the vessel will be moored fore and aft using two posts.

7. Travelling mooring
This is the type of mooring used to secure a small boat (capable of being beached)
at sea so that it is accessible at all tides.

8. Canal mooring
A mooring used to secure a Narrow boat (capable of traversing narrow canals and
narrow locks) overnight, during off boat excursions or prolonged queuing for canal
lock access. Water height with minimal exceptions, remain constant (not-tidal);
there is water height variance in close proximity to locks.

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Figure 5.10 A Mooring line

Mooring involves
1. Beaching the boat,
2. Drawing in the mooring point on the line (where the marker buoy is
located),
3. Attaching the mooring line to the boat, and
4. Then pulling the boat out and away from the beach so that it can be accessed
at all tides.

A typical mooring scheme is described in the table below

Number Name Purpose

1 Head line Keep forward part of the ship against the dock

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2 Forward Breast Line Keep close to pier

3 Forward Spring Prevent from advancing
4 Aft Spring Prevent from moving back
5 Aft Breast line Keep close to pier
6 Stern line Prevent forwards movement

Anchoring is like mooring, but it is very short term and temporary in nature. You
drop your anchor and tie off your boat. This is not as stable as mooring, as the
anchor may not hold the boat and the boat may drag the anchor. Also, an anchored
boat usually has someone onboard and a moored boat usually does not.

5.6 Differences between Mooring and Anchoring

1 Anchoring is usually temporal while Mooring is usually permanent
2 In Anchoring you drop the anchor in water while in Mooring; you tie the
vessel to the mooring post in the berth.
3 In Mooring the vessel is more stable and well secured while in Anchoring,
the vessel is not as stable because of the excessive, wind and current loads on the
vessel.
4 Anchoring is done when on board a vessel but in Mooring, one may not need
to be on board vessel.

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CHAPTER 6
LIFESAVING EQUIPMENT ONBOARD SHIP

6.1 Introduction
Lifesaving is the act involving rescue, resuscitation and first aid. It often refers to
water safety and aquatic rescue; however, it could include ice rescue, flood and
river rescue, swimming pool rescue and other emergency medical services.
Lifesaving also refers to sport where lifesavers compete based on skills, speed and
teamwork. Lifesaving activities specialized in oceanic environment is called surf
lifesaving or coastal lifesaving.

Those who participate in lifesaving activities as a volunteer are called lifesavers,

and those who are employed to perform lifesaving activities are called lifeguards.
The first lifesaving organization, the Royal National Institution for the Preservation
of Life from Shipwreck, was established in England in 1824 by Sir William
Hillary. While living on the Isle of Man in 1808, he became aware of the
treacherous nature of the Irish Sea, with many ships being wrecked around the
Manx coast. He soon drew up plans for a national lifeboat service manned by
trained crews, but received little response from the Admiralty.

6.2 Safety in a Marine Vessel

Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition of being protected from harm or
other non-desirable outcomes. Safety can also refer to the control of recognized
hazards in order to achieve an acceptable level of risk.
Safety in a marine vessel can be defined as Relative freedom from danger, risk, or
threat of harm, injury, or loss to personnel and/or property, whether caused
deliberately or by accident.
There is different organization responsible for the safety purpose in a marine vessel
for example Safety management system (SMS)
The safety management system (SMS) is an organized system planned and
implemented by the shipping companies to ensure safety of the ship and marine
environment.
SMS is an important aspect of the International safety management (ISM) code
and it details all the important policies, practices, and procedures that are to be

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followed in order to ensure safe functioning of ships at the sea. All commercial
vessels are required to establish safe ship management procedures. SMS forms one
of the important parts of the ISM code.
The safety management system (SMS) therefore ensures that each and every ship
comply with the mandatory safety rules and regulations, and follow the codes,
guidelines, and standards recommended by the IMO, classification societies, and
concerned maritime organizations.

6.2.1 Items included in the Safety Management System (SMS)

Every safety management policy should satisfy some of the basic functional
requirements to ensure safety of every ship. They are:
1 Procedures and guidelines to act in an emergency situation
2. Safety and environmental protection policy
3. Procedure and guidelines for reporting accidents or any other form of non-
conformities.
4. Clear information on level of authority and lines of communication among
ship crew members, and between shore and shipboard personnel
5. Procedures and guidelines to ensure safe operations of ships and protection
of marine environment in compliance with relevant international and flag state
legislations.
6. Procedures for internal audits and management reviews
7. Vessel details

In short, a safety management system would consists of details as to how a vessel

would operate on a day to day basis, what are the procedures to be followed in case
of an emergency, how are drills and trainings conducted, measure taken for safety
operations, who is the designated person etc.
Safety management plan is mainly the responsibility of the owner of the vessel, or
the designated person, or the person appointed by the owner. However, the ship’s
master and the crew are the best people to make an SMS as they know the vessel
inside-out.

