9/6/2025

MANIPAL
ACADEMY of HIGHER EDUCATION
(Dened to be Unihvrsity mder Srction} ofthe UGCAd, 1986)

Manipal lnstitute of Technology

Department of Physics
First Semester M.Sc Physics

Subject: Mathematical methods of physics (PHY 5111)

Topic: Functions of Complex Variable-2: Cauchy Reimann

conditions, analytic functions, Cauchy Integral theorem,Cauchy
Integral formula,derivative formula, applications.
Dr. Mohan Rao K
Dr. Mohan ao K, Department of PhysIcs, MIT Manipal, India S75104

CR equations

Ou au
dx dy ay dx

Dr, Mottan Rao K, Deparinent of Physics, MII

Manipal, lndia 576I04

1
 9/6/2.

Analytic functions

A
single-valued function (only single-valued functions will be considered in
this chapter)f(Z) is said to be analytie (regular or holomorphic) in a certain
region of the complex plane if it has a unique derivative at every point in
the region.
ir f(z) is differentiable at z = 0 and in some small region around z0, we say that
re)is analytic at z= Z0. If f(z) is analytic everywhere in the (finite) complex plane, we
call it an entire function

If f'(2) does not exist at z = zO, then zo is labeled a singular point

If f (z) is differentiable and single-valued a region of the complex plane, it is said to be an analytic
function in that region. Multivalued functions can also be analytic under certain restrictions that make
them single-valued in specific regions. Iff (z) is analytíc everywhere in the (finite) complex plane, we call it
an entire function. Our theory of complex variables here is one of analytic functions of a complex variable,
which points up the crucial importance of the Cauchy-Riemann conditions.

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Departrnent of Physics, t1T

Manupal, India 576104

Asingle-valued function f(z) is said to be analytic (regular, holomorphic) at z, if it has a unique

derivative at z, and at every point in the neighborhood of z,. If a function fails to be
analytic at some point z, but is analytic at points in the neighborhood of z, then z, is
said to be a singular point (singularity) of f(2).
If fz) is analytic in a domain D, then the derivative of f(z) is also a function defined in D is itself
analytic in D. In particular therefore, f/ (z) is continuous inD. It willalso follows that a function
which is differentiable once in any domain is also infinitely differentiable in the domain.

Consider, f(z) =
The origin is asingular point. i.e., fz) is not defined at (0,0). At z = 0, derivative doesn't exist.
1
Z=2, isasingular point.The function f(z) = is analytic everywhere exeept at z-0
(singular point).
Condiderf ) = |z|= z1' = (x +iy)(x - iy) = x+y'
Cauchy Reimann conditions are not satisfied for (x,y) (0,0). Therefore, it is not analytic.
Dr. Mohat Rag K, Depattnent of Physics, MIT
IMaripal, India S76104

4
 It follows that the necessary and sufficient condition for afunction w = f2) to be analytic in a domain D is that
the first order partial derivatives of real andimaginary parts of thefunction w(i.e of u &v)exists, continuous and
|satisfy C-R equations at all points in the domain.
Properties of analytic functions
1) If the function is analytic, then it is continuous in that domain.
2) Iff,and f, are analytic in D, then their sum and product are also analytic in Dand the function oz) =f(z)/f,lz)
is also analytic in D when 2) 0.
z2 Is ANALYTIC
Let f() =.Multiplying out(-i-i)=a-'+2i.xy. we identify the real part
of as u(r. ) = - and its imaginary part as vr. )=2ry

=2r= =-2y=

We see that f() = satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann conditions throughout the complex
plane. Since the partial derivatives are clearly continuous, we conclude that f()=is
analytic, and is an entire function.
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT
Manipal, lndia 576104
5

z* Is NoT ANALYTIC
Let f()=*the complex conjugate of z. Nowu=X and v=-r. Applying the Cauchy
Riemann conditions, we obtain

du
=l# -=-1.
The Cauchy-Riemann conditions are not satisfied for any values of r or v and f()=
is nowhere an analytic function of z. It is interesting to note that f() =* is continu
ous, thus providing an example of a function that is everywhere continuous but nowhere
differentiable in the complex plane.

