COLLEGE OF PHARMACY

1.1 CHEMISTRY: THE STUDY OF MATTER

Chemistry is the field of study concerned with matter's characteristics, composition, transformations, properties, and changes of matter.
Often called the “central science”.
Chemistry helps us understand:
• How medicines work
• Why food spoils or cooks
• How cleaning agents remove stains
• What fuels power our homes and vehicles
• How materials like plastics, metals, and fabrics are made

Matter - is anything that has mass and occupies space.

 Matter includes all things—both living and nonliving—that can be seen (such as plants, soil, and rocks) and things that cannot be seen
(such as air and bacteria). Various forms of energy, such as heat, light, and electricity are not considered to be matter
 An iron gate rusting, a chocolate cake baking, the diagnosis and treatment of a heart attack, the propulsion of a jet airliner, and the
digesting of food all fall within the realm of chemistry

Mass - the amount of matter present in a sample.

1.2 PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

The classification of a given matter sample in terms of physical state is based on whether its shape and volume are definite or indefinite.
a. Solid is the physical state characterized by a definite shape and a definite volume.
b. Liquid is the physical state characterized by an indefinite shape and a definite volume. A liquid always takes the shape of its container to
the extent that it fills the container.
c. Gas is the physical state characterized by an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume. A gas always completely fills its container,
adopting both the container’s volume and its shape.
State of Matter Particle Arrangement Shape Volume Example
Solid Tightly separated, orderly Fixed Fixed Ice, metal, wood
Liquid Loosely packed, can flow Take the shape of container Fixed Water, oil, alcohol
Oxygen, carbon
Gas Widely spaced, random motion No fixed shape No fixed volume
dioxide, steam

Water is one of the few substances found in all three of its physical states:
 solid ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam

1.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Various kinds of matter are distinguished from each other by their properties.
Property is a distinguishing characteristic of a substance that is used in its identification and description.

Two general types:

1. Physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed without changing the basic identity of the substance.
Common physical properties include color, odor, physical state (solid, liquid, or gas), melting point, boiling point, and hardness.

Common Physical Properties:

Property Description Example
Mass Amount of matter A rocks weigh 2 kg
Volume Space occupied Water fills 500 mL of a bottle
Density Mass per unit volume Oil floats on water due to lower density
Color Visual appearance Copper is reddish-brown color
Odor Smell Vinegar has a sharp odor
Melting point Temperature at which solid becomes liquid Ice melts at 0°C
Boiling point Temperature at which liquid become gas Water boils at 100°C

2. Chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes the way the substance undergoes or resists change to form a new
substance. For example, copper objects turn green when exposed to moist air for long periods of time.
Common Chemical Properties
Property Description Example
Reactivity Tendency to undergo chemical reactions Iron reacts with oxygen to form rust
Flammability Ability to burn Alcohol is flammable
Acidity/Basicity (pH) Measures hydrogen ion concentration Lemon juice is acidic
Toxicity Harmful effects on organisms Mercury is toxic
Oxidation Reaction with oxygen Apples turn brown when exposed to air

E X A M P L E 1.1: Classifying Properties as Physical or Chemical. Classify each of the following properties for selected metals as a
physical property or a chemical property.
a. Iron metal rusts in an atmosphere of moist air.
Chemical property. The interaction of iron metal with moist air produces a new substance (rust).

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b. Mercury metal is a liquid at room temperature.
Physical property. Visually determining the physical state of a substance does not produce a new substance.
c. Nickel metal dissolves in acid to produce a light green solution.
Chemical property. A change in color indicates the formation of a new substance.
d. Potassium metal has a melting point of 63°C.
Physical property. Measuring the melting point of a substance does not change the substance’s composition.

1.4 CHANGES IN MATTER

Changes in matter are common and familiar occurrences. Changes take place when food is digested, paper is burned, and a pencil is
sharpened. Like properties of matter, changes in matter are classified into two categories:
1. Physical change is a process in which a substance changes its physical appearance but not its chemical composition. A new
substance is never formed as a result of a physical change. No new substance is formed (e.g., melting ice)
Most common types of physical change: Melting, freezing, evaporation, and condensation

Change type Description Example

Phase change Change in state (solid ↔ liquid ↔ gas) Melting ice, boiling water
a. Melting – solid to liquid
b. Freezing – liquid to solid
c. Condensation – gas to liquid
d. Evaporation – liquid to gas
e. Sublimation – solid to gas
f. Deposition – gas to solid
Shape/form Altering physical structure Cutting paper, molding clay
Mixtures Combining substances without chemical bonding Mixing sand, molding

2. Chemical change is a process in which a substance undergoes a change in chemical composition. New substances are formed
Change type Description Example
Combustion Burning in oxygen Burning of wood or fuel
Oxidation Reaction with oxygen Rusting iron
Decomposition Breaking down of compounds Electrolysis of water
Neutralization Acid-bae reaction Mixing of vinegar and baking soda

E X A M P L E 1.2 Correct Use of the Terms Physical and Chemical in Describing Changes.
Complete each of the following statements about changes in matter by placing the word physical or chemical in the blank.
a. The fashioning of a piece of wood into a round table leg involves a ___change.
Physical. The table leg is still wood. No new substances have been formed.
b. The vigorous reaction of potassium metal with water to produce hydrogen gas is a ___change.
Chemical. A new substance, hydrogen, is produced.
c. Straightening a bent piece of iron with a hammer is an example of a ___change.
Chemical. A new substance, hydrogen, is produced.
d. The ignition and burning of a match involve a ___change.
Chemical. A new substance, hydrogen, is produced.

