Chapter 01

Introduction to Irrigation Engineering

Correct Answers with Explanations

1. B) To supply water to crops during dry periods

Irrigation primarily compensates for inadequate rainfall, ensuring crops get sufficient water
for growth.

2. B) Artificial application of water to soil for crop growth

Irrigation is a controlled application of water to assist in growing crops and maintaining
landscapes.

3. A) Irrigation
The term "irrigation" describes the controlled delivery of water to plants, usually to enhance
agricultural production.

4. C) Canal irrigation
Canal irrigation is a traditional system that relies on water from rivers or reservoirs channelled
through canals.

5. B) Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is highly water-efficient, making it ideal for arid regions where water
conservation is critical.

6. C) Surface irrigation
Surface irrigation uses gravity to distribute water across the field by flooding or channelling.

7. B) Sprinklers mimicking rainfall

Sprinkler irrigation delivers water through a system of pipes and nozzles, simulating rainfall
for even coverage.

8. C) Low-pressure, slow release through emitters

Drip irrigation delivers water directly to plant roots using emitters, minimizing evaporation
and runoff.

9. B) Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is water-efficient but labour-intensive for installation and maintenance.

10. B) Uncontrolled flow of water over the field

Wild flooding allows water to flow randomly, with little control, often leading to inefficiencies.

11. B) Border flooding

Border flooding divides fields into strips bordered by low embankments to control water flow.

12. D) Uniform and level fields

Check flooding is suitable for flat fields where water can be evenly distributed across small
basins.

13. B) Furrow irrigation

Furrow irrigation involves creating furrows or channels between crop rows for water flow.
14. B) High efficiency with minimal water wastage
Drip irrigation minimizes water loss through evaporation or runoff by delivering water directly
to plant roots.

15. C) Vegetables and flowers

Sprinkler irrigation provides uniform water distribution, making it ideal for delicate crops like
vegetables and flowers.

16. C) High initial investment and maintenance cost

While efficient, drip irrigation requires significant investment and regular maintenance to
prevent clogging.

17. B) Improved crop yield and quality

Irrigation ensures adequate water supply, leading to increased and better-quality crop
production.

18. A) Soil salinization

Improper irrigation can cause salt to accumulate in soil, harming plant growth and soil fertility.

19. D) All of the above

Controlled irrigation reduces water wastage, prevents erosion, and cuts labor costs,
enhancing efficiency.

20. C) Both A and B

Excessive irrigation can leach nutrients out of the soil and create waterlogged conditions, both
of which harm crops.
 Chapter 02
Water Requirements of Crops
1. B) The duty refers to the area irrigated by a unit discharge of water (e.g., hectares per cumec).
864
2. A) Delta = = 0.1 m.
8640

3. D) Climate, crop type, soil, and irrigation method all influence water duty.

4. C) Duty is typically measured in hectares per cumec (hectares per unit water discharge).
200
5. B) Duty = 1
= 200 hectares per cumec.
1.2×864
6. C) Base period = 600
= 120 days.

7. A) Wheat generally requires a higher duty than other crops.

8. A) Reducing the base period increases the duty, as it needs more water over a shorter time.
𝐵×Δ
9. B) Duty, delta, and base period are related by the formula𝐷 = .
864

