CHAPTER IV.

MATERIALS
BINDERS

4.1. BINDERS.

Binders are the materials that have the property of adhering to

others; as a consequence of that property we use them in construction to
join and intertwine the stone materials (blocks, bricks, etc.). In the
plasters and renders that cover the walls and ceilings or to form the mortars
and concrete that can be extended and molded with relative ease and
that once hardened they acquire a solid state.

4.2. CLASSIFICATION OF BINDERS.

Binders can be classified into:

Aerial
Hydraulics
Hydrocarbons
Resins

Let's look at the main characteristics of each one:

Air binders:
They are the ones that only harden upon contact with air;

Hydraulic binders:
They are those that can harden upon contact with air as well as under
water

Hydrocarbon binders:
They are made up of more or less viscous hydrocarbons that harden.
by cooling or evaporation of their solvents;

Resins:
They harden due to cooling, heat, pressure, or reaction between two.
components.

According to the type of binders used in the making of a

concrete will be classified as: air, hydraulic, asphalt or resin.
concretes will be the subject of study in later chapters.
 4.3. AIR BINDERS.

The definition of air binders was given in the previous paragraphs.

In this chapter, we will study within the air binders:

The plaster
Air lime.

4.3.1. Gypsum.

It is the product resulting from the partial or complete dehydration of the

gypsum.4. 2H2O)
When heat acts on gypsum, it detaches at one and a half.
water molecule, obtaining the so-called semihydrate.

Ca SO4 2H O
2
Heat C SO a H 4 O 1121H 2O 2 2 (4.1)

gypsum (128-180)0C) (semihydrate)

The specific weight of this semi-hydrate is around 2.75.
There are two varieties of semi-hydrate: quick-setting and setting.
slow.

Curing.

The semihydrate is quite soluble in water; when mixed with water it

immediately transforms into dihydrate (Ca4SO4x 2H2O) according to the equation:

C a SO 4 H1 2 O 21 1H O 2 C2 SO x2H
a
O4 2 (4.2)
(semi-hydrated) (dehydrated)

The hemihydrate is more soluble than the dihydrate, so a

supersaturated solution of dihydrate, and it crystallizes, leaving the water in
conditions of dissolving more hemihydrates, thereby becoming saturated again
crystallize, and so on until the entire mass is transformed; these
crystallizations form a network of fine needles in a kind of crystalline filter,
which is weaker the more water is used for kneading since the that
it does not combine, it evaporates, leaving empty spaces or pores.

The setting of the semihydrate begins in two or three minutes and ends at
the fifteen or twenty minutes; during this setting heat is released,
the temperature rising about 200C.
 Aerial cal.

Limestone rocks decompose when subjected to heat. If these are

pure, when temperatures exceed 9000C, the following is verified
reaction

C a heat CO2  Ca O (4.3)

rocacaliza900 dioxide cal
pure decarbonize long live

The CO2itis a gas that is released leaving calcium oxide (CaO)

known as quicklime. Quicklime is a solid product, white in color, with a
specific weight of 3.18 to 3.40; it is unstable due to having a great affinity for water.
it is also a very caustic material.
This quicklime for its use in construction is first subjected to a
process known as lime slaking, which consists of adding water to it, with the
which reacts in the following way:

Ca  H 2 The C a(OH)2  15100 calories (4.4)

live calf off candle

Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, it is called slaked lime and in

Our works are also known as hydrate.
Calcium hydroxide is a white, amorphous, powdery solid, somewhat
soluble in water, which imparts a white color, forming the slurry; in
a larger quantity forms with it a paste known by the name of putty.
Mortars made with hydrated lime have the property of
slowly hardening in the air, linking the solid bodies by what
it can be used as a binder. This hardening is called
fraguado, and it is primarily due to desiccation resulting from evaporation
from the water that was used to form the paste, and then to a carbonation by
absorption of carbon dioxide from the air.

Ca(HO)2 Ca CO3 H 2O (4.5)

It is noted that carbonate and water are produced, which restores the limestone.
that broke. This reaction is very slow, it starts at 24 hours and lasts 6 months,
so the works where they are used take a long time to harden and set in
service. It is only carried out in dry air; in humid air, with great difficulty, and
inside the water it dissolves so it is not suitable for hydraulic works. Furthermore, to
fraguing experiences contraction or decrease in volume, which causes
cracking.
 4.3.3. Applications of air binders.

Gypsum: It is used to make partitions, vaults, molds, plastering, mixing

with cola water, a mixture is obtained that, once spread and set, becomes
you can polish and shine with a cloth soaked in soapy water first and
then with oil; this mixture is known as stucco;

Airborne lime: It is used in mortars, to agglomerate stony materials and for

coatings in air concrete mixed with a small proportion of gypsum;
in the preparation of putties, for plaster mixed with water, to form
slurries for painting and in the preparation of bastard mortars formed by a
binder made of a mix of lime and cement.

4.4. HYDRAULIC BINDERS.

In this section, we will include, in addition to the hydraulic binders themselves

sayings, the pozzolana, which although on their own do not set and harden, mixed
with lime and in the presence of moisture, they produce hydraulic products.

4.4.1. Portland Cement. Generalities.

Historical background.

In 1755, the Englishman Smeaton investigated the causes of hardening of the

cement and hydraulic concrete, which at that time were manufactured
exclusively with lime and pozzolana. In 1796, Parker discovered that by
Calcination of clayey limestones, hydraulic cements could be manufactured.
The invention of Portland cement is attributed to the English J. Aspdin, because he
patented in 1824, naming it that way due to the color analogy what
was presented with the stone from the English locality of Portland. In the manufacturing of
this cement was obtained first from lime, which was mixed with clay,
after this mixture was subjected to a cooking process, pulverizing the
resulting product.
However, it was Isaac Charles Johnson who established in 1844 a
fundamental principle in the manufacturing of this cement, when arriving through
extensive research shows that for a better quality of the product,
cooking should be carried out until a partial melting point was reached. That is to say, until
so the products were obtained through a process of cooking exclusively
in solid state and from that moment on the manufacturing began in
presence of liquid phase.
In Cuba, the first Portland cement factory was established in Mariel.
subsequently, the plants in Artemisa and Santiago de Cuba were installed, these
they were the three only factories that capitalism put into operation in
our country, with a total production volume of one million tons
annual. After the triumph of the Revolution and to satisfy the needs
growing constructions, the product of our impetuous development
economic-social, the factories of Nuevitas in Camagüey have been built,
Siguaney in Sancti Spíritus, Cienfuegos, and Mariel.

4.4.1.1. Manufacturing of Portland cement.

Portland cement is undoubtedly the most widely used binder in the

construction, both national and on a global scale, hence the importance of
same and why we will deepen our analysis on this type of cement, in
relationship with what we will do with the other binders that we will study
length of the book.
Portland cement can be defined as a mixture subjected to a
grinding until achieving a suitable fineness, of clinker (subsequently
we will define what Clinker is) and a small amount of gypsum, which is added
to regulate its setting time during the hydration process
cement when mixed with water.
Let's see what Clinker is: Clinker is the product formed by silicates and
calcium aluminates basically obtained by calcining, until fusion
partial mixtures intimate, prepared artificially y dosed
conveniently from limestone and clay materials, this product is
presents in the form of clusters, with a slag or artificial stone.
Regarding raw materials, we have to say: Limestone is a
sedimentary rock essentially made up of calcium carbonate (CaCO)3) y
a variable amount of clay impurities. When the amount of impurities
when a limestone contains a certain value, the rock is called
marga.
For the purposes of cement production, marls are classified as:

Marl limestones, which contain 80 to 95% CaCO3.

-Limestones, which contain 75 to 80% CaCO3.
Clayey soils, which contain 35 to 75% of CaCO3.

The clays, in turn, come from the decomposition of silicates and are
they can be considered as aluminum and iron silicates, also commonly
they contain variable amounts of calcium and magnesium carbonate such as
impurities. It is difficult to find clusters of marls that show the
appropriate composition for the manufacture of Portland cement.
Due to the fact that CaO is present in a greater proportion in the composition of this
cement that he is capable of giving these clays, is why generally the
factories are located near a limestone quarry, while
search in the vicinity for a clay bank capable of providing the elements
complementary: silica, aluminum, and iron oxide. These missing elements
they can also be provided by blast furnace slags, fly ashes,
etcetera.
Manufacturing of Portland cement.

