Building Components and their

Basic Requirements
 Building Components
A building has two basic parts, namely:

1. Substructure or Foundation

Substructure or foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the
ground level, which transmits the loads of the superstructure to the supporting soil.

2. Superstructure

Superstructure is that part of the building which is above ground level, and which serves
the purpose of its intended use.

A part of superstructure, located between the ground level and the floor level is known as
Plinth.
 Building Components
A building in general, is made of the following structural components.

1. Foundation 9. Finishes for walls

2. Plinth 10. Utility fixtures

3. Walls and columns in superstructure 11. Parapet wall and Coping

4. Ground, basement and upper floors

5. Door and window and other openings

6. Sills, lintels and weather shades

7. Roofs

8. Steps and stairs

 Building Components

1. Foundation:
The foundation of any structure should be laid below to the surface of ground:
1. To secure a good natural bed
2. To protect the foundation courses from atmospheric influences
3. To increase the stability of structure against overturning due to wind uplift.
The basic function of foundation:
1. To distribute the total load coming on the structure over a large area.
2. To load the bearing area at a uniform rate so as to prevent any unequal settlement.
3. Provide levelled and hard surface over which superstructure can be built.
4. Stability against sliding and overturning due to horizontal forces (wind load)
5. Safety against undermining (prevent scouring due to flood water)
 Building Components
2. Plinth:
As per the by-laws, the minimum height of the plinth should not be less than 45 cm and plinth
should be made solid, usually 1:3:6 mix concrete.

The plinth wall should satisfy the following requirements in a building structure in its design
and construction:

1. To transmit the load of the superstructure to the foundation.

2. To act as a retaining wall so as to keep the filling in position below the raised floor of
the building.

3. To protect the building from damp or moisture penetration into it.

4. It enhance the architectural appearance of the building.

 Building Components
3. Walls and columns in superstructure:
The function of the wall is: Divide the space, Supporting the weight of the upper floors and
roofs, providing privacy, affording security and giving protection against heat, cold, and rain.

These walls may be built of different materials such as solid brick or stone masonry, plain
monolithic concrete, hollow concrete blocks etc.

Based upon the function, walls are divided into two types:

1. Load Bearing Wall: Designed to carry any superimposed load, in addition to their own
weight.

2. Non-Load Bearing Wall: Those walls, which support no vertical load (i.e.
superimposed load) other than their own weight.

Column: Column usually takes horizontal (wall and beams) as well as vertical loads (roof)
 Building Components
4. Ground, Basement and Upper Floors:
The main function of a floor is to provide support for occupants, furniture and equipment of
building.
The purpose of providing different floors is to divide the building into different levels is to
create more accommodation within the limited space.
5. Doors and Windows:
The main function of doors in a building is to serve as a connecting link between internal parts
and also to allow the free movement into and outside the building.
Windows are generally provided for the proper ventilation and lighting of building, and their
size and number should be properly determined as per the requirements.
 Building Components

6. Sills, Lintels and Weather Shades:

Sill: Sill is the section that the windows sits on and the main idea of it is to take the water
away from the bottom of the window and the wall.

Lintel: The opening are provided in the wall of a building to accommodate the doors and
windows. The actual frame of a door or window is not strong enough to support the weight of
the wall above the opening and a separate structural element has, therefore to be introduced.
This is done to make sure that there is no weight load on doors and windows.

Weather shades: (or chhajjas) are generally combined with lintels of windows to protect them
from the weather elements such as sun, rain, frost etc.
 Building Components

7. Roofs:
A roof (whether pitched or flat roof) is uppermost part of a building whose main function is to
enclose the space and to protect the same from rain, sun, wind, heat, snow etc.
A good roof is just as essential as a safe foundation.

8. Steps and Stairs:

A stair is a structure consisting of number of steps leading from one floor to another.
Location of stairs should be such as to afford the easiest and quickest service.
The main function of stairs is two-fold:
1. To provide means of communication between the various floors for everyday use.
2. Escape from upper floors in the event of fire or in case of emergency.
 Building Components
9. Finishes for walls:
Finishes of several types such as pointing, plastering, painting, distempering, decorative colour
washing etc. are applied on the walls.

The main functions of these finishes are as follows:

1. They protect the structure, particularly the exposed surfaces, from the effect of weather
such as rain, sun, snow etc.

2. They provide a true, even, and smooth finished surface and also improve the aesthetic
appearance of the structure as a whole.

