Title: investigating the nutritional, functional and sensory quality of leaves of Enset:

Valorisation of climate resilent crops for sustainable s olutions to alleviate food and
nutrition insecurity

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Justification

Food and nutrition insecurity is the most common problem in developing countries particularly
in drought affected areas. Globally, about 2.33 billion of people experienced food insecurity
(FAO, 2023). The number of food insecured people in East Africa is nearly 327.1 millions of
people (30%) and 15.8 million in Ethiopia (FAO, 2023; UN, 2024). Thus, a great consideration
should be given on the climate resilient crops which can grow at harsh environment to improve
the availability and food access and thereby alleviate nutrition insecurity (Dhankher et al, 2018;
Sahoo et al, 2024). In addition to drought, i t is expected that by 2050, the number world
population will rich about 9.6*109 (Gerland et al., 2014). These issues forces scientists to seek
another food alternatives which are climate smart and provide safe nutrients.

Therefore, it is essential to select nutritious and climate adaptable crops which can play dual role
in food insecurity and nutrition deficiency reduction. Sorghum and Pearl millet are staple crops
in Africa, and Asian continents, known for their capacity to adapt to various harsh conditions like
drought, stress, and downpour (Hassan et al, 2021; Canelo-Álvarez et al., 2023) and this makes
them more important in alleviating of food and nutrition insecurity. Sorghum is rich in protein,
fat, carbohydrate, fat soluble vitamins (D, E, & K), and non-starch polysaccharides, as well such
as carotenoids, polyphenols, and antioxidants (Chhikara et al., 2018). Pearl millet contains a high
amount of Fe, Ca, and Zn and provides a low-cost solution for combating micronutrient
deficiencies and can be exploited for the preparing nutrient-dense foods. It contains higher
protein content than other cereals and is known for its richness of essential amino acids (Shrestha
et al., 2023).

Besides, appropriate processing method that increases bioavailability of nutrients, feasible for
low income communities is also important to minimize food and nutrition insecurity.
Nixtamalization is one of the method which is easy to carry out, and needs low cost and also
improve the grind ability of the above mentioned grains, and improves bioavailability of niacin
(vitamin B3), amino acids (tryptophan and lysine), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), and sensory
acceptability of the food (Sunico et al, 2021). Bread is one of the most important convenient
staple food due to its ease of processing, durability, affordability, ease of accessibility majorly in
food shortage areas (Noort et al, 2022). However, it has been reported that bread from non-wheat
grains are less preferable in its textural property amongst panelist (Tomić et al, 2020). Since
consumer acceptance of bread is a driving force for the reduction food and nutrition problems
(Frewer et al, 2003). Overall textural quality, appearance, mouth feel of bread is the most
important parameters for increasing consumer acceptance of the product (Gao and Zhou, 2021).
So, incorporating other climate resilient, crop such as Enset flour improves its sensory quality
and nutritional values. Enset is rich in essential minerals such as Ca, K, and Zn, and organoleptic
qualities of baked food products (Irena et al, 2021; Dilebo et al, 2023). Therefore, the aim of this
study is to develop bread through feasible and affordable method from climate adaptable crops
sorghum, Pearl millet and Enset flours to alleviate food and nutrient insecurity in developing
countries.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 General objective

 The general objective of this study is to develop staple food (bread) from climate resilient
crops (nixtamalized sorghum and Pearl millet, and Enset) to alleviate food and nutrition
insecurity
1.2.2 Specific objectives

 To develop nutritious bread from nixtamalized sorghum and Pearl millet, and Enset flours
 To evaluate nutritional, and functional quality of the bread made from the composite
flour
 To evaluate sensory quality of the bread made from the composite flour
 To optimize composite flour of nixtamalized sorghum and Pearl millet, and Enset
flours
 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Experimental site and source of sample

The experiment will be conducted at Free State University. Sorghum and Pearl millet will be
collected from international crops institute for the semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT) research center.
Enset flour will be bought from Jimma local market. Sorghum, Pearl millet and Enset are
selected based upon their ability to adapt to climate, production potential, and being major crops
in African countries. Other common ingredients such as, iodized salt, sugar, and yeast will be
purchased from Bloemfontein local market.