After the appropriate dosing of the raw materials has been carried out
(limestones and marls), these are crushed and mixed. The new material constituted
It can have a pasty or powdery form depending on the selected procedure.
is subjected to high temperatures, transforming into the slag known as
clinker. This clinker is then ground with gypsum and additives, obtaining
a gray powder that constitutes the cement.

The manufacturing of Portland cement can be summarized in the following

operations:
a. Preparation.
b. Cooking.
c. Cooling.
d. Milling.

To obtain this type of cement, three processes are used:

By wet route;
By semi-dry route;
By dry route.

Wet process manufacturing.

This procedure is recommended when the raw materials are

naturally rich in water and easy to dissolve.
With it, very homogeneous mixtures are obtained, therefore providing,
cement with constant characteristics and relatively less control.
It presents the drawback of higher fuel consumption.
In Cuba, the oldest factories operate by this procedure, but the
new creation is made through a semi-dry process. In figure 4.1, it can be observed a
scheme of this procedure, the operations that compose it are the
next:

1. Extraction of the raw material: depending on the type of material this

It will have to be removed with explosives and loaded with mechanical shovels.
or removed using scarifiers, and then transported in
trucks.
2. Dissolve: the raw materials are placed in circular containers with
water, inside which a rake turns that crumbles and divides them (see
Figure 4.2).
 FIGURE 4.1. Diagram of cement production by wet process.

3. Crushing: the paste obtained is coarse, so it is necessary

grind it to facilitate later combinations.
In other technological processes during grinding, water is added,
obtaining the dough without going through what is indicated in point 2.

4. Storage and dosing: the paste fine enough is carried

to the storage deposits, where it is mechanically preserved
its homogeneity.
These deposits are interconnected in such a way that they can
mix pastes of different compositions in established proportions, according to
the results of the chemical analyses.
 FIGURE 4.2. Circular deposits for dissolving.

Large capacity deposits are introduced into the rotary kiln.

see Figure 4.3. These furnaces are essentially composed of a cylinder of
steel with a diameter of 2 to 6 meters, a length of 60 to 180 meters, an inclination of
three to five % that favors the circulation of matter and spins with a speed
close to two revolutions per minute. The flame is introduced into the oven through a
nozzle that is used to inject the fuel. In this oven, the paste is dried,
it is decarbonated and undergoes the cooking process called clinkerization.

FIGURE 4.3. Rotary furnace.

5. Cooling: the clinker comes out of the furnace at a high temperature,

approximately 10000C) the calories thus removed are recovered in a
a special device called "cooler". The cooling of the clinker is obtained
by a current of fresh air, which after warming up in contact
with the clinker constitute the secondary air for combustion. In the
Figure 4.4 shows a horizontal grille type chiller.

FIGURE 4.4. Horizontal grill type cooler.

 6. Grinding: the clinker once cooled is treated in a ball mill,
which transforms it into powder; during this grinding, gypsum is always added
clinker as a regulator of setting and eventually other materials.
additives, aimed at influencing certain properties of cement. The
The cement obtained is stored in silos from where it is packaged in
bags through automatic machines or it is directly transferred from
silo for trucks or tank cars.

Semi-dry manufacturing.

This procedure is used when the raw materials are by nature

poor in water. In this technology, the raw materials are dried.
completely, in order to obtain powder and not a paste as the procedure
previous. Figure 4.5 shows a diagram of this procedure.

FIGURE 4.5. Manufacturing diagram of cement by semi-dry process.

 The operations are as follows:

1. Extraction of the raw material.

2. Crushing and grinding with simultaneous drying.
3. Homogenization.

The powder obtained in the previous step must be homogenized, that is,
components must be mixed intimately by agitation. The powder
it is stored in silos, the contents of these silos are mixed in proportions
different according to their chemical composition. The principle does not differ in what
fundamental of the wet method. A powder is more difficult to
homogenize a paste. At equal final quality of homogenization the
dust requires more frequent controls and more numerous manipulations. It demands
equally have an important battery of silos. Homogenization
it can be mechanical or pneumatic.

4. Cooking: the powder is agglomerated by humidification in the form of small balls

from 10 to 15mm in diameter, by means of the rotating disk granulator
(see Figure 4.6).

FIGURE 4.6. Rotary disc granulator.

These balls formed this way are inserted into a rotary oven.
from an exchanger, for example, Lepol grill or in a vertical furnace. In the
Figures 4.7 and 4.8 show diagrams of a vertical furnace and a furnace.
Lepol rotary respectively. The operations following the acquisition of
clinker, are the same as in the wet process.

FIGURE 4.7. Vertical oven.

FIGURE 4.8. Lepol rotary kiln.

Dry process manufacturing.

The operations are identical to those carried out in the semi-dry process,
suppressing the agglomeration operation (via semi-dry). The furnace is
prepared to directly process the homogenized powder.

Constituent of Portland cement.

Portland cement is obtained by reacting during the process of the

cooking the oxides SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3and CaO, these oxides are the fundamental ones
that intervene in the formation of Portland cement, which can be considered
like accidents the MgO, Na2O and K2O. These oxides, upon reacting, constitute
a series of calcium silicates and aluminates, of which the fundamentals are:

Compound Composition Symbol

Tricalcium silicate SiO2. 3CaO SC3

Bicalcium silicate SiO22CaO SC2

Tricalcium aluminate Al2O33CaO AC3

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite Fe2O 3.Al2O34CaO FAC4

Note: (the other oxides are based on these)

It also contains gypsum, as we have already seen as a setting regulator,

CaO (quicklime), MgO, Na2O and K2O; the content of these oxides that
eventually appear in the cement are specified to a maximum, since it
they confer harmful properties to the cement.
The Cuban standard establishes for the different qualities of Portland cement
the following chemical characteristics:
(See Table 4.1.)

TABLE 4.1. Chemical characteristics of Portland Cement.

Essays QUALITIES
P - 250 P - 350 P–450
Magnesium oxide (MgO) % max 3.00 3.00 3.00
Sulfur trioxide (SO)3) % max 3.00 3.00 3.00
Maximum fire loss % 3.00 3.00 3.00
Insoluble residue % max 2.00 2.00 2.00
Tricalcium aluminum % max - 15.00 15.00
 In general, the chemical composition of Portland cement varies within limits.
very restricted, being approximately the following:

Calcium Oxide 60.0 to 67.0%

SiO2 17.0 to 25.0%
Al2O3 3.0 to 8.0%
Fe2O 3 0.5 to 6.0%
MgO 0.1 to 5.5%
Na2OandK2O 0.5 to 5.5%
SO3 1.0 to 3.0%
Na2OandK2O they constitute the alkalis

As we saw earlier CaO, SiO2Al2O3and Fe2O3, they are presented

forming silicates and aluminates. Different types can be obtained.
cement, trying to vary the proportions in which the silicates appear and
aluminates. In table 4.2 according to Bogue, the composition of different types appears.
of Portland cement.

TABLE 4.2. Composition of different Portland cements.

Type SC3SC2AC3FAC4Finura cm2/g

I. General use 50 24 11 8 1800
II. Moderate hydration heat 42 33 5 13 1800
III. Rapid hardening 60 13 9 8 2600
IV. Small hydration heat 26 50 5 12 1900
V. Resistance to sulfates 40 40 4 9 1900

When selecting a cement for a specific type of work, it is

It is necessary to know what properties give cement its different characteristics.
components based on the composition of the available cements,
choose the most suitable one. As is logical, this selection is not always possible
for often having only one option.

Main characteristics of Portland cement components.

Tricalcium Silicate (SC3)

A great hydration speed.

A strong hydration heat.
It gives the cement high mechanical strengths in the early stages.
ages.
-Although its chemical stability is acceptable, since it releases
hydrate a large amount of Ca(OH)2contributes to certain types of
corrosion of concrete.
Bicalcium Silicate (SC2)

A small hydration speed.

A hydration heat much weaker than that of the SC.3.
It gives the cement good mechanical strengths, although over time.
long.
Good chemical stability.

Tricalcium Aluminum (AC3)

Very high hydration speed.