10. B) If the water is applied over a smaller area, the duty decreases.

11. C) Water required= 10 × 100,000 × 0.03 = 3000 m3 .

12. B) Land irrigated 500 ha/cumec × 2 cumecs = 1000 hectares.

13. B) Delta doubles when the base period is doubled with constant duty.

14. B) Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid are the main cropping seasons in India.

15. B) Kharif season includes rice, maize, and sorghum.

16. C) Rabi season begins in October-November.

17. C) Zaid is the "summer cropping season," mainly in March to June.

18. B) The cropping season division depends primarily on climate and rainfall.

19. C) Rice is grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons.

20. C) Kharif season depends heavily on monsoon rains.

21. C) Wheat is the major crop grown in the Rabi season.

22. A) Zaid season occurs from March to June.

23. B) Correct combination: Kharif: June to September, Rabi: October to March.

24. B) Punjab is known for growing Rabi crops like wheat and barley.

25. B) Watermelon is a major crop in the Zaid season.

26. B) A command area refers to the area irrigated by a specific canal or water source.

27. B) CCA stands for Cultivable Command Area.

28. D) A hydroelectric power plant is not part of the command area.

29. B) Gross irrigable area refers to the total area that can be irrigated.

30. D) Promoting industrial water use is not an objective of command area development.

31. A) GCA includes non-cultivable land, whereas CCA is only cultivable land.

32. B) Gross command area includes roads, villages, and barren land.

33. A) Major irrigation projects typically cover the largest command areas.

34. B) Net irrigated area is a part of the CCA.

35. A) The goal is to increase agricultural production by developing command areas.

36. C) Gross area includes land irrigated multiple times.

37. A) Minor irrigation projects typically have a command area of less than 2000 hectares.

38. B) The Ministry of Water Resources manages large irrigation command areas.

39. A) Water use efficiency is the ratio of crop yield to water used.

40. C) Overall irrigation efficiency = 0.75 × 0.8 = 60%

41. B) Field application efficiency measures the ratio of water used by crops to water applied to
the field.

42. B) Unlined canals have conveyance efficiency between 50-70%.

800
43. C) Field application efficiency= × 100 = 80%.
1000

44. C) Seepage losses in canals reduce conveyance efficiency.

400
45. C) Conveyance efficiency = × 100 = 80%.
500

46. D) Water use efficiency depends on climate, soil, and crop water requirements.

47. B) High water application losses reduce field application efficiency.

48. A) Overall irrigation efficiency = 0.9 × 0.7 = 63%

120×864
49. B) Delta = 120 × 864864 = 1.2 𝑚 864
= 1.2 m.

50. B) Lined canals minimize seepage losses, which affect irrigation efficiency.

51. C) Drip irrigation is typically the most water-efficient method for high-value crops.

52. A) Rice requires the highest delta value in irrigation.

53. A) Seepage losses in unlined canals lower conveyance efficiency.

4
54. B) Water applied= 0.75 = 5.33 cm.
1000−200
55. C) Conveyance efficiency = 1000
× 100 = 80%.

56. B) Water use efficiency is expressed as yield per unit of water used.
57. B) Storage efficiency measures the percentage of water stored in the root zone.

58. C) Wind drift and evaporation are the most significant losses in sprinkler irrigation.
1000
59. B) Water applied = 0.9
= 1111 m3 .

60. C) Drip irrigation is the most efficient method for high-value crops.
 Chapter 03
Soil Moisture Relationship
1. A) The maximum amount of water soil can hold after free drainage
Field capacity is the amount of water remaining in soil after excess water has drained away due to
gravity, and it is considered the point at which soil can provide the most available water for plants.

2. A) It is the amount of water that can support plant growth without waterlogging
The optimum moisture level is the ideal water content for plant growth, where the soil is neither too
wet (causing waterlogging) nor too dry.

3. B) At a level where plants can absorb the maximum amount of water

At field capacity, the soil retains enough water for plant use, without excess drainage, and is readily
available for plant roots to absorb.

4. D) All of the above

The frequency of irrigation depends on various factors, including soil texture, crop type, and climatic
conditions, all of which influence how much water is needed and when.

5. A) The soil moisture content at which plants can no longer absorb water
The wilting point refers to the moisture level in the soil where plants cannot extract enough water,
leading to wilting.

6. D) All of the above

Optimum moisture level is influenced by soil texture, crop type, and irrigation methods, which all
determine how much moisture is ideal for plant growth.

7. B) Development of waterlogging
Over-irrigation can lead to waterlogging, where excess water fills the soil pores, depriving plant roots of
oxygen and causing poor plant health.

8. C) At or near field capacity

When soil moisture is at or near field capacity, the soil has enough water available for roots to absorb
without excess drainage or water stress.