6.3 Lifesaving Equipment and Apparatus in a Marine Vessel

Lifesaving equipment in a marine vessel can be defined as specialized equipment
and accessories for rescue or salvage collectively when in danger. The commonly
used lifesaving equipment on-board marine vessels are-lifeboat, life raft, life cycle
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and life jackets, etc... The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS) has specific requirements for life saving equipment.
Marine life-saving work should include the preparation, embarkation, survival,
signal and communication, search and rescue etc. six aspects, only every work to
meet the corresponding equipment of marine life, and each set of equipment are in
line with the technical requirements, make a complete rescue system. In order to
ensure the life to realize the purpose. Ship life-saving equipment is important
measures to protect the life and safety of personnel on board.
The performance of sea rescue and rescue equipment must comply with the
relevant conventions, norms and requirements of the agreement. In 1983, the
international maritime organization by the SOLAS Convention and develop as a
transitional requirements of marine life-saving equipment specification and
technical performance of ship lifesaving equipment, equipped with a variety of
rescue equipment, various rescue equipment are clearly defined.

6.4 Composition of life saving equipment

Ship life-saving appliances including; Rescue boats, lifeboats, life rafts, life
floating, and personal survival equipment, missile throwing apparatus,
communication equipment, smoke signal light, life raft embarkation and landing
gear.
Also, the Emergency and life-saving equipment include things like:
1. lifeboats and life rafts
2. lifebuoys
3. lifejackets and attachments
4. buoyancy apparatus
5. Emergency alarm systems and public-address systems
6. Marine evacuation systems
7. Two-way Very High Frequency (VHF) radiotelephone sets
8. Fire-fighting equipment

1. Rescue Boat / Life Boat

Rescue boat is the maritime rescue command craft and emergency lifeboat. It has
fast enough, good mobility and manipulation, can be quick to rescue the drowning
person, aggregation and towing full load occupant.

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Figure 6.1 A Life Boat

Basically, there are two types of lifeboat releasing mechanisms, they the On-load
and Off-load releasing mechanisms. These mechanisms release the boat from the
davit, which is attached to a wire or fall by means of a hook. By releasing the
hook, the lifeboat can be set free to propel away from the ship.

The Off-load releasing mechanism releases the boat after the load of the boat is
transferred to water or the boat has been lowered fully into the sea. When the boat
touches the surface of water, the load on the fall and hence the hook releases and
due to its mechanism, the hook detaches from the fall. If the detachment dose not
take place, any of the crew members can remove the hook from the fall. Most of
the times the offload mechanism is manually disengaged in case of malfunction;
however, in case of fire, it is dangerous to go out and release the hook.

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Figure 6.2 On-load and Off-load Life Boat Release Mechanism

On load mechanism can release the lifeboat from the wire, with the ship above the
water level and with all the crew members inside the boat. The load will be still on
the fall as the boat would not have touched the water. Normally the height of about
1 m is kept for the on-load release, so that the fall is smooth without damaging the
boat and harming the crew inside. A lever is provided inside the boat to operate
this mechanism. As the lever is operated from inside, it is safe to free the boat
without going of the out lifeboat, when there is a fire on ship.

Another method of launching life boats is the Free Fall life boat release. In Free
fall life boat, the launching mechanism is similar to On-load release. the only
difference is that the free fall lifeboat is not lowered till 1m above water level, it is
launched from the stowed position by operating a lever located inside the boat
which releases the boat from the rest position of the davit and the boat slides
through the tilted ramp into the water.

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Figure 6.3 A Free Fall Life Boat Release

2. Life Raft
Life Raft is a life-saving vehicle which is capable of not only to evacuate
passengers, but also to allow passengers to be not immersed in sea water.
It can also be said that a life raft is a small, rigid or inflatable boat carried for
emergency evacuation in the event of a disaster aboard a ship. Life raft drills are
required by law on larger commercial ships. In the military, a life raft may double
as a whaleboat, dinghy, or gig. The ship's tenders of cruise ships often double as
life rafts. Recreational sailors usually carry inflatable life rafts, though a few prefer
small proactive lifeboats that are harder to sink and can be sailed to safety.

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Figure 6.4 A Life Raft and a Dinghy Boat

Figure 6.5 Life Raft Stowage Position

3. Life Buoy
A lifebuoy is a lifesaving buoy designed to be thrown to a person in water, to
provide buoyancy. Some modern lifebuoys are fitted with one or more seawater-
activated lights, to aid rescue at night.

The lifebuoy is usually ring- or horseshoe-shaped personal flotation device with a

connecting line allowing the casualty to be pulled to the rescuer in a boat. They are
carried by ships and are also located beside bodies of water that have the depth or
potential to drown someone. They are often subjected to vandalism which, since
the unavailability of lifebuoys could lead to death,

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Figure 6.6 Life Buoy

4. Rescue Quoit
Recue Quoit is a soft rubber throwing Quoit usually used with braided rope to
rescue a drowning person. The Rubber Ring (Quoit) floats in water but has enough
weight that it can be thrown far distances when a man overboard situation occurs.
The whole unit is small enough to be stowed in most line throwing holders and
provides one of the best value for money options for safety throw ropes.