Very high hydration heat.
It gives the cement some mechanical resistance within the first
twenty-four hours.
Its chemical stability is scarce in the presence of selenitic waters and that
they contain chlorides.

Ferrite Tetracalcium Aluminate (FAC)4)

High hydration speed.

Relatively low hydration heat.
It gives the cement little or virtually no mechanical resistance.
Its chemical stability against brine waters is good.

To conclude this point on the construction of Portland cement, let's look at a

simplified scheme of the formation of this cement from its
original components. During the cooking process and at different
temperatures form the different constituent compounds of cement
Portland, some prior to others and approximately in the following manner:
Before 10000The limestone and clay lose carbon dioxide and the
water of constitution respectively.

Ca CO3  heat Ca O  CO2 (4.6)

clay heat clay reconstitution water  4.7

Carbon dioxide is a gas that is released; leaving CaO from
basic character in readiness to react with acidic components. The
clay, in turn, undergoes an activation process, that is, it is ready to react
with lime (CaO).
A 12000Lime is combined with alumina (Al2O3) and with ferric oxide
(Fe2O 3) to originate tricalcium aluminum and tetracalcium aluminate ferrite.

Al2O3 3Ca O Al2O3 3Ca O 4.8

 Iron2O3 Al2O3 4CaO Fe2O3 Al2O3 4CaO (4.9)

Both compounds form a paste-like mass of liquid consistency,

called fluid bed, in which the other two components SiO float.2y
CaO. This fluid bed is essential for the formation of calcium silicates,
where the transcendental importance of clinkerizing the crudes arises from
cement
Iron compounds2O3and Al2O3they are called 'fluxes'.

Between 1200 and 13000With lime and silica to produce bicalcium silicate:

SiO2 2CaO SiO2 Calcium oxide (4.10)

Between 1400 and 14500Part of the dicalcium silicate formed reacts with
the remaining lime to form tricalcium silicate.

SiO2 2CaO Calciumoxide 2CaO (4.11)

Subsequently, during the cooling process, if these constituted compounds are

let cool slowly to room temperature, the tricalcium silicate
unfolds into bicalcium silicate and calcium oxide.

SiO2 3CaO SiO2 2CaO Calcium oxide (4.12)

Which implies a loss of resistant qualities, apart from that

the presence of lime oxide (free lime) is harmful as we will see later in
certain circumstances.

4.4.1.2. Setting and hardening.

The setting and hardening of Portland cement is due to hydration.

of the anhydride compounds.

Hydration of Portland cement.

We can visualize the hydration of Portland cement paste in

four stages:

1rastage.

In a short period after the water and cement have entered into
contact occurs relatively fast chemical reactions. Water causes a
initial dissolution of the cement compounds and the reaction of their begins
constituents producing a high heat generation rate, without
embargo, in about 5 minutes the reaction speed
descend to a lower level.
 Approximately 1% of the cement participates in the initial reaction.

During the initial reaction the C3S begins to hydrate to give C3SH
liberating Ca(OH)2what is immediately dissolved in the mixing water. The pH
it reaches approximately a value of 13, the solution transforms into
oversaturated, crystallizing some amount of Ca(OH)2in the form of crystals
hexagonal.
Some of the alkalis are leached from cement. The products of the
reaction generally adheres to the surface of the cement grains. The
C3It also goes to the solution almost immediately, usually a hydrate.
can form rapidly with the release of a large amount of heat allowing
a lightning setting occurs. However, since gypsum has been added to the
cement, plaster, and the C3In solution, they react to form a layer of sulfide.
relatively insoluble alumina that causes the reaction to decrease to a low
level.

2ofstage.

In the 2nd stage called the latent period, which can last from one to three
hours, the reactions occur at a low speed because the grains of
Cement remains covered with its initial layer of reaction product.
Some hardening of the dough occurs, but this can be eliminated by
its mechanical work. The cement particles at this stage are in a state
flocculant, they tend to stick together to form a weak, permeable solid. The
Interstitial spaces in the cement paste are filled with water.
In this latent period, sedimentation can occur. Due to the force
of cohesion between particles, the largest and the smallest settle equally
speed. This settlement increases the density at the bottom and the water
begins to reach the surface.

3rastage.

At the end of the latent period, rapid chemical reactions occur again.
due to the rupture of the protective layer of the cement grains, giving access
to the water, resulting in the SC reaction3Tricalcium silicate is produced so that
the mass begins to show an increase in stiffness. After approximately
2 to 4 hours; the initial setting is reached and approximately five to eight
hours the final setting occurs.

4tastage.

The fourth stage or hardening period begins after reaching the

final fragility. The chemical reactions continue at a decreasing rate until
that all the cement is consumed or the water runs out.
Curing theory.

Two general theories attempt to explain the phenomena of hardening and of

hardening of cements:
Colloidal theory.

Crystalline theory.

Colloidal Theory: according to Michaelis, when water comes into contact with cement,
hydrated compounds are produced in solution, which due to their low
solubility remains in a state of supersaturation, coagulating in the form of a
impermeable gel mass around the cement grains. The gel
slowly increases in volume by tightening the grains of cement. The
Hydration increases inside the grain at the expense of the gel.

Crystal Theory: according to Le Chatelier, anhydride compounds are more

soluble hydrated substances, and in the presence of water forms a solution
oversaturated, precipitating part of the hydrated compounds in the form of
microcrystals leaving a residual water with the possibility of dissolving new ones
anhydride compounds.

Neither of the two theories can completely explain the phenomena.

of the setting and hardening of the cement, so currently it
they accept the coexistence of both.

That is to say, that some phenomena are explained by colloidal theory, others by the
clear
From the beginning, a gel forms around the cement grains and
simultaneously a supersaturated solution is formed in the liquid phase
precipitating part of the hydrated compounds gradually constituting a
crystal red. Continuous hydration inside the grain at the expense of water
of the gel, which will dry and crack, so new products
hydrated will pass to the liquid phase, supersaturating it and precipitating
partially.

Cement hydration.

From the explanation above, the importance of ensuring is evident.

persistence of water in the liquid phase during the hydration development of the
cement so that all the grain of cement undergoes this process, as
we will see later the method that guarantees this permanence of water in the
interior of the cement paste, preventing its evaporation, is known as the
name of the cured.
It is also noted that to the same extent as the process deepens
towards the interior of the grain it becomes more difficult; the reaction speed
The cement with the water will be greater by reducing the average size of the
grains because there is more surface reacting with water.
 From all of the above, it is clear how important the fineness of the cement is.
To the same extent that the amount of water used is greater in the
the more kneaded, the greater the diameter of the capillaries inside which it is located
liquid phase means that the cement grains are more separated from each other
and there will be less likelihood that these spaces will be filled with the products of
hydration, which as we will see later negatively influences
the impermeability and durability and resistance of mortars and concretes.

Hydration reactions of Portland cement.

Cement, when it comes into contact with water, begins to react.

producing the different hydration products. At the beginning of this reaction, it
form Ca(OH)2the one that comes from the hydration of free lime (CaO), which
it contains the cement and a slight hydration of the SC3.
In the presence of Ca(OH)2, the AC3react according to the double scheme.

a.Al2O3 3CaO 12  H 2O umCciahldyo2exri Al

 2O3 4CaO 13H2O  4.13
b.Al2 O3 3CaO 3  CaSO4 2H 2 The  25H2 The 3CaO Al2 O3 3CaSO4 3H2 O  4.14 
Etringite
Both hydrated aluminates form an insoluble protective layer (gel)
around the grain of cement that prevents water penetration, delaying the
setting, which explains the retarding role of gypsum.
The stringiness, upon reacting, increases in volume but because it does so
in the midst of a fresh dough (initial reactions that occur)
it does not cause destruction to the whole. That is to say, that the setting principle is
linked to the AC reaction3.
The hardening begins with the progressive formation of silicates
hydrated.


