Lecture 12: Introduction to Learning
1. Introduction to Learning
Definition:
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience or practice.
Explanation:
The phrase "relatively permanent" implies that the change in behaviour must last for some
time. It is not a temporary fluctuation.
E.g. A student learns a new language like French through months of study. Even if not used
daily, much of it is retained. The acquired vocabulary and grammar reflect a las ng effect of
learning, not a flee ng exposure.
Learning is not the result of biological maturation or fatigue. For example, a child learning to
walk is influenced by physical maturation—not necessarily by learning.
A baby begins to walk around 12–14 months. This is not because someone taught them step-
by-step or because of any learning practice — it happens due to biological maturation of the
muscles, bones, and nervous system.
This is development, not learning.
A student who knows how to solve math problems starts making mistakes during a late-night
study session. This is not because they forgot how to do math (no unlearning occurred), but
because they are tired.
This is fatigue, not unlearning.
It includes observable behaviours (e.g., solving a puzzle) and internal processes (e.g., attitude
change).
Emphasize the importance of experience and practice—learning results from interaction
with the environment.
Example:
You may instinctively withdraw your hand from a hot stove (a reflex), but learning is when,
from that experience, you begin to avoid hot objects altogether.
Class Discussion:
"Can you think of something you've learned recently that changed how you behave daily?"
2. Types of Learning
Learning occurs through different mechanisms, but broadly categorized into associative and
cognitive learning. These are umbrella categories covering major learning theories.
A. Associative Learning
Associative learning involves forming a mental connection between two stimuli or between a
behaviour and its consequence.
A student studies hard (behaviour) and receives praise or good grades (positive reinforcement).
Association formed between studying and reward. (Operant conditioning)
A child is frightened by a loud dog bark near a specific street. Later, they feel fear just walking near
that street. Association formed between the street and fear. (Classical conditioning)
Subtypes:
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian) – learning via association between a neutral stimulus
and an unconditioned stimulus.
Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian) – learning via reinforcement or punishment following
voluntary behaviour.
B. Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning involves mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem-solving, and
memory.
Subtypes:
Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a problem’s solution (Köhler’s chimpanzee
experiments).
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately expressed (Tolman’s rats in a
maze).
Observational Learning: Learning by watching others and imitating their actions
(Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment).
Summary Table:
Type Key Idea Example
Associative Learning through linking stimuli or Dog salivates at bell; child gets candy
behaviour-consequence for cleaning room
Cognitive Involves mental processes and internal Child learns math trick by watching
change YouTube video
3. Classical vs Operant Conditioning: Overview
These are the two major theories of associative learning. You will go into detail in the next
lectures, but here’s a comparative overview.
A. Classical Conditioning
Discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.
It focuses on how a neutral stimulus can, through repeated pairing, elicit a response.
Key Concepts:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally causes a response (e.g., food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, becomes associated with UCS (e.g., bell).
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivating to bell).
B. Operant Conditioning
Proposed by B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist.
Focuses on how voluntary behaviour is influenced by consequences.
Key Concepts:
Reinforcement increases behaviour:
o Positive Reinforcement: Add something pleasant (e.g., praise).
o Negative Reinforcement: Remove something unpleasant (e.g., headache relief).
Punishment decreases behaviour:
o Positive Punishment: Add something unpleasant (e.g., scolding).
o Negative Punishment: Take away something pleasant (e.g., removing phone).
Comparison Table:
Feature Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Founder Ivan Pavlov B.F. Skinner
Focus Association between stimuli Consequences of behaviour
Nature of Response Involuntary, reflexive Voluntary
Example Dog salivates to bell Rat presses lever for food
Role of Not involved Central to learning
Reinforcement
Timing Stimulus comes before Behaviour occurs, followed by
response consequence
Student Prompt:
“If you study hard and get good grades, is it classical or operant conditioning? What if you feel
sleepy every time you open your psychology textbook?”
4. Real-Life Applications
Theory Application
Classical Advertising (pairing product with music/emotion), development of
Conditioning phobias
Operant Parenting, Education (reward charts), Workplace performance
Conditioning
Cognitive Learning Problem-solving strategies, learning from modeling, educational YouTube
content