1.5 PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES

1. Pure substance is a single kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical means. All samples
of a pure substance contain only that substance and nothing else.

Example: Pure water, Pure sucrose (table sugar) contains only that substance and nothing else.

2. Mixture is a physical combination of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own chemical identity.
Components of a mixture retain their identity because they are physically mixed rather than chemically combined.

Sub classification is based on visual recognition of the mixture’s components:

a. Homogeneous mixture is a mixture that contains only one visibly distinct phase (part), which has uniform properties
throughout.
b. Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that contains visibly different phases (parts), each of which has different properties.

1.6 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

1. Element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler pure substances by chemical means such as a chemical
reaction, an electric current, heat, or a beam of light.
The metals gold, silver, and copper are all elements.
2. Compound is a pure substance that can be broken down into two or more simpler pure substances by chemical means.
Example: Water (H₂O) is a compound. By means of an electric current, water can be broken down into the gases hydrogen and
oxygen.

1.7 DISCOVERY AND ABUNDANCE OF THE ELEMENTS

The discovery and isolation of the 117 known elements, the building blocks for all matter, have taken place over a period of several
centuries. Most of the discoveries have occurred since 1700, the 1800s being the most active period.
a. 88 of the 117 elements occur naturally, and 29 have been synthesized in the laboratory by bombarding samples of
naturally occurring elements with small particles.

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b. Oxygen, the most abundant element in Earth’s crust, was isolated in pure form for the first time in 1774 by the English
chemist and theologian Joseph Priestly (1733–1804).
c. Discovery years for the other “TOP FIVE” elements of Earth’s crust:
i. 1824 (Silicon)
ii. 1827 (Aluminum)
iii. 1766 (Hydrogen)
iv. 1808 (Calcium)
v. Oxygen
d. Elemental Composition of the Human Body: Only four elements are found in the human body.
i. Hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen are all much more abundant than in Earth’s crust, and oxygen is significantly less
abundant than in Earth’s crust
ii. Carbohydrates (CHO), fats, and proteins (CHON)
 Nutrients required by the human body in large amounts, are all sources of carbon(C), hydrogen(H), and
oxygen(O).
Proteins are the body’s primary nitrogen (N) source.

1.7 NAMES AND CHEMICAL SYMBOLS OF THE ELEMENTS

Chemical symbol is a one- or two-letter designation for an element derived from the element’s name.

NOTE!!!
1. The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized and the second is not.
2. Two-letter chemical symbols are often, but not always, the first two letters of the element’s name.

History of Periodic Table:

1. Antoine Lavoisier – first extensive list of elements (approx.. 33)
2. John Dobereiner - was a German scientist who developed the Law of Triads.
3. John Newlands - Ordered elements according to increasing atomic mass in a chart that demonstrated periodic properties of
the elements and added rule of octaves. (Law of Octave)
4. Dmitri Mendeleev – Father of Periodic Table

Latin Names of Chemical Elements:

1. Sodium (Na – Natrium)
2. Potassium (K – Kalium)
3. Iron (Fe – Ferrum)
4. Copper (Cu – Cuprum)
5. Silver (Ag – Argentum)
6. Tin (Sn – Stannum)
7. Antimony (Sb – Stibium)
8. Tungsten (W – Wolfram) - translates into English as “heavy stone”
9. Gold (Au – Aurum)
10. Mercury (Hg – Hydrargyrum) - Greek hydrargyros, which means “water silver.”
11. Lead (Pb – Plumbum)

 The elements mercury, uranium, and neptunium are all named for planets.
 Germanium is named after the native country of its German discoverer.
 Francium and Polonium are named after France and Poland.
 Helium gets its name from the Greek word helios, for “sun,”
 Chlorine’s name is derived from the Greek chloros, denoting “greenish-yellow,”
 Iridium gets its name from the Greek iris, meaning “rainbow”

1.8 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

 Atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist and still have the properties of the element. “The basic building blocks of
matter”.
Structure:
• Nucleus: Contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral).
• Electron Cloud: Electrons (negative charge) orbit the nucleus in energy levels

 Molecule is a group of two or more atoms that functions as a unit because the atoms are tightly bound together.
Bonding:
• Atoms bond by sharing or transferring electrons (chemical bonds).
• Molecules can be made of the same type of atoms (e.g., O₂) or different types (e.g., H₂O).
Examples:
• O₂ – Oxygen molecule (two oxygen atoms).
• H₂O – Water molecule (two hydrogen atoms + one oxygen atom).
• CO₂ – Carbon dioxide (one carbon + two oxygen atoms).

Molecules are classified into two categories:

a. Homoatomic molecule is a molecule in which all atoms present are of the same kind.
Some examples: hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, nitrogen gas, phosphorus molecule.
b. Heteroatomic molecule is a molecule in which two or more kinds of atoms are present.

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Key Differences Between Atoms and Molecules

Feature Atom Molecule

Size Smallest unit of an element Combination of two or more atoms
Composition Single particle Multiple atoms
Stability Often unstable alone More stable when bonded
Examples He (Helium), C (Carbon) H₂O (Water), CO₂ (Carbon dioxide)
Chemical Identity Retains element’s properties Retains compound’s properties

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