9. B) Deep irrigation with longer intervals

Deep irrigation, which wets a larger volume of soil, is often more water-efficient, especially when water
is scarce, as it reduces the need for frequent watering.

10. B) The crop's water requirements

Irrigation should be tailored to the crop's specific needs to avoid over-watering, which can lead to
waterlogging and other problems.

11. B) The point where plants can no longer extract water

The permanent wilting point is the moisture level below which plants cannot extract enough water to
survive, leading to irreversible wilting.

12. A) High, as they drain quickly

Sandy soils have low water retention and drain quickly, so they need to be irrigated more frequently to
ensure sufficient moisture for plants.

13. C) Reduced soil aeration

Frequent irrigation can cause waterlogging, which reduces soil aeration and may lead to poor root
development and oxygen deprivation.
14. B) Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root zone in small amounts, allowing for precise and
frequent irrigation without over-watering.

15. D) All of the above

Irrigation frequency can be determined using various methods, including soil moisture measurement,
analysis of daily rainfall, and the plant's growth stage.

16. A) Available water

Available water is the moisture between field capacity and the permanent wilting point that plants can
absorb and use.

17. C) Leads to waterlogging and root suffocation

Excessive irrigation frequency can result in waterlogging, reducing oxygen availability for roots and
negatively impacting plant health.

18. D) All of the above

Maintaining the optimum moisture level ensures efficient water use, prevents drought stress, and
avoids nutrient leaching, all of which are vital for healthy plant growth.

19. A) During heavy rainfall

Irrigation is least necessary when heavy rainfall occurs because the soil will have adequate moisture for
plant growth.

20. C) Clay
Clay soils have the highest field capacity due to their fine texture, which allows them to retain more
water compared to sand or loam soils.
 Chapter 04
Theory of Consumptive Use

1. B) The total amount of water lost through evaporation and transpiration

Consumptive use refers to the water used by the crop, including both evaporation from the
soil surface and transpiration from the plant.
2. C) Water quality
While soil texture, climatic conditions, and crop growth stage directly influence consumptive
use, water quality does not significantly affect the actual consumptive use of a crop, though
it may affect crop health.
3. D) All of the above
Consumptive use can be measured using lysimeters, by calculating evapotranspiration, or
using crop coefficients (Kc) in various methods.
4. B) Transpiration and evaporation
Consumptive use is the total amount of water lost from the crop, which includes both
transpiration (water lost through plants) and evaporation (water lost from the soil surface).
5. A) Lysimeter
A lysimeter directly measures the amount of water that is consumed by a crop, including both
evapotranspiration and water used by the plant for growth.
6. C) During fruiting and maturation stages
The consumptive use tends to be highest during the flowering, fruiting, and maturation stages
as the crop grows rapidly and transpires a large amount of water.
7. C) Increased plant transpiration
Transpiration increases during the growing season due to higher temperatures, more leaf
area, and greater overall plant growth, thus increasing the consumptive use.
8. B) Millimeters per day
Consumptive use is often measured as the amount of water lost (evapotranspired) per unit
area (in mm/day).
9. B) The relationship between the actual evapotranspiration and potential
evapotranspiration
The crop coefficient (Kc) is a ratio that compares actual evapotranspiration (ETa) to potential
evapotranspiration (ETp), representing how much water a crop needs relative to potential
conditions.
10. D) Water application method
The crop coefficient is influenced by factors like crop type, climate, and soil texture, but the
method of water application (e.g., sprinkler or drip) does not directly affect Kc.
11. B) The total water used by the plant
A lysimeter measures the water used by the plant, which includes both evaporation and
transpiration.
12. C) To measure evapotranspiration and consumptive use of crops
Lysimeters are designed to measure the amount of water used by plants, including both
transpiration and evaporation.
13. B) Consumptive use includes evaporation, transpiration, and water retention
Consumptive use refers to the total water used by the crop, while evapotranspiration is
specifically the combination of water loss through evaporation and transpiration.
14. B) The crop is using more water than expected
A high Kc value indicates that the crop is using water at a rate higher than the potential
evapotranspiration (ETp), meaning it's consuming more water than expected.
15. B) Vegetative growth
During the vegetative growth stage, crops are actively growing and transpiring water, leading
to a higher Kc value compared to other growth stages.
16. B) It helps estimate the water requirements for irrigation
Understanding consumptive use allows for better estimation of crop water needs, thus
helping to optimize irrigation scheduling and water use efficiency.
17. A) The maximum amount of water that can be used by the crop under ideal conditions
Potential evapotranspiration (ETp) represents the maximum evapotranspiration that would
occur under ideal conditions, without any limitations from water availability.
18. A) It decreases significantly
During the late stages of crop growth (especially maturation), the crop’s water demand
decreases because its growth slows down, reducing the consumptive use.
19. B) Pan evaporimeter
The pan evaporimeter is used to measure evaporation, which can be correlated with actual
evapotranspiration to estimate water loss.
20. D) Dormancy stage
During dormancy or off-season periods, crops require minimal water, leading to the lowest
consumptive use as plant activity is reduced.
 Chapter 05
Design of Canals
1. Correct Answer: C) Both A and B
Explanation: Canals are classified based on their source of supply into inundation canals (seasonal water
supply) and perennial canals (continuous water supply).