3. They cover up the unsound and defective workmanship.

 Building Components

10. Utility Fixtures:

These are built-in items of an immovable nature, which add considerably to the utility of a
building and hence termed as utility fixtures.
The most common of such built-in fixtures are cupboards, shelves etc.

11. Parapet wall and Coping:

Parapet wall is constructed above slab to enclose the terrace open to sky. The thickness
generally lies between 10 to 15 cm and height 1 to 1.2 m.
Coping is provided to protect the parapet wall from water infiltration from above. It should be
made of weatherproof materials of a width not less than the thickness of the parapet wall.
 Foundations
Foundation is the lower portion of the building (part of the structure) usually located below
ground level, which transmits the loads of the super structure to the supporting soil or rock.
 Functions of Foundation

1. Reduction of Load Intensity

Foundation distributes the loads of the super structure, to a larger area so that the intensity of
the load at its base (i.e. total load divided by the total area) does not exceed the safe bearing
capacity of the sub-soil.
 Functions of Foundation
2. Even Distribution of Load
Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super structure evenly to the sub soil.

For example: two columns carrying unequal loads can have a combined footing which may
transmit the load to sub soil evenly with uniform soil pressure. Due to this, unequal or
differential settlements are minimized.
 Functions of Foundation
3. Provision of Level surface
Foundation provide leveled and hard surface over which the super structure can be built.
 Functions of Foundation
4. Lateral stability
It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the super
structure. The stability of the building, against sliding and overturning, due to horizontal forces
(such as wind, earthquake etc.) is increased due to foundations.

5. Safety against undermining

It provides the structural safety against undermining or scouring due to burrowing animals and
flood water.
 Functions of Foundation

6. Protection against soil movement

Foundation provides safety against expansion or contraction of the subsoil.
 Requirements of Foundation
Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements:
1. The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit
these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which would
damage the stability of the building or adjoining structures.

2. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized. Specially, for
the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.

3. Foundation should be taken sufficient in deep into the ground so that the structure is not
affected by ground movement such as swelling. Shrinking, freezing. The landslide also
should not affect the stability of the building.

4. Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence (due to construction of any new building in surrounding).
 Settlements of foundation
The total vertical displacement that occur at foundation level is termed as settlement. The cause of
foundation settlement is the reduction of volume air void ratio in the soil.

Type of foundation Settlement:

On the basis of the movement of the foundation, settlement is categorized into two main types:

1. Differential foundation settlement

2. Uniform foundation settlement

 Settlements of foundation

1. Differential foundation settlement

Settlement that occurs at differing rates between different portions of a building is termed
differential settlement.

Differential settlement occurs if there is difference in soils, loads, or structural systems

between parts of a building. In this case, different parts of the building structure could settle by
substantially different amounts.

Majority of foundation failures are attributable to severe differential settlement.

Settlement should be in acceptable limit. If the settlement is more pile foundation is used.
 Settlements of foundation

2. Uniform foundation settlement

When foundation settlement occurs at nearly the same rate throughout all portions of a
building, it is called uniform settlement.

If all parts of a building rest on the same kind of soil, then uniform settlement the most
probable type to take place.

Similarly, when loads on the building and the design of its structural system are uniform
throughout, the anticipated settlement would be uniform type.
 Settlements of foundation
Differential Settlement Uniform Settlement

Fig. leaning tower of pisa

 Cause of Foundation settlement

Direct causes
The direct cause of foundation settlement is the weight of building including dead load and
live load.

Indirect causes
Earthquake induced settlement

Due to extraction of ground water and oil

Excavation done adjacent to foundation

 Failure of Foundation
The different causes for foundation failures can be listed as below:

Non-uniform settlement of subsoil and masonry.

Horizontal movement of the soil adjacent to structure.

Alternate swelling and shrinkage in wet and dry cycles of the season.

Action of weathering agencies like sun, wind or rain.

Lateral escape of soil the soil beneath the foundation of structure.

Roots of trees which penetrate the foundation.

 Type of Foundation
Depending upon their nature and depth, foundations have been categorized as follows:

1. Shallow foundation

2. Deep foundation

Shallow Foundation
A shallow foundation transmits structural loads to the soil strata at a relatively small depth.