Figure 6.7 Rescue quoit of different sizes

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5. Life Jacket
A life Jacket (also called Personal flotation device, life vest, or cork jacket) is a
special type of clothing. The vest makes people float in water. It also keeps their
head out of the water so that they can breathe.

It can also be said that a Life jacket is a kind of water rescue equipment, which is
usually used for maritime safety, water sports, snorkeling, boating, swimming, etc.
With the development of the times, people are not only satisfied with its existing
safety performance, it also more personalized and more functions and more
fashionable styles are gradually explored and created.

Survival of Life at Sea (SOLAS) as a body, recommends life jackets that meet high
marine standards and are suitable for all vessels. Even if one loses consciousness,
they will make one back to the water and keep one’s face away from the water.
Orange color life jackets can make one much more visible while in the water.

Figure 6.7 Life Jackets

7. Immersion Suit, Anti Exposure Suit, or Thermal Protective Aids

An immersion suit is a body covering suit that is worn specifically for the purpose
of remaining afloat and surviving during emergencies in high seas. This suit is
therefore also known as a survival suit or a rescue suit. In today’s times, an
immersion suit is one of the most important necessities on ships and oil rigs,
considering the protection needed from the hazards of water.
Immersion suits are generally made of neoprene, a type of rubber that is
completely waterproof and has an ability to withstand extreme temperatures of
water and fire. The immersion suit fits the person’s body without exposing any part
to the water. It also has a protective hood to cover the head and comes along with
protective gloves.
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A rescue suit is designed mainly in two colors – red and orange. Both the colors
are kept bright (fluorescent) so that the suits can attract the attention of paramedics
or rescue aid immediately.

Figure 6.8 Immersion Suit

8. Radio transmitter
The most effective piece of lifesaving equipment on a ship, however, does not float
at all: the radio transmitter. It can be used to summon help unless the disaster
happens very quickly, in which case there is little chance of the boats or rafts
getting away.

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Figure 6.9 A Radio Transmitter

Now, there is even an automatic way of sending distress messages, the Global
Maritime Distress and Safety System. Ships carry an Emergency Position
Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB), a radio set in a container designed to float off if
the ship sinks. It then automatically sends out an alarm signal that is picked up by
navigation satellites that can monitor its position very accurately.

Figure 6.10 An Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB)

9. Emergency Alarm
An alarm which indicates that immediate danger to human life or to the ship and its
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machinery exists and that immediate action should be taken.

Figure 6.11 An Emergency Alarm System

10. Smoke signal

The smoke signal is used to display the location of person in distress, so that it is
easy to be found in the daytime or at night. Mainly has the self-bright floating
light, the hand flame signal, the parachute signal and so on.

Figure 6.12 An Emergency Smoke Signal

11. Firefighting equipment
Firefighting equipment is used for firefighting by trained fire fighters, or a user at
the scene of a fire. Firefighting equipment ranges from a fire fighters gear to fitted

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systems in a building to fire extinguishers and communication equipment of a wide

variety.

Figure 6.13 Firefighting Equipment

6.5 Elementary First Aid

First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person suffering from
either a minor or serious illness or injury, with care provided to preserve life,
prevent the condition from worsening, or to promote recovery. It includes initial
intervention in a serious condition prior to professional medical help being
available, such as performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) while waiting
for an ambulance, as well as the complete treatment of minor conditions, such as
applying a plaster to a cut.
First aid is generally performed by someone with basic medical training, that is
why sea men are generally trained in this area to be able to attend to casualties on-
board marine vessel. The objective of first aid can be remembered by using the
3p’s. They are:
1. Preserve life
2. Prevent further injury
3. Promote recovery
These objectives should be demonstrated at all times while you are dealing with a
casualty and not just initially. There are many situations that may require first aid
on-board marine vessel. They are:
1. Fire
2. Electricity
3. Toxic fumes
4. Confined spaces
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5. Unstable environment
6. Falling debris
7. Water

6.6 Human Skeletal System

The human skeletal system consists of all of the bones, cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments in the body. Altogether, the skeleton makes up about 20 percent of a
person’s body weight. An adult’s skeleton contains 206 bones. Children’s
skeletons actually contain more bones because some of them, including those of
the skull, fuse together as they grow up.

Figure 6.14 The human skeleton

There are also some differences in the male and female skeleton. The male
skeleton is usually longer and has a high bone mass. The female skeleton, on the
other hand, has a broader pelvis to accommodate for pregnancy and child birth.
Regardless of age or sex, the skeletal system can be broken down into two parts,
known as the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

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1. Axial skeleton
The adult axial skeleton consists of 80 bones. It’s made up of the bones that form
the vertical axis of the body, such as the bones of the head, neck, chest, and spine.