2. Correct Answer: B) Inundation canal

Explanation: Inundation canals draw water from a river only during the flood season.

3. Correct Answer: B) Contour canal

Explanation: Contour canals run roughly parallel to the contours of the land, following the natural slope.

4. Correct Answer: C) Reservoir-fed canal

Explanation: A reservoir-fed canal takes water stored in a reservoir, providing consistent irrigation.

5. Correct Answer: C) Moderate slopes

Explanation: Contour canals are designed to flow along the natural contours in moderately sloped
areas.

6. Correct Answer: B) Conveying water for agricultural use

Explanation: The primary function of irrigation canals is to transport water for agriculture.

7. Correct Answer: D) Depth of flow

Explanation: Kennedy's theory suggests that critical velocity depends on the depth of flow to prevent
sediment deposition or erosion.

8. Correct Answer: C) Nature of silt

Explanation: The critical velocity ratio (C.V.R.) in Kennedy's theory is influenced by the characteristics of
the silt in the channel.

9. Correct Answer: C) Both flow velocity and depth

Explanation: According to Kennedy, both flow velocity and the depth of the canal impact silt
transportation.

10. Correct Answer: D) V = 0.55 (D)^0.64

Explanation: Kennedy empirically derived this equation, where V is critical velocity, and D is the depth
of the flow.

11. Correct Answer: C) Alluvial channels

Explanation: Kennedy's silt theory applies to canals with alluvial beds, where silt is deposited and
transported naturally.

12. Correct Answer: B) Hydraulic roughness of the bed

Explanation: The coefficient of rugosity accounts for the bed’s roughness and its effect on flow velocity.

13. Correct Answer: B) Unlined alluvial canals

Explanation: Lacey's theory focuses on the design of canals in loose, alluvial soils where silt and flow
interact.

14. Correct Answer: C) Silt factor

Explanation: Lacey's formula uses the silt factor (representing sediment size) to determine the wetted
perimeter.

15. Correct Answer: A) Discharge

Explanation: Lacey's theory correlates canal depth to discharge for maintaining stable flow.
16. Correct Answer: B) Silt particle size
Explanation: The silt factor depends on the size and composition of the particles present in the canal
bed.

17. Correct Answer: B) Non-uniform flow

Explanation: Lacey assumed non-uniform flow in alluvial canals, where sediment transport and
deposition vary.

18. Correct Answer: C) V = 10.8 R2/3 S1/3

Explanation: Lacey's velocity formula incorporates discharge (Q) and silt factor (f) for channel stability.

19. Correct Answer: B) Tractive force required to move particles

Explanation: Shields theory calculates the force needed to overcome particle resistance and initiate
sediment movement.