Terzaghi’s (1943) definition that a shallow foundation is one which is laid at a depth 𝐷𝑓 not
𝐷𝑓
exceeding the width of the foundation (𝐷𝑓 ≤ 𝐵) or ≤1 .
𝐵

𝐷𝑓
Foundation with ratio greater than 1 but less than 15, are moderately deep.
𝐵
 Shallow Foundation
𝐷𝑓
Deep foundation such as pile foundation have ratio greater than 15.
𝐵

In deep foundation, the load is supported partly by frictional resistance around the foundation
and the rest by bearing at the base of the foundation.
Shallow foundation are constructed in open excavation and the disturbance of soil is minimal.
This type of foundation is practicable for a depth up to 5 m and is convenient above the water
table.
The various type of shallow foundations are:
1. Wall footings 4. Continuous footing
2. Isolated footing 5. Cantilever footing
3. Combined footing 6. Grillage footing
 Shallow Foundation

1. Wall footing:
These footings can be either simple or stepped.
1. Simple footing:
Simple footings are used for light structures.
The base course of these footings can be of concrete or entirely of one material.
They have only one projection beyond the width of wall on either side.
The width of concrete base (B) should be at least equal to twice the width of wall.
The depth of the concrete bed is at least equal to the side projection.
Generally, the projection provided in the footing is kept as 15 cm (minimum), on either
side and the concrete mix comprise of cement, sand and aggregate in proportion of 1:3:6
or 1:4:8.
 Shallow Foundation

Minimum a = offset = 15 cm
Minimum d = depth of concrete bed = 15 cm
Usually D = 0.9 m

Fig. Simple wall footing

 Shallow Foundation
2. Stepped footing:

Brick footing is generally stepped over a concrete bed.

In stepped footing, if bricks is used then it should be projected regularly to ¼ brick length (5
cm) from the edge of the wall.

Rich mortar should be used to join the bricks.

Thickness of concrete bed should be such that so the concrete may not fail in bending,
crushing or sharing.
𝑃
𝑡=𝑚
𝑓

Where, t = thickness of concrete bed (in cm)

P = load coming over the soil in kg/cm2
m = offset of concrete bed
f = 0.03*ultimate crushing strength of concrete in 28 days in kg/cm2
 Shallow Foundation
The depth of the footing is calculated by following Rankine’s formula:

𝑝 1−sin ∅ 2
𝐻=
𝑤 1+sin ∅

Where, H = Minimum depth of footing (in meter) w = unit weight of soil in kg/cm3
p = safe bearing capacity of soil in kg/cm2 Φ = angle of repose of the soil.

The depth of the footing is generally limited to 0.9 m. In case of expensive soils, the footing
should be taken deeper below where there is no danger of shrinkage cracks.

The width of the footing should be calculated by dividing the total load in kg/m run (e.g. dead
load, live load and wind load) by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil in kg/m2.
 Shallow Foundation

Angle of Repose: The steepest angle at which a sloping surface formed of loose material is
stable.

Fig. Angle of Repose

 Shallow Foundation
2. Isolated or Column footing:
They are used to support individual columns.

They can be either of stepped type or have projections in the concrete base.

In case of heavy loaded columns, steel reinforcement is provided in both the directions in
concrete bed.

 Generally, 15
cm offset is
provided on
all sides of
concrete bed.
 Shallow Foundation

3. Combined footing:
A combined footing supports two or more column in a row.

The combined footing can be rectangular in shape if both the column carry equal loads, or can
be trapezoidal if they carry unequal loads.

Generally, they are constructed of reinforced concrete.

 Shallow Foundation

4. Continuous footing:
In this type of footing a single continuous R.C. slab is provided as foundation of two or more
columns in a row.

This type of footing is suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities.

This also prevents differential settlement in the structure.

Fig. Continuous footing with column Fig. Continuous footing a) with wall b) with column
 Shallow Foundation

5. Strap or Cantilever footing:

Strap footing consist of two or more individuals footing connecting by a beam called strap. It
is also called as cantilever footing.

The strap beam does not remain in contact with the soil, so a strap does not transfer any
pressure to the soil.

However, because the strap is infinitely stiff, hence it serve to transfer column loads on to the
soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under both footing.
Shallow Foundation

Fig. Strap footing

 Shallow Foundation

6. Grillage footing:
This type of footing is used to transmit heavy loads from steel columns to the soil having low
bearing power.

This type of arrangement avoids deep excavations and provides necessary area at the base to
reduce the intensity of pressure.