2. Appendicular skeleton
There are a total of 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton. It consists of the bones
that make up the arms and legs, as well as the bones that attach them to the axial
skeleton

6.7 Assessing a Scene of Accident on-board a Marine Vessel

At any scene where accident had just occurred, the first aider will follow a plan of
action as stated below:
1. Assess the situation
2. Assess the casualty
3. Get help
4. Treat the casualty
5. Deal with the aftermath
These points are looked at in more detail. The time it takes and the methods one
can use may change according to the circumstance and the severity of the situation,
but this process will always be carried out.
Whatever be the accident that occurred on-board a vessel, you should look for
clues to tell you. Do not approach the casualty until you are sure it is safe to do so.
You must recognize and manage any dangers to yourself and casualty
Remember that the danger to you may not be obvious. Think about the immediate
space around your casualty e.g. spillages on deck, broken glass, wood splinters.
Think also about the dangers peculiar to your own working environment e.g.
swinging boom, open hatches, hot fat in a galley, escaping. You should know how
many other people can be a danger to you and how can you manage them, make a
list.

1. Assess the situation

In assessing the situation of accident on-board a vessel, you
would need to ask what has happened, are there any dangers to you or the
casualty

2. Assessing the Casualty

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The initial assessment of your casualty is called primary survey. This is the priority
in any first aid situation. The acronym DR. ABC should be followed when
assessing the casualty.
(a) What is the Danger?
(b) Does the casualty Responds to touch or questions?
(c) Does the casualty have Airway?
(d) Is the casualty Breathing?
(e) Does the casualty have a Circulation?
(f) What injuries are there and what can the casualty tell you?

3. Getting help
Help should be sought as soon as possible. Shouting to attract attention may be all
you need to do.
To raise an alarm on-board when an accident occurs, the acronym- “LIONEL” will
help you to remember the information you need to pass on when asking for help. It
will also help to ensure that when the assistance arrives, it will be sufficient and
will have appropriate equipment.
L - Location on-board where the incident occurred
I - Incident
O - Other service that will be needed
N - Number of casualties
E - Extent of injuries
L - Location of injury on the casualties

Remember if you send someone else for help, give them as much information as
you can (LIONEL). Also, get them to return to you. On return they can report back
that help is coming and when. They will also be able to assist you with the casualty
or just provide general help at the scene.

4. Treating the Casualty

Constantly be aware of danger to you and your casualty. Everything you do must
comply with the 3P’s. While treating the casualty you must always be aware of
them-
(a) Preserve life
(b) Prevent further injury
(c) Promote recovery
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5. Dealing with Aftermath

This aspect of dealing with the aftermath effects of an accident on-board a vessel is
very important. It includes:
(a). Completion of accident reports or log book entries
(b) Restocking the first aid kit and returning it to its storage point
(c) Cleaning up any body fluid spilled safely
(d) Participation in any accident investigation
(e) Disposal of contaminated materials
(d) Do you know what your company policy is on accident reporting?
(e) Do you know how to clean up blood in a safe manner?

As well as dealing with practical issues, consideration needs to be given to

emotional needs. If resuscitation has been attempted unsuccessfully or a major
incident has been dealt with, this can be very traumatic for all involved. Though
you may react well and deal with the situation at the time, afterwards it is
important not to be afraid to talk about how you feel. You may fell guilty at not
been successful in saving the life of the casualty. Remember successful
resuscitation outside of a hospital setting is rare.

6.8 Summary of Assessing the Scene

Assessing the situation what has happened?
Are there any dangers to you or the causalty?
Assessing the casualty, the primary assessment Dr. ABC – danger, response,
airway, breathing circulation
The secondary assessment: what other injuries are there
Get help L - Location
I - incident
O - Other service
N - Number of casualties
E - Extent of injuries
L - Location

(D) TREAT THE CASULTY

In treating the casualty, 3 objectives must be demonstrated at all time. These
objectives have their acronym as 3P’s

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• Pressure life
• Present further Injury
• Promote recovering
Also the ABC acronym should be recalled during treating.

(E) DEAL WITH THE AFTERMATH

The aftermath effects comprises the emotional issues and the practical
issues
(i) Emotional Issues
If resuscitation has been attempted unsuccessfully or a major incident has
been dealt with, this can be very traumatic for all involved. Though you may
react well and deal with the situation at the time, afterwards it is important
not to be afraid to talk about how you feel. You may feel quality at not having
been successful in saving the life of the casualty. Remember successful
resuscitation outside of a hospital setting is rare.
(ii) Physical Issue
• Complete accident report on log book
• Restocking the first Aid Kits and returning to its storage point
• Clean up any body fluid spilt safely
• Participle in any accident investigation
• Dispose all contaminated materials
• Know your company policy on accident reporting
• Know how to clean u[p blood in a safe manner

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CHAPTER 7
MERCHANT SHIP DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION
7.1 Introduction
Ships have developed alongside humanity and have played an important part in the
rise and fall of nations over the centuries. However, the operations and day to day
running of a ship depends a great deal on the efficiency of the various departments
of a ship. The importance of team work cannot be overemphasised when
describing the departments of a ship.