20. Correct Answer: C) The force needed to move sediment particles

Explanation: The critical tractive force refers to the threshold force that moves sediment from its resting
position.

21. Correct Answer: D) All of the above

Explanation: Shields parameter depends on flow depth, particle size, and fluid viscosity, which influence
sediment movement.

22. Correct Answer: C) Predicting sediment stability

Explanation: Shields' diagram helps assess whether sediment particles will remain stable or move under
tractive force.

23. Correct Answer: C) Shields parameter

Explanation: The Shields parameter is a dimensionless number representing the balance between fluid
forces and particle resistance.

24. Correct Answer: C) Alluvial channels

Explanation: Shields theory is most relevant for channels with loose, non-cohesive sediments, like
alluvial channels.

25. Correct Answer: D) All of the above

Explanation: Canal lining reduces seepage, stabilizes banks, and can improve flow efficiency.

26. Correct Answer: A) Concrete

Explanation: Concrete is the most commonly used material for lining because of its durability and low
permeability.

27. Correct Answer: B) Concrete lining

Explanation: Concrete lining is effective in saline soils as it prevents salt infiltration and resists chemical
deterioration.

28. Correct Answer: B) Velocity of flow

Explanation: Manning's equation helps estimate the velocity of flow in canals based on channel
characteristics.

29. Correct Answer: A) High initial cost

Explanation: Concrete lining is cost-effective in the long term but has a high initial cost due to materials
and labour.

30. Correct Answer: A) Soil stability

Explanation: Side slopes are designed based on soil type and stability to prevent slippage or failure.
 Chapter 06
Design of Gravity Dam
1. Correct Answer: C) Self-weight
Explanation: The self-weight of the dam is the most significant stabilizing force, which counteracts all
destabilizing forces like water pressure and uplift.

2. Correct Answer: A) Vertically upward on the foundation

Explanation: Uplift pressure arises due to water seepage beneath the dam and acts vertically upward,
reducing the effective weight of the dam.

3. Correct Answer: A) Linearly with depth

Explanation: Hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth according to 𝑝 = γ ⋅h, where γgamma
is the unit weight of water and hh is the depth.
𝐻
4. Correct Answer: A) from the base
3
Explanation: Hydrostatic pressure acts at a height of H3\frac{H}{3} from the base of the dam, calculated
using the moment of force distribution.

5. Correct Answer: A) Centroid

Explanation: The self-weight of the dam acts through its centroid, which is the geometric center of the
cross-sectional profile.

6. Correct Answer: C) Both vertically and horizontally

Explanation: Earthquake forces include horizontal inertia forces due to ground motion and vertical
forces affecting the dam’s weight.

7. Correct Answer: B) The dam is located in cold climates

Explanation: Ice pressure occurs in reservoirs in cold climates due to the expansion of ice against the
dam.

8. Correct Answer: A) Reduce the stability of the dam

Explanation: Seepage forces reduce the effective weight of the dam by exerting upward pressure,
increasing the risk of instability.

9. Correct Answer: A) The dam has a large exposed area

Explanation: Wind force is significant for dams with large exposed surfaces, especially in high-wind
regions.

10. Correct Answer: A) The reservoir surface is large

Explanation: Wave pressure is significant when the wind generates large waves on reservoirs with
extensive surface areas.

11. Correct Answer: A) Total resisting force to total driving force

Explanation: The factor of safety against sliding is the ratio of resisting forces (friction and cohesion) to
driving forces (water pressure, etc.).

12. Correct Answer: A) Hydrostatic pressure

Explanation: The overturning moment is primarily caused by hydrostatic pressure acting on the
upstream face of the dam.

13. Correct Answer: B) The resultant force passes outside the base
Explanation: Overturning occurs when the resultant force due to external forces lies outside the base
of the dam.
14. Correct Answer: A) Friction and cohesion
Explanation: Sliding is resisted by friction at the base of the dam and cohesion between the dam and
its foundation.

15. Correct Answer: B) Safety against sliding

Explanation: Shear friction factor ensures stability against sliding by accounting for frictional resistance
at the base.