TheSC33Ca SiO,2  when reacting with water it yields:


23CaO SiO2   6H 2 The 3CaO 2SiO2 3H2 The 3Ca  OH2  4.15
TobermoritaPortlandirta

TheSC2  2CaO SiO2 , produce

2 2CaO SiO2   4H 2 O 3CaO 2SiO2 3H2 O Ca  OH2  4.16 

TobermoritePortlandite

It is evident that the SC3and the SC2they

originate the same amount of tobermorite. This
a compound is one that communicates resistance to the hardened cement paste but
the hydration rate of SC3it is much faster than that of SC2.
 On the other hand, Ca(OH)2it is the basic element that contributes to the majority
of the types of corrosion of concretes. It can be observed that the SC3
releases three times more Ca(OH)2that the SC2: as far as a
cement has a higher SC content3it will be less chemically stable.
FAC4react according to the following reaction:

4CaO Fe2O3 Al2O3 H 2O 3CaO Al2O3 5H2The Calcium Oxide Fe2O3  6H 

2O
4.17

False forged.

In concrete, a rapid hardening sometimes occurs.

immediately after kneading, this is due to the phenomenon that can be
to present in cement known as false setting.
The false setting is fundamentally due to the grinding of the
clinker to which a percentage of gypsum stone is added, the temperature can
rise above 1500C, with which the dihydrate (CaSO42H2O), experiment.
a dehydration, transitioning to semi-hydrate (CaSO 4. ½ H2O), this element is
very thirsty for water so when it comes into contact with the kneading water of the
concrete will recover its one and a half molecule of H2Or passing the gypsum stone
(CaSO4. 2H2O) what causes the early hardening explained above.
The concretes made with cements that present false setting one
once mixed in the concrete mixer, they should be left to rest inside it
for a few minutes, after this time it will be kneaded again for two
In three minutes, this operation destroys the false setting, which allows
it will behave normally. Never add more water to the concrete with
views to destroy this false forging.

4.4.1.3. Properties.

Fineness of grinding.

The fineness of grinding is of great importance because of its influence on

important properties of cement; among the advantages obtained with a
We can fundamentally place the finer grinding of the cements:
Increase in mechanical resistance.
The reaction speed of water and cement will be greater, due to
it increases the surface area where these reactions take place.
It reduces the possibility of material remaining inside the grains of
non-reactive cement.

To understand the importance of grind fineness, let us study what it is.

water penetration speed in cement grains.
In a day, the water penetrates 0.5 microns, in this time the paste can reach
approximately 25% of its strength at 28 days (reference value of
the mechanical resistances).
 After seven days, that is, six days after the water can penetrate 1.2 microns.
more, that is to say, it will have penetrated 1.7 microns in total, on this date the paste
it may have around 75% of the strength it will reach at 28 days. At 28
days will have reached 3.5 microns in depth, that is, in 21 days
it will penetrate only 1.8 microns. After 90 days, the penetration of water will be
five microns, or in other words, that in 62 days the penetration will be only 1.5
micras.
After six months it will have reached 10 microns. In advanced ages, the
the hydration speed will be much slower, eventually coming to a halt
practically, so that a central core can remain unreacted when the
The cement grain is greater than 20 microns.
When talking about the setting and hardening of cement, we had already pointed out the
importance of ensuring the permanence of water inside the paste, and that
this was achieved through curing.
Here we see that the rate of water penetration in the grains of
Cement is much more intense in the early ages from where it is detached.
a very important fact is to guarantee that curing precisely at those ages,
where there are more possibilities for reactions to occur
hydration and with it the cementing products.
So far we have outlined the advantages, however, it is not always the case that
They gain advantages with a finer grind.
Among the disadvantages that can sometimes come with greater fineness of
grinded we can position:
a. An increase in the heat of hydration.
b. The increase in reaction speed when it is not convenient a
sintering and a rapid hardening.

The fineness of cement grinding can be determined by:

The percent retained on a sieve with a specified opening size;
The value of the specific surface.

To determine the specific surface, the following devices are used:

Turbidimeters;
Permeameters.

One of the most widely used devices is the Blaine permeabilimeter.

In the Cuban standard, various procedures to determine the...
fineness of the cements.
This Cuban standard presents the following specifications that must
meet the cements in terms of fineness. (See Table 4.3).
TABLE 4.3. Fineness specifications.

Essay QUALITIES.
P- 250 P - 350 P–450
Residue on 4 900 mesh sieve cm2
(% maximum) 12.00 10.00 8.00
Specific Surface Blaine ("minimum") 2 400 2 600 3,000

2. Heat of hydration.

The reaction of cement with water is characterized by being exothermic, it is

to say, that when it occurs, it causes a release of heat. This heat
Desprendido is what is known as the heat of hydration.
The intensity of this emitted heat fundamentally depends on the
chemical composition in such a way that:
Increases with the increase of AC3in the cement.
Increases, albeit to a lesser extent, with the increase of SC3.
It decreases with an increase in FAC.4and of the SC2.
One of the ways to reduce the heat of hydration is, therefore, by trying
that increases the proportion of iron2O3in the composition of the cement with which
it will increase the formation of FAC4, at the expense of AC3remember that in both
intervenes Al2O 3, so an increase of one can only be achieved at the expense of
decrease the other.
It has been shown that the heat of hydration increases with the fineness of the cement.
used.
There are several methods to determine the heat of hydration which is
expressed in calories per gram of cement (cal/g).

Among these methods, we can mention:

The one with the insulating bottle.

b. The heat of dissolution.

TABLE 4.4. Heat of hydration of Portland cement components.

Component Symbol Heat released in

calories per gram.
To2O3. 3 CaO AC3 207 3
SiO23 CaO SC3 120 3
Fe2O 3. Al2O 34 CaO FAC4 100 3
SiO22 CaO SC2 62 3
Calcium oxide 279 3
MgO 203 3
 The latter is the most commonly used today. Table 4.4 provides
according to Lech and Bogue, the heat of hydration of the different components of
Portland cement using this method.
This phenomenon is important in constructions where it is necessary.
placing large masses of concrete, where the use of high heat cements
Dehydration can cause the emergence of cracks in concrete.

3. Mechanical resistances.

The mechanical resistance that a cement can develop in its function

of agglomerating aggregates, once set and hardened, is the parameter that
It is fundamentally used to determine the quality of that binder.
Cuban standards require certain minimum flexural tensile strengths.
and comprehension. These same standards include testing methodologies
for these determinations. In general, they are carried out on mortars
made with the analyzed cement, normal sand containing more than
97% silica and with specific granulometry. The ratio of the mortar is:

A part of cement
Three parts of sand
Media water part

The manufactured specimens have a dimension of 4.4.16 cm,

testing them for flexotration and the halves of samples from
the fractures of this test are subjected to compression with an application area of
the load 4.4cm2.
The Cuban standard states that Portland cement will be identified with the
letter P followed by the value of the minimum compressive strength expressed in
kgf/cm2at the age of 28 days of the above-described mortar. This identification
it constitutes the quality of the cement.
Three qualities for Portland cement are established.

Portland 250 kgf/cm2(minimum) defined as P-250.

Portland of 350 kgf/cm2(minimum) defined as P-350.
Portland of 450 kgf/cm2(minimum) defined as P-450.

The mechanical resistances of these cements proposed by the same standard.

(They appear in Table 4.5)
The mechanical resistances will depend under equal conditions on:

a. The chemical composition.

Cements with a high content of SC3, they will reach more resistances
greater in the early ages of hardening than those that contain
a smaller amount of this compound and a relatively larger amount of SC2,
however, if humidity conditions are maintained, all cements
Portland will have the same resistance for 180 days while maintaining all the others.
conditions on equal terms.

b. The fineness of grinding

The finer the cement is, the more likely it will be to

reactions and therefore the resistances will generally be greater.

TABLE 4.5 minimum mechanical resistance for the different qualities of cement
Portland.

Cement Minimum resistances in kgf/cm2(MPa)

designation Bending Compression
3 days 7 days 7 days 28 days 3 days 28 days
P–250 20 (2) 35 (3.5) 55 (5,5) 120 (12) 170 (17) 250 (25)
P–350 30 (3) 45 (4,5) 65 (6.5) 170 (17) 250 (25) 350 (35)
P - 450 50 (5) 60 (6.0) 70 (7.0) 250 (25) 350 (35) 450 (45)

4. Specific weight

The specific weight of Portland cements is generally found to be between

3.10 to 3.15.

The Cuban standard outlines how to make this determination. For the
determination of the volume of cement cannot be done by immersing it in
water since it will react with it, which is why liquids are used that
inert solvents with cement, such as gasoline, liquid paraffin, etc.
The main use of the specific weight of cement today is in the
concrete dosing.