A merchant vessel or ship is a trading boat or ship that carries passengers or

goods for hire. They engage in mercantile trade that involve passengers and goods.
Basically ships that are engaged in active commercial transport fall in this
category.
Merchant vessels come in different sizes and shapes. It can be as small as a 6 m
(20 ft) long diving boat, or as big as Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC) that can
be up to 415 m (1,361 ft) long. They are the main tool of ocean transportation,
carrying crude oil and goods throughout the world, in varied sizes of tankers,
containers, liners and bulk carriers.

Figure 7.1: A cruise ship

Merchant ships generally have four departments, namely: 1. Deck department

2. Engineering department
3. Steward department

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Other units play supporting roles, ranging from administrative work to providing
healthcare to crew members. Some of the positions in these departments include:
chief engineer, boson, chief mate, helmsmen, first engineer, oiler, machinist, chief
purser, medical doctors, chief cook, marine physician assistant, and hospital corps
man etc. Every officer and personnel on board a merchant vessel has an important
role to play and any form of negligence is usually not taken lightly.

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MERCHANT SHIPS

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DECK DEPARTMENT OTHERS

STEWARDS DEPARTMENT

CAPTAIN
CHIEF ENGINEER CHIEF STEWARD

CHIEF OFFICER CHIEF COOK

SECOND ENG .
SECOND OFFICER STEWARD
ASSISTANT
THIRD ENG.

THIRD OFFICERS

FOURTH ENG.
CADETS

ENGR. CADET DECK CADETS

ENGINE SEAMAN
FITTER

ORDINARY
SEAMAN
OILER

SAFETY OFFICER
WIPER

SECURITY
OFFICER
FITTER

RADIO
OFFICER

CARPENTER

UPHOSTER

Figure 7.2: Departments in a Merchant Ship

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Naval ships on the other hand generally have a function to fight or provide combat
operations. If a ship is to function well in combat, the crew must be organised in
such a way that it can be effectively directed and controlled to accomplish its
missions. Navy ships generally have five functional groupings or departments,
which include:
1. Navigations department
2. Operations department
3. Engineering and damage control
4, Weapons department
5. Supply department

Some of the positions in these departments include: executive officer, navigator,

operations officer, repair officer, engineering officer, weapons officer, gunnery,
deck officer, cargo officer, special service officer, athletic officer, cargo officer and
the mess supply officer e.t.c.
The positions in a navy ship differ from country to country due to various factors
such as the size of the ship, purpose and roles of the ship, weapons on-board,
economic and defence policies e.t.c

7.2 Descriptions of the Departments in Merchant Ships

1. Deck Department
This department is an organisational unit and is concerned with the effective
management of vessel crew, maintaining proper watches, maintaining vessel logs,
manoeuvring vessels in ports at various docks and offshore facilities, general
navigation of vessel and overseeing the enforcement of various procedures and
policies. The positions in this department include:

i. Master/Captain:
The captain is in overall command of a merchant ship and is responsible for the
safety, efficiency and commercial feasibility of his ship. His duties are navigational
at sea. While in ports he is responsible for cargo operations. He maintains
orderliness and discipline in the ship. He ensures safety of passengers, crew and
the cargo and assigns organizational duties for the ship’s operation, navigation and
maintenance of the ship. He acts as the ship owner’s representative with all outside
parties. He implements the company’s policies for operation and safety and the

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commercial instructions that may be given by the owner. He is also the legal head
of the ship. Some of his roles and responsibilities include:
(a) Safe navigation and operation
(b) Budget management
(c) Managing money and accounting on board
(d) Decision making with regards to crew
(e) Overseeing the upkeep of the vessel
(f) Taking control of repairs and yard visits
(g) Assuming the role of host and entertaining where necessary
(h) Manage refit projects

ii. Chief officer / Chief Mate

The chief officer comes after the master in the deck department, i.e. he is the
second in command on the ship and the head of the deck department. He is the
executive officer of the deck department. He assists in navigation and is in charge
of maintenance, cargo loading and discharge. He keeps watch at sea from 4- 8
hours. The chief officer has 3 important functions namely:
(a) He is responsible for maintenance of hull, machinery and equipment coming
under the deck department. The chief officer may seek the assistance of the engine
department if required.
(b) He is responsible to check whether the safe working practices are followed
on board and fostering the safety culture through drills, exercises, training etc.
(c) He is also responsible for planning, loading, securing and discharging cargo
carried by the ship.
(d) He is also the chief security officer in most ships.

iii. Second officer:

The second officer comes after the chief officer. He keeps watch from 12-16 hours.
He also keeps a deck watch in ports. He is in charge of navigation and medical care
and works under the order of master and chief officer. He plans the voyage,
ensures all navigational publications are in order, charts are corrected, navigational
equipment such as radars, gyro compass, and echo sounding devices are well
maintained and are operational. He also acts as the radio communications officer as
required by the master.

iv. Third officer:

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The third officer comes after the second officer. He keeps watch from 8-12 hours.
He is in charge of cargo supervision in ports. He acts as a signal officer in charge
of all signalling equipment. He looks after the maintenance of the lifesaving
appliances and fire fighting equipment under the instruction of the chief officer. He
may also serve as the radio communication officer if required by the master.