16. Correct Answer: A) The middle third of the base

Explanation: For stability, the resultant force should lie within the middle third of the base, preventing
tension at the toe.

17. Correct Answer: B) 0.15 to 0.20g

Explanation: Horizontal seismic forces are generally designed for an acceleration range of 0.15g to 0.20g
in typical seismic zones.

18. Correct Answer: B) One-fourth of the compressive strength

Explanation: The permissible tensile stress is typically limited to one-fourth of the compressive strength
to avoid cracking.

19. Correct Answer: A) Keeping the resultant within the base

Explanation: Stability against overturning is ensured by designing the dam such that the resultant force
lies within the base.

20. Correct Answer: D) Providing drainage holes

Explanation: Drainage holes reduce uplift pressure, thereby improving the stability against sliding.

21. Correct Answer: C) Simple triangular profile analysis

Explanation: The base width of an elementary gravity dam is designed based on the triangular profile
that balances self-weight and hydrostatic forces.

22. Correct Answer: A) No uplift pressure

Explanation: The elementary profile assumes ideal conditions with no uplift pressure to simplify
calculations.
 Chapter 07
Theories of Seepage

1. Correct Answer: C) The percolating water follows the contact path between the foundation and
structure.
Explanation: Bligh’s theory assumes that water flows along the surface of contact between the structure
and its foundation, whether horizontal or vertical, and loses head uniformly along this creep path.

2. Correct Answer: B) Vertical creep paths.

Explanation: Lane’s weighted creep theory assigns higher weight to vertical creep paths (usually three
times more) compared to horizontal paths, as vertical paths are more effective in dissipating energy.

3. Correct Answer: B) Lane’s theory gives more weightage to vertical creep.

Explanation: The key difference is that Lane’s theory improves upon Bligh’s by recognizing that vertical
and horizontal creeps contribute differently to energy dissipation, with vertical creep being more
effective.

4. Correct Answer: A) 1/3 of the horizontal creep path.

Explanation: Lane proposed a weighted creep ratio where vertical creeps are weighted three times
more than horizontal creeps, i.e., the horizontal creep is taken as 13\frac{1}{3} of vertical creep.

5. Correct Answer: D) All of the above.

Explanation: Safety against piping is achieved by increasing the creep length (reduces hydraulic
gradient), providing floor thickness, and reducing uplift pressure through measures like drainage
systems.

6. Correct Answer: B) The total creep length.

Explanation: Bligh’s theory assumes the total head loss is proportional to the total creep length of the
path followed by percolating water.

7. Correct Answer: A) The ratio of creep length to effective head.

Explanation: According to Lane, the critical hydraulic gradient depends on the ratio of creep length to
the effective head, ensuring safe design against piping.

8. Correct Answer: A) The uplift pressure and exit gradient in weir foundations.
Explanation: Khosla’s theory is primarily used to calculate uplift pressures and exit gradients for
hydraulic structures to ensure stability against piping.

9. Correct Answer: C) The seepage path is divided into independent streamlines.

Explanation: Khosla’s theory assumes that the seepage flow beneath the floor can be analyzed using
independent variables corresponding to streamlines and equipotential lines, simplifying complex
interactions.

10. Correct Answer: C) Streamlines and equipotential lines.

Explanation: The theory divides seepage into streamlines (paths of flow) and equipotential lines (lines
of constant pressure) to calculate uplift pressure and exit gradient accurately.
 Chapter 08
Miscellaneous Topics

Diversion Headworks

1. Correct Answer: B) Regulate and divert river flow into canals

Explanation: Diversion headworks are designed to regulate and divert water from a river into a canal,
often for irrigation purposes. They help control water levels and prevent sediment entry.

2. Correct Answer: C) Divide wall

Explanation: The divide wall in a diversion headwork directs the flow of water into different channels
or sluices and reduces sediment entry into the irrigation system.