5. Volume stability

Cement pastes can undergo volume deformation during the

process of setting and hardening, which can be of:

a. Retraction
b. Expansion

A. Retraction

It consists of a contraction that the dough undergoes and that influences the
contraction experienced by the dough that affects the total contraction of
the mortars and concretes. It may be due to:

A loss of mixing water.

The influence of cement, in such a way that the contraction will be higher
the finer the cement, there is an optimal gypsum content that
 produce the minimum shrinkage, the alkalis of the clinker increase the
contraction.

B. Expansion.

Pure pastes, mortars or concrete experience increases in volume in

presence of moisture due to slow hydration of some components.

These can be:

1. Plaster; an excess of CaSO42H2Or it can cause an expansion that

begins to manifest after a few days and is due to the
formation of calcium sulfoaluminates,

3CaO Al2O3 CaSO4 3H2O  Candlot

2. Free lime; it is dangerous if a part of it did not have time to hydrate.

before setting, the transformation 2is Calcium Oxide H 2 OH
The  Ca

accompanied by a strong increase in volume.

3. Free magnesia; its hydration and its consequences are analogous to those of
the free lime.

There are several tests to determine the expansion of cements.

In the Cuban standard, in addition to the methodologies of the analyses
chemicals, the expansion method in the autoclave. In this same standard, it
sets forth the specifications shown in table 4.6.

Table 4.6. Expansion specifications.

P - 250 P - 350 P–450

Maximum expansion
in autoclave in by 0.80 0.50 0.50
one hundred

4.4.4.4. Applications of Portland cement.

The fundamental application of Portland cement is in the making of

mortars and concretes, in turn with these products a range of is made.
products that we will see in the concrete chapter.
Other applications are in: crack injections in soils, injections in
cracks in works, ferrocement boat construction, etc.
According to the type of application, the optimal type of cement should be analyzed.
of those we have at our disposal.
Hot cement.

Sometimes the cement arrives at the works and batching plants of

concrete freshly out of the grinding process, so its temperature is
High, the cement under these conditions is called hot cement.
If this coincides with a high temperature, which in our country is
frequent early hardening of the concrete occurs, which can bring
difficulties in their placement in the molds, due to water loss. Due to
0
it is suggested not to use cement that has a temperature of more than 70 C in the
moment of its use, that is to say, in these cases it should be allowed to cool down
necessary time.
The problems that can arise from the use of hot cement are
increase at the same rate as the time elapsed between the
mixed and the placement and compaction in the molds.

4.4.2. Other cements

4.4.2.l Alumina cement

Cement is obtained by fusing a mixture of limestone and bauxite in

In certain proportions, the resulting product is pulverized.

The chemical composition of these cements according to Schleicher is:

Al2O3..................42.0 to 46.5%

39.0 to 44.0 %

SiO26.5 to 8.5%

Fe2O 3.................0.6 to 1.4 %

MgO..................1.3 to 2.1 %

These cements are considered to be mainly formed by:

Calcium oxide aluminum2O3monocalcium aluminate (70 to 80% of the total).

2CaO.SiO2bicalcium silicate

The fundamental hydration reactions are:

2 2CaO SiO2  4H2The 3CaO 2SiO 3 3H2The Ca  OH2  4.17

 CaO Al2 10H2 CaOAl2O3 10H2  4.18

CaAl2O3 10H2The 2CaOAl2 O3 7H2The Al2O3 3H2 O  4.19

The lime released in (4.17) fully combines with the alumina of the
reaction (4.19).
Reactions (4.18) and (4.19) are carried out, to a greater extent one or the other,
according to the water/cement ratio used.
Characteristic: it has a very dark color; a great fineness of mill; to
not possessing free lime presents great chemical stability; with this cement
they obtain high mechanical resistances at three days it presents resistances to
analogous compressive strengths obtained with normal Portland at 28 days;
Heat release during hydration occurs in just ten hours,
while in Portland cement this is mainly done in 3 days: the
high susceptibility to temperature before setting, at temperatures
greater than 25oC begins to affect its final resistances; the lime causes a
it accelerates its setting and reduces its strengths, which means it cannot be used.
mixed and reduces its resistances, so it cannot be used mixed with
Portland cement, lime; once set, it has high resistance to heat,
being able to withstand ordinary aluminosilicate cement 1 400oC; it has been noticed
that after five years structures made with this cement
they present a decreasing trend in their resistances.

Applications: It is used in concrete subjected to aggressive water attack,

especially those containing sulfates and in refractory concrete.

4.4.2.2 Pozzolanic Cement.

The pozzolanic cement is obtained by adding Pozzolana during the grinding of

Portland cement clinker.
Pozzolanas are natural or artificial siliceous materials that although not
they have agglomerating power by themselves contain components that are
capable of reacting with lime, as long as they are finely ground and in
presence of moisture. This property of the fixation of lime is what determines its
advantage of mixing with Portland cement.
We must remember that this cement releases lime during its hydration.
Classification of pozzolans.

tobas

volcanic origin
pumice stone, etcetera

Natural

diatomaceous earth
soul origin
etcetera
vegetable

non-reactive rocks and materials that can

Artificial improvements through thermal treatment
flying ashes

In Cuba, there are pozzolans of the type of tuff in the eastern provinces.
Camagüey and the central provinces.
The additions of pozzolans to Portland cement range from 5 to 35%;
classifying as pozzolanic cement when the addition is between 20 and 35%;
for lower values, Portland cement with a pozzolanic additive is considered.
Another way to use pozzolans would be to add it, finely ground, to the
concrete as an additive, at the time of mixing.

Pumice stone. Very lightweight limestone.

Zeolite: Natural Silicate Mineral found in certain volcanic rocks.

The advantages of using pozzolanic cement over pure Portland are:

a. Greater workability in concretes.

b. It reduces heat generation.
c. Decrease segregation.
d. Reduces the permeability of concrete.
Due to the setting of lime, it has greater chemical resistance to the
attacks from aggressive soils and waters.

These would be the advantages, let's now place the disadvantages of its use, those that
son
A slightly higher demand for water.
A greater retraction in the air.
Regarding mechanical resistances, we must distinguish between
conservation in water and air; in both cases the Portland mix-
Pozzolana shows a slower hardening rate than Portland.
pure and consequently the mechanical resistances at short periods will be
minors in those; as time goes by and under the water or in
high relative humidity environment, the difference decreases and then
disappears and can slightly exceed that of cement
Portland. In the preserved outdoor constructions, the resistances of the
Portland Pozzolana will always be lower than that of pure Portland, hence
the importance of ensuring moisture conservation in the case of using
Puzzolana, this procedure we already saw is known as curing.

4.4.2.3. White cement

They are obtained using raw materials free of iron and manganese.
such as very pure limestones, kaolin, and fluxes that do not contain iron.
The machinery must be galvanized, the mills use plates and balls of
silex. These cements have strengths analogous to those of Portland,
they generally require a higher proportion of water than Portland and should
be exempt from soluble salts to avoid efflorescence.

4.4.2.4. Colored cement.

They are made by adding certain colorants to Portland or white cement.

inorganic minerals or artificial materials in a proportion of 3 to 5% in the mills.

4.4.2.5. Slag cement.

It is obtained by mixing granulated slags, obtained from processes

steel, Portland cement clinker, and gypsum in different proportions, according to
to the guy.
There are other cements for example:
natural cement
sulfate-resisting cement
Ferrari cement, etc.

Whose descriptions appear in specialized bibliographies.

4.5. HYDROCARBON BINDERS.

Hydrocarbon binders are composed of hydrocarbons plus or

less viscous substances that harden by cooling or evaporation of their
solvents.

Within the hydrocarbon binders, we can mention tar and the

asphalt. We will generally deal with tar as one of these two binders;
well, the one that is used as a binding material in larger quantities worldwide
It is the asphalt, and it is the one used in our country and the one we will study the most.
extension.

Tar.

It is a black, viscous product obtained by the condensation of gases.

released in the dry distillation in a closed vessel of the materials
hydrocarbons from coal and wood mainly.

Applications: In construction, it is used in roads, iron protection and

wood, in the form of paint and as a waterproofing agent for walls.
Tar also has many other applications, as it is the basis of the
manufacture of many dyes, perfumes, synthetic resins, and explosives.