v. Cadets:
Trainees are referred to as cadets in deck department. They are given the duty of
watch keeping under the supervision of an officer and perform any work on deck
or elsewhere connected with maintenance, record keeping, checking and
maintenance of deck stores and all works connected with cargo,
ballasting/deballasting are also includes daily sounding of all tanks and reporting
the result to the chief officer.
The deck cadets are more of a marine graduate who works directly under the chief
mate on the ship. Normally a deck cadet has to complete one full year of training
on-board under the senior ranks.

vi. Boatswain
The boatswain pronounced as boson, is in charge of all the deck crew and
supervises the crew on-board. Working in association with the chief mate, a bosun
plans a task for the crew and oversees the work given. The boson might be the
third or fourth officer on a ship and doesn’t keep any of the watches.

vii. Able Seaman(ABs):

Abs, as they are fondly called, is the members of the deck department who keep
watches along with officers on the bridge. While sailing, the job of an AB is to
carry out all navigational duties on the bridge like maintaining the course and
standing as a lookout during night watch.

viii. Ordinary Seaman:

The Ordinary Seaman, or the OS, is the lower rank on the deck side and is
responsible for variety of duties on the deck. An OS is often required to wash and
sweep the deck besides doing various deck side jobs like painting, scaling and
buffing.

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ix. Safety Officer:

The Safety Officer is responsible for crew safety training, passenger and crew
safety drills, abandon-ship procedure and supervising the maintenance of all life
boats and tender boats.

x. Security officer:
The security officers are responsible for enforcing security procedures onboard the
ship. Duties include checking identification of all passengers and crew boarding
the ship, inspecting luggage and carry-on articles. This is often an entry-level
position and if you apply be sure to emphasize any security training and experience
that you may have.
xi. Radio officer:
The radio officer is licensed and certified to operate all navigational electronics
and computerized equipment.

xii. Carpenter:
The carpenter is responsible for general interior shipboard maintenance and repairs
and for all carpentry wood work on-board.

xiii. Upholster:
He is responsible for the upholstering of all ship furniture. He fits paddings,
springs, webbings and fabric covering where necessary to furniture.

7.3 Stewards Department:

The steward department is generally in charge of cooking and cleaning of the ship.
They attend to the need of the crew members. The positions in the steward
department include:

i. Chief Steward:
The chief steward directs, instructs and assigns personnel performing such
functions as preparing and serving meals, cleaning and maintaining officers’
quarters and steward department areas, and receiving, issuing and inventorying
stores. The chief steward also plans menus, compiles supply overtime and cost
control records. The steward makes requisitions or purchase equipment. Additional
duties may include baking bread rolls, cakes, pies and pastries.

ii. Chief cook:

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The chief cook is a senior or licensed crew member working in a steward

department of a ship. His corresponds to that of the boson in the deck department,
the pump man in an oil tanker, and the electrician in the engine department of a
container ship or general cargo ship. He can be regarded as a chief petty officer in
the navy. A chief cook directs and participates in the preparation and serving of
meals, determines timing and sequence of operation required to meet serving
times; inspects galleys and equipment for cleanliness and proper storage and
preparation of food.

iii. Steward's assistant:

The role of the steward assistant consists mainly stocking, cleaning and assisting
with the preparation and serving of meals. He often assists the steward by
removing stocks such as food linen and utensils and making sure that they arrive
where they are needed. The SA is a food handler, and perhaps most visible while
assisting the chief cook with the serving of meals. Depending on the ship, this can
include taking orders and delivering the food to the tables in the ship's mess room
and officer's saloon. The SA also customarily sets out the "night lunches" for
watchstanders preparing to start late night watches, as well as setting and clearing
tables. Galleys of ships are notoriously hard to keep clean and sanitary, and this
keeps the SA busy for much of his time.

7.4 Others
These are commonly found on ships that aren’t conventional because of the
purposes and their area of operations. In cruise ships for instance, departments like
the house keeping department whose responsibilities border mainly on maintaining
the standard of cleanliness in all public areas. Cleaners are often found in these
departments and their work involves the following:
(a) Assist in the handling of linen and with general laundry work.
(b) Cleans passengers, officers and crew areas according to the established
cleaning procedures.
(c) Assists in storage and luggage handling whenever requested.

7.5 Engine Department

The engine department is perhaps the most important department in a ship due to
the nature of work done. This department is saddled mainly with the responsibility

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of ensuring the smooth operation and working of the propulsion engines which
makes sailing possible. The various positions in this department include:

i. Chief Engineer:
Chief engineer is the head of the engineering department on a vessel. He is
responsible for maintenance, operation, and repair of all vessel electrical
and mechanical systems on board ships. Some of the essential duties include:
(a) He carries out repairs and maintenance which borders on maintaining ships
in a state of readiness, and overseeing all bunkering operations and ensures
safety and environmental compliance.

(b) Directly supervises other engineers and also trains all new and relief
engineers.