Dr, Mohan Rao lK, Departnnent ofPhysics, ViT

Manipal, India 576104

6
 9/6/20,

3
3

at

f) enish
an nhre tnckin
DI. Mohan Rao K, Departrment of Physics, MIT
Manipal, Incdia 576104

f(2) =
(ces +ibin)

CAN
Cenhnuws
awd digonoehe

Dr. Molhan Rao K, Department of

Physics, MIT
Manipal, lndia 576104
 fnckn analyhe, it indehuudeat of
4e

funckog
u of seal eninbles
2/

)
X= Z t 2

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Departiment of Physics, MIT

Manipal, India 576104

Z-2*= y = Zt2

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Departnnent of Physics, lT

Manipal, India 576104

10
 Determihe

f) Z+)
C2 )

(i) f2)
2-32+2 2 }2- 2

2-) 2= 2
at 2 =1
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, IT
Manipal, India 576104

11

Contour Integrals
vari
With differentiation under control. we turn to integration. The integral of acomplex close
contour) may be defined in
able over a path in the complex plane (known as a
along the real -axis.
analogv to the (Riemann) integral of areal function integrated

We divide the contour, from zo to designated C, into n intervals by picking n 1

intermediate points . 2....on the contour Consider the sun

A piecewise smooth closed curve

without points of self intersection is
called as closed contour.

Dr. Molhan kao K, Departttent of Physics, MII 12

Manpal, udia 576104

12
6/20

Consider the sum

S, =)fij)(:j j-1).
j=l

where ; is a point on the curve betwecn ji and -. Now let n ’ oo with

|j-j-il’0

for all j. If lim,-Sy exists, then

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT L3
Manipal, India 576104

13

for all j. If lim,--oo S, exists, then

n

limfG;)(2; Zj-1) =
n’oO
f(z) dz.
j=l
The right-hand side of abovejs called the contour integral of f() (along the specified
As an alternative to the above, thecontour integral may be defined by
rX2 Y2
f(z)dz = |[uz, y) +iv(x,y)](dx +idy]
rX2. y2 rX2. y2
=
| [u(*, y)dx - vÚs, y) dy]+i [v, y) dx +u(x. y) dy)
with the path joining (x, y) and (xn, y) specified. This reduces the complex integral to
the complex sum of real integrals.
D. Mohan kao K, Departnent of Physics, MIT 14
Manipal, India S76104

14
 regions connected
of a simply
connected
multiply
connected and
Simply equivalent
definitions
connected if (1) all
are three simply
The following complex plane is called belong to the region,
in the only points that
region: A region region contain point, and (3) it
has
within the shrunk to a
closed paths the region can be point, Zi, on the
paths within arbitrary
(2) allclosed cut starting at an separates the
property that every scissor Z, on the boundary
the point,
boundary and
finishing at another
unconnected (two)
pieces.
region into

Simply connected

(a)

15
Department of Physics, MIT
Dr. Mohan Rao K,
Manipal, India 576104

15

regions are said to be multiply connected.

All other points that belong to C. However,
all
(Fig a), contains only
A closed curve drawn within C, Therefore, the
C¡, (Fig. b), do not belong to the region between C, and C,
points within connected.
within C is simply connected and that between C, and C, is multiply
region
C
C

Multiply connected
Simply connected
(a) (b) 16
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Departrment of Physics, MIT
Manipal, India 576104

16
 Cauchy's Integral Theorem
If a function f(z) is analytic, that is, if its
partial
Some simply connected region R,' for every closedderivatives are continuous throughout
path C (Fig. 6.6) in R, and if it is
single-valued (assumed for simplicity here), the line integral of f(z) around C
is zero, or

f() dz = fe)dz =0.

y

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT

Manipal, India 576104

17

Cauchy's Integral Theorem

THEOREM IfS(Z) is analytic and its partial derivatives are continuous
throughout some simply connected region, then for every closed path C
within this region
f(Z) dzZ = 0.
Cauchy's integral theorem states that:
I isan analytic fumtion at oll points of asinply connetd region inthe compl
plane aund if Cis a clused conlour witlhinthut region, then

stsdz =0. (|1.I8)

The symbol means the integral is around a closed path, and the symboly
indicates that the path is traversed in a positive (counterclockwise) manner.
Our convention willbe to traverse the path in such a way that the region of
interest lies to the left. Dr. Mohankao K, Depastent of Pliysics, MII 18
Manipal, Inda 576104

18
 Proof:
Stokes' theorem
In this form the Cauchy integral theorem may be proved by direct application of
f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and dz =dx + idy.

f(z) dz= (u+iv)(dx +idy) - (udx -vdy) +i(vdx+udy). (4)

These two line integrals may be converted to surface integrals by Stokes" theorem, a proce
dure that is justified if the partial derivatives are continuous within C.
In applying Stokes' theorem, note that the final two integrals above are real.
Using, V=V,+óVy.
Stokes' theorem says that