Asphalt.

It is a binding material that varies in color from dark brown to black.

solid, semi-solid, or liquid consistency, composed mainly of
hydrocarbons soluble in carbon disulfide in most part.

Advantages of using asphalt.

The use of this material is mainly due to its properties

adhesive and mechanical properties, as well as their great chemical stability, impermeability
to water, long life and low cost. Factors that, compared to most of the
Binders are decisive in their application in some cases.
As asphalt is a thermoplastic material, it can be made fluid by supplying it
heat, a fact that constitutes a great advantage for its handling and ease of
application being the biggest drawback is its fluidity at moderate temperatures.
Other advantages of its inert character are that it usually has no chemical effect.
about the material to which it is applied.

Origin and structure of asphalt.

The origin is asphalt, just like oil, it is attributed, according to theories

modern, to anaerobic degradation (action of microorganisms in
conditions without air) of organic animal and plant substances.
Asphalt is a mixture of different types of hydrocarbons, chemical compounds
formed only by carbon and hydrogen, they can also contain oxygen,
sulfur, nitrogen and some metals such as vanadium and nickel.
Despite the great variety of hydrocarbons that asphalt contains, they are
they are classified into two main groups: Asphaltenes and Maltenes.

The Maltenos are usually divided into resins and oils.

Currently, the structure of asphalt is considered colloidal in nature where the
the cores of colloidal particles are formed by asphaltenes, surrounded
said particles by resin, the dispersing liquid being the oils.
The colloidal structure scheme of asphalt can be represented according to the
Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9. Schematic of the colloidal structure of asphalt.

We must point out that the physical properties of an asphalt depend on

fundamentally of the proportions of asphaltenes, resins, and oils that
contains.
Thus, in general, we have that the oils in the asphalts are responsible
of the deformability of these, as well as their chemical stability.
The adhesive properties of asphalts are determined by the content
of asphaltenes and resins.

4.5.1. Natural Asphalts.

Asphalt can come from natural deposits, appearing in the form of

lakes like those in Trinidad and in Los Angeles, California. These asphalts are
they are found contaminated with clay, water, and gases, which makes it necessary a
refining process, impregnating rocks, known as asphalt rocks, that
they are porous rocks, with their pores filled with asphalt.
Currently, the largest amount of asphalt used in the world comes from
from the residue of crude oil distillation.
Not all crude oils contain asphalt, and in those that do contain it, the
the obtained proportions are very variable.
Crude oil is fundamentally divided into two groups: crudes
paraffinic and asphaltic crudes.
Asphalt crudes, as their name indicates, are the most suitable for the
obtaining asphalt. Paraffinic crude oils do not contain asphalt in quantities
appreciable and the quality of those containing asphalt in appreciable quantities and the
the quality of what they contain usually does not allow for its direct utilization, because
what is necessary is a subsequent process to improve some of its aspects
properties.

4.5.2. Asphalts obtained by artificial distillation.

The process of distillation of crude oil in which asphalt is obtained is carried out
usually according to the scheme of Figure 4.10.
Crude oil is circulated at high pressure and speed through a pipeline.
located inside a furnace that reaches high temperatures.

FIGURE 4.10. Diagram of the oil distillation process.

The oil, once heated, is introduced into the distillation tower in which it
separate into its different components that are classified, from bottom to top, in
order of decreasing density, in such a way that from the top of the tower
gasoline is extracted, etc., leaving an asphalt residue at the bottom.
This asphaltic residue may contain a certain amount of low oils.
volatile or non-evaporative.
The characteristics of this asphalt are of type SC. (slow curing). If we repeat the
distillation cycles, this residue is concentrated by the release of oils
of high boiling point resulting in SC of different degrees.

4.5.2.1. Asphalt Cement.

 Through a distillation process carried out by raising the temperature and
increasing the amount of vacuum makes it possible to eliminate most of the oils
heavy, yielding a solid asphalt at room temperature, known as
asphalt cement.
Asphalt cements are designated by the word asphalt followed by two
figures that are the minimum and maximum penetration limits set by the
specifications.

4.5.2.2. Diluted asphalt or Cut Back.

In the process of crude oil distillation, we already saw how it was obtained
the diluted asphalts (Figure 4.10) now we will see some specifications and how
they are designated.

The quick, medium, and slow curing asphalt materials are designated by
the letters RC, MC, and SC respectively followed by a number ranging from 0-5, the
which indicates the increase in consistency as the degree increases.
The composition of the Cut Back RC, MC, SC is shown in the
diagram of Figure 4.12.

The Cut Backs or diluted asphalts Rc are called that because they are made
mixing the asphalt cement with a specific amount of solvent, which
evaporates quickly after use, leaving only the cement
asphaltic.
The grade of the diluted asphalt will be determined by the amount of
Solvent for example: an RC-0 must have 45% solvent and 55%
asphalt cement.
While the RC-5 is approximately 15% solvent and 85%
asphalt cement.
Viscosity is influenced by the percentage of solvent, therefore the
RC-5 is the largest.
Diluents asphalt are used in: mixtures applied cold,
surface treatments, sealing treatments, impregnation, dust suppression
soil treatment, crack filling, etc.

4.5.2.3. Asphalt Emulsions.

The use of asphalt emulsions is due to the numerous

advantages they offer over natural asphalts, asphalt cements and
diluted asphalt. With them, a manageable cold binder is available,
due to its low viscosity, easy transport and which provides, after its
break (separation of both phases of water and asphalt) greater adhesion
about the aggregates. They can also be used directly on the wet aggregates,
with which a pre-drying is avoided.
Emulsion.

The emulsion is defined as an intimate mixture of two immiscible liquids.

mixture) in which one of them is dispersed in the other, in the form of drops
tiny visible under the microscope.
The dispersed liquid is called the internal or dispersed phase and the dispersant is called the external phase.
It continues. As an example of emulsions, we can mention, in addition to asphalt emulsions.
milk and beauty creams.

Emulsifying agent.

If we shake molten asphalt and water, an emulsion is achieved, but when we cease the
agitation occurs the separation of both phases. This same phenomenon is observed
when we try to mix oil in water, a surface or area appears
quite sharp separation called interface produced by forces or
tensions on that surface that cause separation. It is logical to think that if
These forces are diminished, the mixing will be facilitated, this is precisely the
role of the emulsifying agent.
In summary, the emulsifying agent is responsible for reducing the
interfacial tension, facilitating the formation of the emulsion.

Depending on their nature, emulsifiers will have in their molecule

a hydrophilic or polar part that orients towards the aqueous phase and another lipophilic or
no polar that orients towards the asphalt. The emulsifying agents in water are
They dissociate into their respective ions: positive (cation) and negative (anion).
Depending on the charge of the lipophilic ion, the agents will be classified.
anionic and cationic emulsifiers and in the same way the emulsions
where they participate.

Anionic emulsions.

They are the ones in which the asphalt particles carry negative charges.

Cationic emulsions.

They are those in which the asphalt particles carry positive charges, the
that will show great affinity for negative bodies (siliceous aggregates).
The breakage of anionic emulsions is primarily due to evaporation;
In its adherence, chemical phenomena come into play. If the emulsion is applied in
contact with negatively charged silica aggregates, there will be no chemical affinity for
that when breaking the emulsion, the surface of the aggregate will be covered with a layer
of asphalt and the duration of this surface would have the same limitations as a
asphalt cement.
For the above reasons and other advantages it offers, it is being
generalizing the use of cationic emulsions.
In cationic emulsions, unlike anionic ones, the breaking occurs
fundamentally due to reaction with the aggregate material, which causes its
the rupture speed is faster than in the anionic ones and that its adhesiveness
sea greater.

Most important applications of emulsions.

Sealing of agglomerates and surface treatments.

2. Regenerate aging pavements by waterproofing and sealing cracks.
3. Add roughness to worn and slippery surfaces.
4. Soil stabilizer.
5. Provide protection to the wood.
6. Provide protection to metal structures against corrosion.
7. In concrete foundation (as a protective layer).
8. Construction of roads.
9. Roof insulators.