Ii. Second Engineer / First Assistant Engineer:

He is associated with the day- to-day activities in the engine room, and is
accountable to the Chief Engineer. He stays extremely busy most of the time on
board, as he needs to constantly supervise the proper functioning of all engine
room machinery systems and also assigns jobs to the other engine officers and
crew. The Second Engineer generally keeps watch on the engine room, during the
day time. The duties of the second engineer include:

iii. Third Engineer/ Second Assistant Engineer:

This is the next position after the Second Engineer and is assigned jobs to look
after machinery ordered by the chief engineer, along with carrying out daily watch
keeping. He reports to the second engineer. His responsibilities include:
(a) Assist with reliable performance, proper maintenance and servicing of the
equipment under the engine department’s control.
(b) Monitors fuel, lubricants, water supplies and maintenance supplies
(c) Comply with the implementation of policies, as well as those of our clients
and local authorities
(d) Ensure proper use of company equipment assigned to the engineering
department.
(e) Inform the Senior Engineer on duty, of any malfunctioning equipment.

Iv. Fourth Engineer/ Third Assistant Engineer:

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This is the lowermost operational rank in the engineering department. The Fourth
Engineer is concerned with the correct working of the machinery systems assigned
to him and also carries out watch keeping. He reports to the second engineer.
A 4th engineer, upon joining a vessel, should carry out the following duties.
(a) Upon joining a vessel, the relieving 4th engineer shall report his presence on
board to the Chief Engineer or in his absence to the 2nd Engineer.
(b) The 4th engineer should take a thorough round of the engine department with
the signing off engineer and do a proper taking over of the duties.
(c) He should check the inventory and location of all purifier and compressor
spares.
(d) He should check Inventory and location of pumps spares and tools.
(e) He should check running hours and maintenance schedule of his designated
machinery.
(d) He should check general condition of machinery and special procedure for
operation.
(e) Condition and layout of bunkering system including valve operation, tanks
and sounding pipe location should be checked. Condition and layout of sludge and
bilge discharge system including valves and pump operation should also be
checked.
(f) Thorough sounding of all fuel tanks, bilge and sludge tank should be taken.
(g) Daily consumption of lube oil, fuel oil, marine diesel or gas oil and cylinder
oil for daily record keeping in sounding log is to be checked.
(h) Daily production of bilge and sludge on board for record keeping of waste
water sounding log.

After completion of the engine room round together, the 4 th engineer shall report
the details to the 2ndengineer and notify discrepancies observed, if any. The
4th Engineer as in charge of Purifier, Compressor, and machinery other than main
engine, auxiliary engine and boiler, He is responsible for:
 Record keeping of machinery running hours under his charge.
 For carrying out planned maintenance routine under the supervision of chief
or second engineer.
 Taking daily tank sounding of fuel oil, diesel oil, lube and cylinder oil on
board ship and record keeping of the same.
 Record keeping of sludge and bilge on board.

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 Acting as assistant in charge to chief engineer for operation during bunker of

fuel, diesel and lube oil.
 Completing the month end official papers for his designated machinery.
 Compliance of environment policy and MARPOL requirements under the
guidance of Chief Engineer.
 Maintenance and up keeping of the engine room log book and all those files
on board advised by the Chief Engineer.

v. Fifth Engineer/ Engineering Cadet:

Fifth engineer is a trainee under the Second Engineer officer, and he assists and
learns while observing and carrying out activities in the engine room. He would
accompany a senior officer (mostly second engineer) during the watch duty. He
also assists Engineering Officers in maintaining the ship’s main engines, and
running and maintaining all mechanical equipment, including the operation and
maintenance of pumps and fuel systems, electrical generating and distribution
equipment, refrigeration, air conditioning plant, lifts, and cranes.

vi. Engine Fitter:

The engine fitter is responsible for doing maintenance of all pipes and fitting jobs
including welding, cutting and other workshop operation as instructed by the
engine room in-charge. The job of a fitter is crucial one as he does most
maintenance job and is definitely important. Fitting in a ship involves fitting the
parts of the ship together in a continuous manner with the fitter having to work
while the ship is being built and when the ship needs maintenance.

He does the job of assembling all the structural parts of the ship and also erecting
the same. The ship fitters are required in almost all ships irrespective of them being
defence or merchant navy ships. Ship fitters often use tools like plates, planers,
punches, blending rolls, saws, press and other heavy tools. The press used can be
up to 750 tonnes. This is mainly because ships are huge and huge components need
to be fitted together in a ship. The job requires high skill and also experience. Ship
fitters may be many in numbers in a ship. The number of ship fitters changes as per
the size of the ship. Fitters also do the job of hydro and air testing of tanks and
there compartments. They also do drilling and grinding functions in submarines.

vii. Oiler / Motorman:

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Being a motorman would need you to remain on your alert best to make sure that
the overall machinery always remains in working conditions. He assists the watch
keeping officer.

viii. Wiper:
Wiper looks after the cleaning and painting job in the engine room and also does
housekeeping jobs. A wiper on ships is mainly responsible for maintenance of the
vessel. A wiper’s job on ships includes:
 Cleaning of the engine room
 Maintenance of the working area
 General maintenance of the engine department
 Assisting other personnel on the ship in various tasks
 Work as a part of the watch team
 Work with ordinary seamen aboard and assist them in various tasks
 To fill in for Qualified Members of Engine Department (QMED) when need
be
A wiper’s responsibilities revolve around keeping the engine room and rest of the
vessel well maintained. This is no easy task though. But if a marine career is what
you are interested in, wiper marine job would be the best way to get a first-hand
experience of life on ships.

ix. Trainee wiper:

Trainee wiper are sent onboard for training purpose as per the rank appointed and
will be assisting wiper or fitter in the daily routines.