(2)

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Plhysics, MIT 19

Manipal, India 576104

19

For the first integral in the last part of Eq. (1) let u=V, andv=-Vy.
uds -vdy)= V, dr +V, dy) = ( ay )dsdy =- ()dndy. )
For the second integral on the right side of Eq.(1) we let u = Vy and v = Vy. Using
Stokes' theorem again, we obtain

(wda +udy) =/-)dxdy. (4) which must hold, since f(z) is as

Cauchy-Riemann
On application of the conditions,
sumed analytic, each integrand vanishes and
|dx dy = 0.
rod=-|()dxdy +i/( Oy
us the integral of f(2)
It is clear that Cauchy's integral theorem tells independent of the path.
is
around a closed path in a simply connected region Physics, MIT 20
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of
Manipal, India 576104

20
 9/6/2025

02
Consider the
Multiply Connected Regions:
for curves C and C
Cauchy Integral Theorem enclosed between closed
multiply connected domain D

applied to the function f(z) which is

Cauchy integral theorem cannot be narrow
integration encloses C. Let us make a
analytic in Dif the contour of
points J and E respectively on Ci
cut by joining pontsH and F on C to
lines is supposcd to be narrow and
by siraight lines. The gap between the
the set of points between the Iines
will vanish in the limit. With the cut, if
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Depart1ment of Physics, MIT 21
Manipal, tndia 576104

21

Consider the closed

is exciuded, the domain D becomes simply connected.
curve C= AJHGFEA in the domain. By Cauchy integral theoren.

f(z) dz =0

or. f(z) d: flz) d: fiz) de

lines is made zer0,
In the Jimit. if the width of the strip betwcen the straight
then
J(e) dz - 0
FE
Physics, MIT
Dr. Mohan Rao lK, Department of
Manipal, India 576104

22
 contours Cand C,where C is
Also the curves EAJ and HGF become closed
the clockwise
raversed in the anticlockwise direction but C is traversed in
cdirection. Thus (1.25) reduces to,

Reversing the direction of the second contour C, we get

S() dz -- (z)dz = 0

This is the modifiedCauchy integraltheorem for a multiplyconnected region.

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT 23
Manipal, India 576104

23

This is the moditied Cauchy integral theorem for a multiply connected region.
Obviously, if the multiply connected domain is the region enclosed by
ciosed curves Ci and Ci,C:, . .. Ch (Fig. 1.4), and if the contour of inte
gration is inside C1 and encloses all
the ofher curves. the contributions
cOrresponding to each of the closed
curves Ci.C2. , ..., Ca jnside C have
to be taken into account. Then

j(z) d: - fz) d:

Ch
(z) dz S(z) dz
C1

(1.28) Fig, I.4

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Departunent of Physics, MIT 24

Manipal, lndia 576104

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 Cauchy'sIntegral Formula
of
Another important and extremely useful relation concerning the integral be
formula. It can
a function of a complex variable is Cauchy's integral
written as
Z-Zo
= 2rif(Z)
analytic within
where Z, is within C. The function f(Z) is assumed to be
C; however, f(Z)/(Z Z) is clearly not analytic at Z
= Zo. For r ’0,
C
Fig (a) is equivalent to Fig. (b)

(b
(a)

Applying Cauchy integral theorem applicable to doubly connected region

(figure (b)
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT
Manipal, India 576104

25

connected region (figure (b))

Applying Cauchy integral theorem applicable to doubly
f(Z) dz (2)
+ .=0 (1)

-dz = dz = of(zo) + f(2)-fZo)dz= J2o dz + 63)-feo),

z - Zo z - Zo
- dz. (2A)
z- Zo J C C/
C C

-dz = f(zo)
z - Zo
-dz + Z- Zo
dz.
Z- Zo
C
Z - Z , = re'; dZ = irio do.
Around the path C', we set
2

f)-dz = f(20) relo d o 4

z - Zo
dz
Z Zo
cl=0

f2) =2nif(z0) + 2)Z--ZoÍ d

z-Zo-dz C/

I)-fe) dz
dz = 2rif(z0)+R where R =
C/ Department of Physics, MI
C D,. Mohn Rao lK,
Manipal, lndia S76104