4.5.2.4. Oxidized or Blown Asphalts.

A characteristic of asphalt obtained from the distillation of petroleum, which

it is of great importance as it is a serious inconvenience for certain
applications, it is the fluency in cold. This property consists of if we leave
on a flat surface a parallelepiped of asphalt for a certain period
over time, at room temperature, no matter how hard the asphalt cement is, eventually
For a more or less long time, the original piece of asphalt of regular shape,
it will have deformed, flowing over the surface like a liquid, although at
much slower speed.
With oxidation, this inconvenience of cold flow is eliminated, being
its hardness is superior to asphalt obtained from petroleum distillation.

Manufacturing of oxidized asphalt.

The manufacturing consists of subjecting the asphalt waste to high...

temperatures and passing an air current through it.

Applications of oxidized asphalt.

Oxidized asphalt is not commonly used in pavement mixes.

its main utilizations according to its characteristics of retaining a
firm consistency at temperature, it is in roof paper, boxes of
accumulators, interior coatings for automobiles and waterproof paints.
They are also widely used as crack fillers, joints in pavements.
of concrete and for sealing layers in rigid pavements where there have been
formed interior cavities.
The asphalts, oxidized using catalysts (accelerators of the
oxidation reactions), increase their elasticity to such an extent that they become
similar to rubber and are widely used in channel coatings.
Advantages of oxidized asphalt: They improve their resistance to aging, they have
lower thermal susceptibility and do not exhibit cold creep.
Disadvantage: Low ductility.

4.5.3. Properties of Asphalt Materials.

There are authors who classify the properties of asphalt materials for
used in pavements in four main groups which are:
Consistency
2. Durability
3. Curing speed
4. Resistance to the action of water.

From a practical standpoint, both quality and adaptability

for a specific use is given by these properties.

4.5.3.1. Consistency

The consistency of the asphalt material varies between two extremes: from a
very fluid liquid similar to water, but denser (Cut Back degree 0) up to a
solid resembling sealing wax (blown asphalt cement); due to this variation so
In terms of consistency, there are several methods to determine it; they are three:

Furyl Viscosity.
2. Penetration.
3. Floatation Test.

Furrol Viscosity.

Viscosity is generally the most commonly used test for

determine the consistency. It is a measure of the resistance to flow. Hence, the
the closer it is to solid consistency, the more it resembles a high-viscosity liquid.
Furol viscosity is a specific test that is used to measure viscosity.
of a liquid asphaltic material.
The Furol viscosity consists of determining the number of seconds
required for 60cm3of material flow through a hole of a size
given a specific temperature. Figure 4.11 shows the equipment
more commonly used in the determination of Furol viscosity.
It is not practical to measure the Furol viscosity at the same temperature for all.
liquid asphalts. The reason for this is revealed by the Furol viscosity data.
approximately 1400F (600C) that appears in Figure 4.12. It can be observed that
in the determination of the viscosity of Furol at a fixed temperature, in this case
1400F, two difficulties are going to present themselves; the first is that the relative error is going to
to be greater for grades zero and one, and the second is that for grades
superiors although it is gained in precision, from a practical point of view it is not
justify why the times required to determine the viscosity are very
large, so that for a Grade 5 Cut Back 3000 are needed
seconds to make that determination. These inconveniences are eliminated in
the trials in the following manner: taking into account that the viscosity decreases
with the increase in temperature, a temperature is chosen that results in a
practical flow time.

FIGURE 4.11. Equipment used to determine the viscosity of Furol.

FIGURE 4.12. Composition diagram of the different diluted asphalts.

Penetration.

An asphalt cement is semi-solid at ambient temperature, still

heating it would pose difficulties in finding its viscosity, which is why
the penetration is used as a criterion of consistency; furthermore, another fact tells us
encourages the use of that method, as it provides us with a measure of the binding power
the binder of asphalt cement, since it is known that the thicker it is a
asphalt cement, the bond with the aggregate in asphalt mixtures is stronger.
In light of these practical considerations, the method used is the 'trial of
penetration.
The penetration test determines the consistency of asphalt by measuring
the distance that a standardized needle penetrates vertically into a sample of
asphalt under specific conditions of temperature, load, and time when not
mention other conditions; it has been established that the measure of penetration is
0 0
twenty-five ago C (77 F), that the needle is loaded with 100 grams and that the load is
apply for five seconds. The penetration unit is the tenth of
millimeter.
It is evident that the softer the asphalt, the higher the figure will be.
indicate its penetration, (see Figure 4.13) the penetration determined in these
conditions, it is known as standard or normal penetration.

FIGURE 4.13. Schematic of the test to determine penetration.

Special asphalts (blown asphalts) for roofs, sealants, joints

concrete, etc., can maintain their plasticity in the area of
temperatures corresponding to that of the environment, since at low temperature its
fragility does not significantly increase nor does its fluidity notably increase to
high temperatures.
To determine the consistency of the blown asphalt, the test is performed on
penetration at 320F (00C) and 1150F (460C) instead of 770F (250C). When it
make the essay at 320F (00C) the needle is loaded with 200 grams allowing
that penetrates for 60 seconds. Subsequently, the penetration is found at 155.0 F
(460F) using a needle loaded with 50 grams, the period of
penetration five seconds.
Floating.

In the liquid asphalts that are more viscous than those of grade 5, it is not
the furrow viscosity method is applicable to those whose penetration is greater
From 300, its penetration cannot be determined by such a method.
The asphalts for which consistency cannot be determined by the
previous methods, that is, that it has a penetration greater than 300 and a
viscosity greater than diluted asphalts in grade 5, their ...
consistency through flotation testing.
When carrying out the flotation test, the asphalt is placed in a mold.
small which is open on both sides, is then cooled, fixed to the part
bottom of an aluminum dish and placed in a water bath at 1220F (500C).
See Figure 4.14.

FIGURE 4.14. Diagram of the flotation test.

The number of seconds required by the water to force its way through
asphalt plug, it is the value of the flotation test. Therefore, as it is
The value of the test is higher, the thicker the asphalt.

Temperature-consistency relationship.

Considering two semi-solid asphalts, one of which is asphalt.

rusted and the other an asphalt cement commonly used in pavements, both with the
same penetration at 770F (250C). If each of these asphalts is heated to
1150F (460C) and tested by penetration, you will find that their consistencies
they are not the same, as the asphalt of pavements is much softer. When
they are heated beyond this point, the difference in consistency becomes more
pronounced. The asphalt for pavements becomes liquid, while the rusted
it maintains a semi-plastic state even at 250 0F (1210C), the asphalt pavement to
this temperature is a fluid liquid, not reaching this fluidity the oxidized asphalt
up to temperatures close to 3500F (1760C) or more. If the two asphalts are
cooled below 320F (00C), the pavement asphalt will be much harder
than the other. Given this, we can conclude that the consistency of the asphalt of
 produce the minimum shrinkage, the alkalis of the clinker increase the
contraction.

B. Expansion.

Pure pastes, mortars or concrete experience increases in volume in

presence of moisture due to slow hydration of some components.

These can be:

1. Plaster; an excess of CaSO42H2Or it can cause an expansion that

begins to manifest after a few days and is due to the
formation of calcium sulfoaluminates,

2. Free lime; it is dangerous if a part of it did not have time to hydrate.

before setting, the transformation is
accompanied by a strong increase in volume.
3. Free magnesia; its hydration and its consequences are analogous to those of
the free lime.

There are several tests to determine the expansion of cements.

In the Cuban standard, in addition to the methodologies of the analyses
chemicals, the expansion method in the autoclave. In this same standard, it
sets forth the specifications shown in table 4.6.

Table 4.6. Expansion specifications.

P - 250 P - 350 P 450

Maximum expansion
in autoclave in by 0.80 0.50 0.50
one hundred

4.4.4.4. Applications of Portland cement.

The fundamental application of Portland cement is in the making of

mortars and concretes, in turn with these products a range of is made.
products that we will see in the concrete chapter.
Other applications are in: crack injections in soils, injections in
cracks in works, ferrocement boat construction, etc.
According to the type of application, the optimal type of cement should be analyzed.
of those we have at our disposal.
 Therefore, it is evident that an advantage is achieved by using an asphalt of
greater penetration as long as it is not limiting in its use in
construction of pavements. For example, asphalt that has a penetration of 40
is ahead of a penetration asphalt 100. (However, due to problems with
It is recommended to use asphalt with a penetration of less than 100.