3. Correct Answer: B) Providing proper drainage arrangements

Explanation: Proper drainage arrangements, such as under-drainage systems, reduce the uplift pressure
on the base of the structure, ensuring the safety of diversion headworks.

4. Correct Answer: C) Divide the river into segments

Explanation: The divide wall serves to separate different flow paths of water, ensuring that water is
evenly distributed to various sluices and reduces sediment deposition.

5. Correct Answer: C) At the full supply level of the canal

Explanation: The crest of a weir is generally kept at or just below the full supply level of the canal to
allow a controlled flow of water into the canal.

Quality Characteristics of Irrigation Water

6. Correct Answer: B) Electrical conductivity (EC)

Explanation: The electrical conductivity (EC) is commonly used to measure the salinity of irrigation
water. Higher EC indicates higher salinity levels.

7. Correct Answer: B) High sodium concentration relative to calcium and magnesium

Explanation: A high Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) indicates that the water has a high concentration of
sodium relative to calcium and magnesium, which can lead to soil permeability issues.

8. Correct Answer: B) High levels of bicarbonates

Explanation: Excessive bicarbonates in irrigation water can lead to the formation of alkaline soils,
reducing soil fertility and crop productivity.

9. Correct Answer: C) Marginal

Explanation: Water with a pH range of 8.5–10 is considered marginal for irrigation because it can lead
to alkalinity problems in soils and can affect certain crops.

10. Correct Answer: C) Toxicity to crops

Explanation: Excess boron in irrigation water can be toxic to many crops, affecting their growth and
yield.
Waterlogging and Land Reclamation

11. Correct Answer: A) Excess irrigation without proper drainage

Explanation: Waterlogging occurs when excess irrigation or insufficient drainage causes the water table
to rise to the surface, reducing soil aeration and affecting crop growth.

12. Correct Answer: B) 1.0 m below the surface

Explanation: A water table depth of about 1.0 meter below the surface is considered safe for most
crops, preventing waterlogging and soil salinity issues.

13. Correct Answer: B) Installing sub-surface drainage

Explanation: Sub-surface drainage is one of the most effective methods for reclaiming waterlogged land
by removing excess water from the soil.

14. Correct Answer: B) Clayey soils

Explanation: Waterlogging is more prevalent in clayey soils, as they have low permeability, causing
water to accumulate and not drain away easily.

15. Correct Answer: B) Leaching salts with freshwater

Explanation: Saline soils can be reclaimed by leaching, which involves flushing out the soluble salts with
freshwater to restore the soil's fertility.

River Engineering

16. Correct Answer: A) Actual length of the river to the straight-line distance
Explanation: Sinuosity refers to the winding nature of a river, measured as the ratio of the river's actual
length to the straight-line distance between two points.

17. Correct Answer: C) Control the flow direction of the river

Explanation: River training works are designed to control the river's flow direction and reduce erosion,
sediment deposition, and flooding.

18. Correct Answer: B) Deposition of sediments on the riverbed

Explanation: Aggradation occurs when sediment deposition exceeds the rate of sediment transport,
raising the riverbed level and reducing flow capacity.

19. Correct Answer: B) Deposition of sediments along riverbanks during floods

Explanation: Natural levees are formed by the deposition of sediments by floodwaters, creating
elevated banks along the river.

20. Correct Answer: C) Reduction in bed slope

Explanation: River meandering occurs due to a reduction in the slope of the riverbed, allowing the river
to take a winding path as it adjusts to its flow conditions.

Reservoir

21. Correct Answer: B) The catchment area and rainfall pattern

Explanation: The capacity of a reservoir is influenced by factors like the catchment area, rainfall pattern,
and the design of the dam.

22. Correct Answer: B) The storage below the lowest outlet

Explanation: Dead storage is the portion of the reservoir that lies below the lowest outlet, typically used
for sedimentation or conservation.
 23. Correct Answer: B) Sedimentation rate
Explanation: The life of a reservoir is primarily affected by the rate at which sediment accumulates in
the reservoir, reducing its storage capacity over time.