26
 where R=
f(2)2)- f(20) dz
= 2rif(z0)+ R Z - Zo
C/

fz)
R= dz - 2rif (Z,) (3)
Z-Zo From
small by making radius of the circle C' approaches zero.
We shall now show that R can be made arbitrarily
¬, there exists a 8 such that
the continuity of f(z), for every positive small quantity
If(z) -f(zo)| < ¬, whenever z- Zol < 8
circle
does not depend on r, R is also independent of the radius of the
Since the right-hand side of equation (3)
circle. From the continuity of f (2), |f(z) - f(zo)<¬,
around Zo. Let us choose r such that z Zol< on the
whenever z is on the circle C.

|R|< If()-f(Z)l dz|

lz Zol
C

|dzl
R<E
|z- Zol Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT
Manipal, India 576104

27

dz = irei8
|dz|
RSE |zl' = zz* |z = vzz*
2T
rde
|dz<' = (dz)(dz") ’ ldzl = (dz) (dz') = r
R< 2TTE
RSe r |z - Zol=r

therefore |R| = 0. Therefore, from Equation

(3),
Rcan be made arbitrarily small,
fz) -dz - 2nif (zo) Hence the proof.
Z Zo

In summary, we may write

f(Z) dz (for Z, inside C)

1
27iZ- Zo \0 (for Z, outside C).

28
Physics, MIT
Dr. Molhan kao K, Department of
Manipal, india 576104

28
 9/6/2025

Morera's Theorem
A further application of Cauchy's
integral formula is in the proof of Morera's
which is the converse ofCauchy's integral theorem.
theorem. The theorem states thc following.
Ifa funciion f() is contiuous in a simplv
even closed cotour C within R. then f() conected regio R and f(vd: =0for
is analvtic throughout R.

Assignment: State and prove Morera's theorem (Refer Arfken)

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physícs, MIT

Manipal, india 576104

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Consider
dz
Problem, calculate
z(2+2)

The factor 1/(- ) iN

where the integration is counterclockwise over the unit circle.
analytic within the region enclosed by the contour., so
this is a case of Cauchv's integrul

formula
f(z) dz= f(z0) with f(3) =1/(+2) and z0 =0. The result Is immedute
27i
C

l= =0.

30
PhysiCS, MII
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of
Manipal, tndia 576L04

30
 9/61202

Consider now
dz
Problem, calculate
472-1
also integrated counterclockwise over the unit circle. The denominator factors intc
4(-) (:+). and it is apparent that the region of integrationcontains two singular fac
lors. However, we may still use Cauchy's integral formula if we make the partial fraction
expansion

atter which we integrate the two terms individually. We have

dz dz

Each integral is a case of Cauchy's fornula with f(z) =l, and for both integrals the
point zo =t+ is within the contour. so each evaluates to 2ri,and their sum is zero. So
|=0.
Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT 31
Manipal, India 576104

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Application of Cauchy Integral formula: Derivatives formula

Cauchy integral formula =2rif (Z)

anlalytic function, the derivative of f(z) at

A direct consequence of Cauchy integral formula is that for an
Zo exists and is given by f(zo + Az) - f(z)
f'(zo)=im Az

Using Cauchy Integral formula,

1 1 f(z)dz
f' (zo) = AZ-’0
lim 2Tri Az z-(Z0 + Az) Z- Zo

1 f(z)dz
f'zo) = Az0
lim 2ni (2- Zo - Az)(z - Zo)|
1 f()
From continuity of f(z) on C, one can show that 2ri (z -z

Dr. Molhan Rao K, Departrnent of Physics, MIT

Manipal, India 576104

32
 9/6/2025

Cauchy integral formula

=2nif(Z.)
1
f(z) = f(z)
ZniJ (z -Z)2 2
f2) = Az’0
lim +Az) -

1 1 f(z)dz
fl/ (z) = lim fz)dz 1 f(z)
Az»0 2rri AzY (Z- Z0 - Az)2 (z- z)2 2ri .2. (z-z)3dz.

Similarly, nh derivative is given by, f"(zo) = 2T

n! fz)
(z-zo)

The above is called derivatives formula

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Department of Physics, MIT
Manipal, India 576104 3

33

Derivatives formula fln'(30) = 2ri

n! f(z)dz
(2-0)4+1

Using the derivatives formula find the following integral

[sin' zdz
J(2- a)+

where the integral is counterclockwise on a contour that encircles the point =d.
dz-(sin²z) = 2sinzcosz
with n = 3 and f(z) = sin' z. d
(sin*z)=(2sinz cosz)
8zi (sin²z) = 2(cos'z- sin²z)
- :--kinzen]. J7=0
=
sind co a. dz

dz
(sin'z) = -8sinzcosz

Dr. Mohan Rao K, Departnent of Piysics, MII 34

Manipal, India S76104

34

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