2.2 Flour sample preparation

Traditionally prepared Kocho will be purchased from Jimma local market and its flour will be prepared
as described by Tadesse et al., (2024). Nixtamalized Sorghum flour will be prepared as described in
Canelo-Álvarez et al, (2023). Nixtamalized Pearl millet flour will be prepared as described in
Gopika, and Joshi. (2024). Next, all the flours will be sieved with a 40 mesh screen to obtain
uniform size flour. Then, it will be packed with air tight High Density Polyethylene bags and stored
at stored at 4 oC until used for formulations. Composite flours will be formulated based on their
previously recommended percent in bread making. The upper and lower limits for flour formulation
of Sorghum, Pearl millet and Enset flours will be 15 to 30 % as recommended by Akin et al, (2022),
10 to 20% as recommended by Tortoe et al. (2019) and 70 to 85% as recommended by Souza, et al.
(2025), respectively.

2.3 Experimental design and treatment combinations

The experimental design will be generated using mixture design. Since the response is depends on the
proportion of ingredients, a mixture design is appropriate. The treatment consists of three mixtures:
15% < Sorghum < 30%, 10% < Pearl millet < 20%, 70% < Enset < 90% (Sorghum +Pearl millet+
Enset = 100%). In total, nine (9) runs or treatment combinations will be generated using the
software.
2.5 Bread making
Totally, 200g of main ingredients (Sorghum, Pearl millet, and Enset flours) will be mixed together based
on their proportions which will be generated by Minitab software. Then, equal amounts of common
ingredients (iodized salt, water, yeast and sugar) will be incorporated to each composite flours.
Lastly, leavened bread will be prepared following procedures described by Canelo-Álvarez et al,
(2023).
 2.5 Measurements
2.5.1 Proximate compositions
The proximate compositions such as moisture content, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and
crude ash will be determined gravimetrically according to AOAC, (2000), methods No: 925.10,
920.87, 920.39, and 923.03, respectively. Carbohydrate content (CC) will be obtained by
difference method (FAO, 1998) based on the below formula. Gross energy will be calculated as
described in Golden, (2009). The amino acid profiles will be measured using HPLC following
the procedures described by Chen et al., (2019).
Carbohydrate% = 100% - (moisture% + protein% + fat% + fiber% + ash%)
2.5.2 Functional property
Bulk density of the samples will be determined according to the method stated by Gupta et al,
(2005). Water and oil holding capacities of sample will be determined using the procedures
described by Beuchat (1977). Swelling power and solubility of the flours will be determined as
described in Oladele and Aina (2007).
2.5.3 Mineral and vitamins
Mineral contents (Zn, Fe, K, Ca, & Mg) will be determined using atomic absorption
spectrophotometer method following AOAC (2000) method 985.35. Vitamin A and B3 content
of the bread will be measured using HPLC as described in Van Wayenbergh et al., (2023).
2.5.4 Sensory property
A nine-point hedonic scale will be conducted to evaluate the sensory attributes of the sample
following the techniques used by Wichchukit & O'Mahony, (2015). Untrained panelists will
evaluate the sensory qualities of the bread.
2.6 Data analysis
Data will be analyzed using mixture design by Minitab software version 21.0. Regression
models, response surface, and contour plots will be generated to visualize the combination effect
of the ingredients on nutritional, functional, and sensory quality of bread. The significance test
will be conducted at p< 0.05. Graphical optimization will be conducted to determine the
optimum point of sorghum, pearl millet, and enset flour.
 3. WORK PLAN

Timelines
2026 G.C 2027 G.C 2028 G.C

Activities 1- 5- 9- 1- 5- 9- 1- 5- 9-
4M 8M 12M 4M 8M 12M 4M 8M 12M
Class completion, and title approval
with supervisors
Reviewing literatures
Developing full proposal
Proposal submission and defense
Raw materials collection
Sample preparation and bread making
Analysis of proximate, functional, and
sensory qualities
Data analysis
Witting research articles
Publication in indexed journals
Submission of document
Graduation
Note: M, months
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