The load from the steel columns is distributed to a very large area by means of two or more
tiers of rolled steel joists, each layer of joists being laid at right angles to the layer below it.

The grillage beams of each tier are held in position by 20 mm dia. spacer bar or 25 mm dia.
pipe separators.
 Shallow Foundation
Generally a minimum clearance of 8 cm (distance between joists) is kept between the grillage
beams so as to provide facility for placing concrete. However, the distance between the flanges of
grillage beams should not be more than 1.5 to 2 times the flange width so that the concrete filling is
acts monolithically with the beam.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 ≤ 1.5 𝑡𝑜 2 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

A minimum cover of 10 cm is provided on the outer sides of external beam as well as above the
upper flange of the top tier.

In case of lower beams, the concrete cover under the beam should be more than 15 to 20 cm.

The concrete filling keeps the joists in position and prevents from the corrosion.

The depth of such foundations are limited to 1 to 1.5 m.

Shallow Foundation

Fig. Grillage Foundation for Steel stanchion

Shallow Foundation

Fig. Grillage Foundation

 Shallow Foundation

7. Raft or Mat foundation:

A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and support
all the column.

When the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure load are heavy, the use of spread
(column) footing would cover more than half of the building area, and it may prove more
economical to use raft-foundation.

They are also used where the soil is compressible and differential settlement would be difficult
to control.

This raft tends to bridge over the erratic (unpredictable, changeable) deposits and eliminate the
possibility of differential settlement.
 Shallow Foundation
Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above highly compressible soil by making
the weight of the structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of soil excavated.

A raft may undergo large settlements without causing harmful differential settlement. For the
reason, almost the double settlement (with respect to other footings) is acceptable for raft.

Usually, when hard soil is not available within 1.5 to 2.5 m, a raft foundation is adopted.

The raft is composed of reinforced concrete beams with a relatively thin slab underneath.
 Deep Foundation

Pile foundation
When the soil at shallow depths is unable to safely support the sub-structure, the stresses
originating from the superstructure are carried deeper to soil strata that are stronger and can
safely withstand imposed stress.
𝐷𝑓
Deep foundation such as pile foundation have ratio greater than 15.
𝐵

In deep foundation, the load is supported partly by frictional resistance around the foundation
and the rest by bearing at the base of the foundation.
 Deep Foundation

Various types of Piles: Piles are broadly classified on the basis of following criteria
Classification based upon function

1. End bearing piles

2. Friction piles
3. Combined end bearing and friction piles

Classification based upon materials and composition

1. Cement concrete piles

2. Timber piles
3. Steel piles
4. Composite piles etc.
 Deep Foundation

1. End Bearing Pile

These piles are useful in transferring load through poor soil or water to a suitable bearing
stratum by means of end bearing.

These piles penetrate through the soft soil and their bottoms or tips rest on a hard stratum.

Multi-storeyed buildings are invariably founded on the end bearing piles, so that the
settlements are minimized.

2. Friction Piles:
When the piles are installed in soft soils such that the load is transferred through friction along
the length of the piles, they are called friction piles.

Such piles are generally used in granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is very great.
Deep Foundation

Fig. End Bearing and Friction Piles

 Deep Foundation

3. Combined End Bearing and Friction Pile

 When the piles transfer the load of superstructure to the soil by a combination of both end
bearing and friction mechanism are called friction and bearing piles.

Such piles are more common when the end bearing piles pass through granular soils.
 Deep Foundation

Classification based on Materials and Composition: Following piles are the

most common types in this category:

1. Cement Concrete Piles:

Cement concrete piles possess excellent compressive strength. These piles can be of reinforced
or pre-stressed type.

They can be divided into following two groups:

i. Pre-cast concrete piles

ii. Cast in-situ concrete piles

 Deep Foundation

i. Pre-cast Concrete piles

These piles are manufactured in factory. They may be square, octagonal or round in shape.

The precast concrete piles are generally used for a maximum design load of about 80 tones.

They may be reinforced to withstand handling stresses.

They require space for casting and storage, more time to set and cure before installation, and
heavy equipment for handling and driving.
 Deep Foundation

ii. Cast in-situ Concrete piles

In this type, a bore is dug into the ground by inserting a casing. This bore is filled with cement
concrete after placing reinforcement, if any.

They may be either cased cast in-situ concrete piles or uncased cast in-situ concrete piles
depending upon whether the casing is kept in position or is withdrawn afterwords.

Cast in-situ concrete piles are easy to handle and to drive in the ground.