Effect of temperature.

The rate of volatilization and oxidation is greatly accelerated.

due to the increase in asphalt temperature.
The reaction speed of oxidation doubles for every 10.0C (180F) that is
increase the temperature. This explains why overheating can cause damage
seriously the asphalt.
For example, the rate of oxidation and volatilization that occurs in a
mix in a concrete mixer at 3540F (1790C) a 3000F (1500C).

Effect of the area-volume ratio.

The hardening speed due to oxidation and volatilization is a

function of the area of the exposed surface of the asphalt; theoretically, both:
the rate of oxygen absorption and the rate of solvent loss, in
grams per cm3per second (g/cm)3are directly proportional to the area
of the exposed surface and inversely proportional to the volume. Expressed more
Simply, the speed due to these causes increases proportionally.
directly related to the surface area with the total volume.
It is the effect of the relationship between the surface area and the volume that
Explain that a large mass of asphalt (thousands of gallons) can be stored.
at temperatures of 3000F (1500C) for weeks or months, without suffering
harmful hardening, while this same asphalt when agitated in
the concrete mixer at 3000F (1500F) will lose some points in penetration in
less than a minute. In the first case, the relationship of the surface area
exposed to the total volume is very small while in the second case the
the ratio of the area to that of the total volume is enormous. This principle is taken into account
account in the design of asphalt mixtures. For adequate stability a
The pavement must contain small air-filled spaces. However, to
As these spaces become larger, the exposed area will be greater.
oxidation, hence these spaces are restricted to the smallest size
practical in the design of asphalt concrete pavements.

Action of light.

It is well known that light has a destructive effect on asphalt. The

sun rays tend to decompose the asphalt molecule, whose decomposition
leads to the formation of water and soluble products in it. This type of action in
what intervenes the light is known as photo-oxidation.
 Fortunately, this action is not so serious since the biggest effect will be
to be in the first molecular layers of the surface, on the other hand, does not affect the
aggregate particles, so their importance is secondary in fine pavements,
however, it contributes considerably to the weathering of the layers of
protection and very fine asphalt surfaces (paints).

Hardening due to aging.

When a CA (asphalt cement) is heated and then left

cool to room temperature, it continues to harden
indefinitely, even if it is protected from oxidation, volatilization, and light.
This is due to a rearrangement of the molecules to form a
gelatinous structure in the asphalt.
The hardening action occurs quickly during the first.
hours decreasing gradually, subsequently.
After a year, the hardening speed becomes so slow that
it is despicable.
The hardening effect is not significant except in layers.
extremely thin and with little or no traffic.
The deterioration of such pavements is favored by the presence of
vegetation because it needs water for its development, which causes the
decrease in the moisture of the underlying soil causing contractions of the
soil, which in turn induces cracking in fine pavements.

4.5.3.3. Curing speed.

Without thin films of gasoline, kerosene, and light lubricating oils

respectively are paintings on a smooth surface, evaporation will take
lastly the diesel will evaporate.
finally the lubricating oils, the same will happen with the Cut Back (asphalts
diluted) RC, MC, SC, because the solvents used in their dissolution are
naphtha, kerosene and lubricating oils (respectively).
It is logical to assume, and thus it happens, that if we place a thin film of an RC
on a surface and we let it evaporate, it will happen that as it progresses
evaporation will be transformed into an RC-1, RC-2, RC-3, RC-4 and RC-5 and
finally in asphalt concrete. This process of evaporation and continuous
loss of fluidity constitutes curing. That is to say, curing is the continuous increase
from the consistency of a diluted asphalt resulting from the progressive evaporation of
solvent. The time required for a diluted asphalt to acquire consistency
For its function as a binder, it is an important property of this material.

Factors that affect curing time.

1. Volatility, or evaporation rate of the solvent.

2. Amount of solvent contained in a diluted asphalt.
3. Penetration of the asphalt base (asphalt cement used in the construction of
diluted asphalt.
 It is evident that the volatility will depend on the type of solvent and its
content in dilapidated asphalts or what is the same, volatility will depend on
if the asphalt is RC, MC, SC and of their respective grades, since it is logical
as the solvent content of a diluted asphalt decreases
it will require less time for healing.
The smaller the amount of solvent, the shorter the time required for the
cured by the evaporation of said solvent. The curing time increases with
the increase in the penetration of base asphalt cement.

External factors of importance that affect the curing time.

The temperature.
2. Area of the exposed surface (relationship of surface area to volume).
3. The wind speed passing over the surface.

As the temperature increases, the curing time will be shorter.

As the surface area to volume ratio increases, the time will be shorter.
cured.
The curing time will be shorter with the increase in wind speed.
passing through the surface.

4.5.3.3. Resistance to Water Action.

The durability of a pavement largely depends on its capacity

of asphalt to adhere to the aggregates in the presence of water. Under certain
conditions are sometimes observed, in some types of mixtures, losses of
adhesion between the aggregates and the asphalt and deterioration of the pavement shortly after
its construction and this has occurred when cold mixtures have been used in which
diluted asphalts with hydrophilic aggregates were used. Under these conditions, it can
improve adherence using certain additives.
On the other hand, the use of adhesive additives is not considered necessary.
in the production of hot mix asphalt concrete, in which
The aggregates dry perfectly before mixing.

4.5.3.5. Resistance to various chemical agents.

Below we provide information about the behavior of asphalt in front of

to different chemical agents at 25 and 500C.
We will use the following symbolism:
excellent
good
acceptable
regular
Not recommended
 Acid 25 ºC 50 ºC
Benzoic E E
Boric E E
Chloroacetate 10 % N N
Chromic 10% A R
Chromatic 50% N N
Citrus 10% E E
100% fatty acids A N
Hydrochloric acid 37% E E
Hydrofluoric 40% E E
Hypochlorous 100% E A
Dairy 25% E E
Nitric 5% A R
Nitric 20% R N
Nitric 40% R N
Oxalic 20% E E
Phosphoric 85% E E
Sulfuric 50% E A

Bases 25 ºC 50 ºC
Ammonium hydroxide 20% B A
Potash A R
Sosa A R

Acid 25 ºC
Alum 10% E E
Chloride, sulfate, ammonium nitrate E E
“ “ “ “ “ “ E E
“ “ “ “ iron E E
“ “ “ “ nickel E B
“ “ “ “ zinc E B

Basic sales 25 ºC 50 ºC
Barium Sulfide A R
Sodium bicarbonate 10% E E
Sodium carbonate B A

Neutral bases 25 ºC 50 ºC
Calcium chloride sulfate E E
“ “ “ ““ E E
 Bases 25 ºC
Dry chlorine B R
Wet chloride A N
Dry sulfur anhydride E E
“ “ “ “ humid E B

Organic materials 25 ºC 50 ºC
Acetone N N
Benzene N N
Carbon tetrachloride N N
Chloroform N N
Crude oil N N
Fertilizer industry N N

This table was taken from the book asphalt by M. Velásquez, Civil Engineer.

4.6. Resins

4.6.1. Classification of resins.

Resins are classified into:

a. Natural resins, of plant or animal origin.
b. Artificial resins, coming from a chemical modification of oils
fats, from natural resins, etc.
c. Synthetic resins, derived from controlled chemical reactions, to
starting from perfectly defined bodies and that in itself has no
character of resins.

These last ones are the most used.

Resins are used:
As additives to cement in concrete, the most commonly used resins in
these cases are: acetate, chloride and propionate of polyvinyl, acrylates,
ethylene glycols, bitumen emulsions, rubbers, epoxies, etc.
Without hydraulic binders: in this case, the entire binder
is made up of resins.
Without the addition of aggregates: in these last two cases, the resins that can be used
son
-
Epoxy
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Furanics
Phenolic
Aminoplastics
4.6.2. Resins used in construction.

Among the uses of resins, we will mention:

a. The different bondings (concrete with concrete, steel with concrete,
ceramics with concrete, etc.)
b. Sealing of cracks and joints.
c. Waterproofing agents.
d. Injections (in concrete, soils, etc)
e. Repairs of works and resumptions of concrete pouring.
f. Floor coverings and paints.
g. Embedding and anchors.

The most usable resins in constructions are:

Polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, epoxies, and polyesters.