24. Correct Answer: B) Supply water during drought periods

Explanation: Buffer storage in a reservoir ensures that there is a reserve supply of water to meet
demands during droughts or low-flow periods.

25. Correct Answer: C) The sediment load in the river

Explanation: Trap efficiency refers to the ability of a reservoir to capture and retain sediment. It is
influenced by factors like sediment load and reservoir design.

Spillways

26. Correct Answer: B) Control flood discharge safely

Explanation: Spillways are designed to safely release excess water from a dam or reservoir during floods,
preventing damage to the structure.

27. Correct Answer: B) Follow the lower nappe of the free-falling water jet
Explanation: The crest of an ogee spillway is designed to follow the nappe of water, ensuring smooth
flow and reducing turbulence when water is released.

28. Correct Answer: C) Convey water safely to downstream channels

Explanation: Chute spillways convey water safely from the dam to the downstream channels while
reducing energy and preventing erosion.

29. Correct Answer: B) Reducing the surface roughness

Explanation: Cavitation can damage spillways, and it can be minimized by reducing the surface
roughness of the spillway and ensuring smooth flow conditions.

30. Correct Answer: B) Adjacent to the dam body

Explanation: A side-channel spillway is constructed next to the dam body to safely release excess water
without disrupting the normal flow of the river.

Cross Drainage Works

31. Correct Answer: C) Canal water passes above the drainage

Explanation: In an aqueduct, canal water is carried above a drainage channel, maintaining water flow
while allowing drainage below.

32. Correct Answer: C) Level crossing

Explanation: A level crossing is the most economical type of cross-drainage work because it involves
minimal structural complexity.

33. Correct Answer: B) Manage the flow distribution

Explanation: A cross regulator helps in controlling the flow distribution in canals by adjusting the water
levels and flow rate entering different sections.

34. Correct Answer: B) Drainage water passes over the canal

Explanation: A super-passage is used when drainage water is carried over a canal, typically to prevent
flooding or maintain water levels in both systems.

35. Correct Answer: D) The canal has a high velocity

Explanation: Syphon aqueducts are used when a canal crosses over a drainage system at a high velocity
and the ground conditions make other structures impractical.
Canal Outlets

36. Correct Answer: C) Both canal and field water levels

Explanation: Canal outlets regulate the flow into fields, and their discharge depends on both the water
levels in the canal and the fields being irrigated.

37. Correct Answer: B) Supplies water proportional to the area irrigated

Explanation: An ideal canal outlet ensures that the discharge is proportional to the irrigation demand,
maintaining uniform water supply.

38. Correct Answer: B) The head is high

Explanation: Orifice outlets are commonly used when the head is high, providing a controlled and
uniform flow into the irrigation field.

39. Correct Answer: C) The head-discharge relationship

Explanation: The efficiency of canal outlets is primarily measured by the relationship between head and
discharge, which determines the consistency of water supply.

40. Correct Answer: C) Modular outlet

Explanation: Pipe outlets are typically modular, meaning the discharge varies based on the water level,
ensuring proportional delivery of water.

Energy Dissipators

41. Correct Answer: B) High discharges and low heads

Explanation: Hydraulic jump-type energy dissipators are designed for high discharge situations with low
heads, converting kinetic energy into heat and turbulence.

42. Correct Answer: B) At the downstream of spillways

Explanation: Stiling basins are installed downstream of spillways to reduce the velocity of water and
dissipate energy safely.

43. Correct Answer: C) Reduce the velocity of flowing water

Explanation: Energy dissipators, such as stilling basins and hydraulic jumps, are designed to reduce the
velocity of flowing water, preventing erosion and cavitation.

44. Correct Answer: D) Preventing cavitation damage

Explanation: The USBR Type-II stilling basin is designed to dissipate energy effectively and prevent
cavitation, which could damage the structure.

45. Correct Answer: A) Steep terrain with high velocity flows

Explanation: Bucket-type energy dissipators are used in steep terrains where the flow velocity is high,
effectively reducing the energy before it causes damage.