They do not require extra reinforcement to resist the stresses developed during handling or
driving operation.
 Deep Foundation
Cast In-situ pile is constructed two ways:

a. Reinforcement insertion followed by concreting

b. Concreting followed by reinforcement insertion

Fig. Reinforcement insertion followed by concreting Fig. Concreting followed by reinforcement insertion
 Deep Foundation
2. Timber Piles:
Timber piles are prepared from trunks of trees. They may be circular or square.
They are 30 to 50 cm in diameter with a length not exceeding 20 times its top width.
At the bottom, a cast iron shoe is provided and at the top, a steel plate is fixed.
If a group of timber piles are driven, the top of each member of the group is brought at the
same level and then a concrete cap is provided to have a common platform.
They have a small bearing capacity (can take load up to 20 tonnes), and are not permanent
unless treated.
It is very difficult or even impossible to drive these piles into hard stratum or boulders.
Where timber is available easily, these piles prove to be economical.
 Deep Foundation

Fig. Timber pile

 Deep Foundation

3. Steel Piles: Steel piles are used in the following different forms:
i. H-Piles:

These piles are usually of wide flange section.

They can be easily driven in soils with respect to drive ordinary piles.

They are used as long piles with high bearing capacity.

 Deep Foundation
ii. Box Piles:

They are rectangular or octagonal in form filled with concrete.

These piles are used when it is not possible to drive H-Piles into hard strata.
 Deep Foundation
iii. Tube Piles:

In this type, tubes or pipes of steel are driven into the ground. Concrete is filled inside the
tube piles.

Because of their circular cross-section, these piles are easy to handle and easy to drive in.
 Deep Foundation

The advantages of steel piles can be listed below:

These piles can be easily withstand the stresses due to driving.

These piles can be easily lengthened by welding and can also be cutoff easily.

These piles can resist lateral forces in a better way.

The bearing capacity of these piles is comparatively high.

These piles can take up impact stresses and can resist lateral forces.

The only disadvantage of steel piles is their corrosion. To prevent corrosion they should be
coated with paints or may be encased with cement concrete.
 Deep Foundation

3. Composite Piles:
A composite pile is formed when it is a combination either of a bored pile and a driven pile or
piles made up of two different materials.

They are suitable where the upper part of a pile is to project above the water table.

They are economical and easy to construct.

Fig. Composite Pile

 Pile Driving Machinery
For driving piles into the ground, the following equipment’s is required:

1. Pile Driving Frame

The frame can be mounted on a crane base or on a rigid base.

It holds the pile vertical during driving and guide the hammer to fall vertically onto the pile
head.

Fig. Pile Driving Frame

 Pile Driving Machinery

2. Pile Diving Hammer

The hammer can be a simple “Drop Hammer” shown in fig. that is lifted and allowed to fall
under gravitational force onto pile head.

While falling, if it is also driven by steam, compressed air, diesel, hydraulic fluid to increase
the driving energy as well as the rate of hammering (number of blow per minutes) it is known
as “Pneumatic or Hydraulic Hammer”.

“Vibratory Hammer” is another variety used for driving piles into coarse grained soil by
imparting vibrations on the pile head resulting in quick penetration.
Pile Driving Machinery

Fig. Pile Driving Hammer

 Pile Driving Machinery

3. Appurtenances
These are the components that are placed in between the pile head and the hammer to transmit
maximum energy to the pile without damage to the pile head.

Fig. Components placed between Hammer and Pile

 Pile Driving Machinery
The pile hammer hits a strike plate that is placed over a cushion or dolly made usually of hard
wood.

The cushion or dolly transmits the energy to a drive head or helmet made of cast iron or steel
that is placed on the pile head.

The cushion soften the impact of the hammer by spreading it over a longer time without
sufficient loss of energy. The helmet prevents crushing of the pile head.

In concrete piles, a plywood packing is often inserted between the pile head and the helmet to
further protect the pile head.
 Pile Cap
Pile Cap
A pile cap is a thick concrete mat that rests on concrete or timber piles that have been driven into
soft or unstable ground to provide a suitable stable foundation.

The load coming from the superstructure through a column is usually transmitted to a group of
three or more piles.

 The group of piles are arranged

in a geotechnical pattern and
held rigidly together at the top in
a pile cap on which the column
rests.

Fig. Pile group as a deep foundation system and arrangement of piles in typical pile groups