7.6 Navy Ships

A naval ship is a military ship (or sometimes boat, depending on classification)
used by a navy. Naval ships are differentiated from civilian ships by construction
and purpose. Generally, naval ships are damage resilient and armed
with weapon systems, though armament on troop transports is light or non-existent.
Naval ships designed primarily for naval warfare are termed warships, as opposed
to support (auxiliary ships) or shipyard operations. Examples of navy ships
include: aircraft carriers, submarines, destroyers, frigates, battle cruisers, light
cruiser etc.

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Figure 7.2: A Naval Ship

The departments in a navy ship include:

1. Navigations department
2. Operations department
3. Engineering and damage control
4. Weapons department
5. Supply department

1. Navigations department:
The navigator is the head of this department and is the most senior of watch
officers. . In ships without a Navigation Department, navigation becomes a
function of the Executive Officer and as such, he is designated as the Navigator.
The Navigator is responsible to the Commanding Officer for the safe navigation
and piloting of the ship. He shall receive all orders relating to his navigational
duties directly from the CO and shall make reports in connection therewith directly
to him.

2. Operations department:
The operations officer is the head of this department and is responsible for the
collection, evaluation and dissemination of combat and operational information
required for an assigned mission or task. The following officers, if assigned or
designated, whose duties are indicated, reports to the Operations Officer:

a) Combat Information Canter (CIC) Officer - He is responsible for the

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collection and dissemination of combat and operational information; operation,

care and maintenance of equipment CIC equipment except those assigned to other
officers; training of CIC personnel; and, control of aircraft, when assigned.

b) Communications Officer - He is responsible for supervising the receipt,

transmission and routing of ship's messages; operation and maintenance of visual
and electronic communications equipment; proper handling and control of all
registered publications; and, the maintenance of communications security which
includes crypto, transmission and physical security.

3. Engineering department:
The engineering officer is the head of the engineering department. The department
sees to damage control and repair and may have officers assigned to perform such
functions. Some of the officers assigned to this department include:
I. Damage control officer: He is responsible for the prevention and control of
damage including control of stability, training of ship personnel in damage
control including fire fighting and emergency repairs, ship repair facilities
and repair of hull and boats.
II. Repair officer: He is responsible for planning, scheduling accomplishing
and inspecting works to ensure its timely and satisfactory completion.

Weapons Officer:
In large combatant ships where there is a preponderance of weapons systems, the
Weapons Officer is the head of the Weapons Department. This department
includes the functions of anti-submarine warfare (ASW), gunnery and deck
seamanship and normally have officers assigned or designated to perform the
functions. In smaller ships, however, there is only a Deck and Gunnery
Department headed by a First Lieutenant and Gunnery Officer who perform the
functions of deck seamanship and gunnery. If the ship is armed with ASW
weapons, an ASW Officer is designated who reports to the Operations Officer for
the employment of such weapons. The Weapons Officer is responsible to the
Commanding Officer for the supervision and direction of the employment of the
ordnance equipment and the equipment associated with seamanship. The
following officers, if assigned or designated, whose duties are indicated, report to
the Weapons Officer or to the Commanding Officer in the case of the Deck and
Gunnery Officer for ships with only a Deck and Gunnery Department or to the
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Operations Officer in the case of the ASW Officer for ships armed with ASW
weapons:

1. Gunnery Officer - He is responsible for the conduct of gunfire; operation, care

and maintenance of all guns including designation and fire control equipment and
associated ordnance; and, training of gunnery personnel and gun crews.

2. Deck Officer (First Lieutenant) - He is responsible for the preservation and

cleanliness of the exterior of the ship except that part assigned to another
department;
operation, care and maintenance of the ground tackle, mooring lines and related
equipment, ship's boats, except boat machinery, and of the life rafts and other
lifesaving equipment; towing gears and equipment, rigging, gangways, fueling and
provisioning at sea gears and other deck appurtenances and equipment related to
deck seamanship including those involved in loading and unloading operations;
planning and execution of deck seamanship evolutions and operations including
anchoring, mooring, fuelling and replenishment at sea; supervising loading,
unloading and stowage of cargo; and, supervising operation of paint, sail and
boatswain's lockers as well as garbage disposal.
If no other officer is assigned or designated, the Deck and Gunnery Officer
performs the following collateral duties:
1. Cargo Officer
2. Special Service Officer
3. Athletic Officer

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