Week 1: training and development process

- The importance of training and development

o Organizational success and competitiveness
 Creativity, innovation, transfer of knowledge
 ROI
o Importance for EEs, organizations and customers or clients
 Accidents and risks that can cost lives and money
- The performance management process
o The process of establishing performance goals and designing
interventions and programs to motivate and develop EEs to
improve their performance
o The process involves activities and programs to develop EEs and
improve performance
 Start by defining performance, setting expectations and
performance goals. The goals should be ones that align
with the organizational or departmental goals and
objectives

 Develop SMART goals: goals that are specific, measurable,

achievable, relevant and have a time frame
- Training and development
o Training
  Formal and planned efforts that allow employees to acquire
KSAOs (knowledge, skills and abilities) to improve
performance in their current job
 Shorter-term focus
o Development
 Formal and planned efforts to help employees acquire
KSAOs required to perform future job responsibilities i.e.
career goals and organizational objectives
 Longer term focus
o Both can help organizations develop human and social capital
- Benefits of training and development
o To organizations
 Strategy
 Effectiveness
 EE recruitment, engagement and retention
o To employees
 Intrinsic and extrinsic benefits
 Intrinsic
o Trained EEs benefit by acquiring new
knowledge and skills that enable them to
perform their jobs better. Research has shown
that training has a positive effect on EEs’ job
behavior and performance.
 Extrinsic
o These benefits include things such as higher
earnings as a result of increased knowledge
and skills, improves marketability, greater job
security and enhanced opportunities for
advancements and promotions
o To society
 Educated and employed population
 Health and safety
 Economy and standard of living
- The context of training and development

o Training and development are embedded in a larger context that

can influence the extent to which training and development is
provided as well as the type of training provided
 TnD is just one part of a system of HR practices that is
influenced by internal and external factors
 The HR system is influenced by environmental and
organizational factors
- The instructional systems design model
o Rational and scientific model of the TnD process that consists of
3 major steps: a need analysis, training delivery and design, and
training evaluation
Week 2: Learning and Motivation
- Learning and motivation
o For a training program to be successful, it is important to
understand how people learn and what motivates them to learn
o Training is the means to accomplish the goal of learning
o Learning and the effectiveness of training programs are a
function of motivation
- Learning
o It is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills, and a change
in individual behaviour as a result of some experience
o Workplace learning is the process of acquiring job-related
knowledge and skills through formal training programs and
informal social interactions among employees
o 70-20-10 model is the breakdown of workplace learning in which
70% of learning comes from on-the-job experiences and
assignments, 20% from relationships and interactions with
others, and 10% from formal learning activities and events
 Formal vs informal learning
 Formal learning is learning that is structured and
planned by the organization
 Informal learning is learning that occurs naturally as
part of work and is not planned or designed by the
oraganization
- Learning outcomes
o 2 learning outcomes classification schemes
  Gagné’s Model
 Verbal information (declarative knowledge)
 Intellectual skills (procedural knowledge)
 Cognitive strategies (cognitive outcomes)
 Motor skills (skill-based outcomes)
 Attitudes (affective outcomes)
 Kraiger et al.’s Model
 Cognitive domain: verbal knowledge, knowledge
organization, cognitive strategies
 Skill-based outcomes: compilation, automaticity
 Affective outcomes: attitudinal and motivational

- Stages of learning
o Adaptive character of thought (ACT) theory is the theory that
learning takes place in 3 stages
 Declarative knowledge accounts for knowledge, facts,
information
 Knowledge compilation involves integrating tasks into
sequences to simplify and streamline the task
 Procedural knowledge means the learners has mastered
the task and performance is automatic and habitual
o Resource allocation theory
 Individuals possess limited cognitive resources that can be
used to learn a new task
- Learning styles
o Learning style means the way in which an individual prefers to
learn
o Kolb’s Learning styles
 Converging – thinking and doing
 Diverging – feeling and watching
 Assimilating – thinking and watching
 Accommodating – feeling and doing
o Fleming’s learning styles (VARK model)
 Visual
 Aural/Auditory
 Read/Write
 Kinesthetic
- Learning theories: conditioning theory
o Learning is a result of reward and punishment contingencies that
follow a response to a stimulus
 o A stimulus or cue is followed by a response, which then leads to
consequences

o
 The conditioning process involves:
 Shaping: the reinforcement of each step in a process
until it is mastered
 Chaining: the reinforcement of entire sequences of a
task
 Generalization: the conditioned response that occurs
in circumstances different from those during learning
- Learning theories: Social Cognitive theory
o Involves social learning
 Learning through interactions with others
o Has three main components
 Observation
 Observation: learning by observing the actions of
others and the consequences of these actions
 Four key elements:
o Attention
o Retention
o Reproduction
o Reinforcement
 Self-efficacy
 Self-efficacy: judgments people have about their
ability to successfully perform a specific task
 Influenced by four sources of information:
o Task/performance mastery
o Observation
o Verbal persuasion and social influence
o Physiological/emotional state
 Self-regulation
 Self-regulation: managing one’s own behaviour
through a series of internal processes
 A goal-oriented cyclical process that involves:
 o Observing and monitoring one’s own behaviour
(self-monitoring) as well as the behaviour of
others
o Setting performance goals (goal setting)
o Practising and rehearsing new and desired
behaviours
o Keeping track of one’s progress and
performance
o Comparing performance with one’s goals (self-
evaluation)
o Rewarding oneself for goal achievement (self-
reinforcement)

- Learning theories: Adult Learning Theory

o Andragogy: an adult-oriented approach to learning that takes
into account the differences between adult and child learners
o Pedagogy: the traditional approach to learning used to educate
children and youth
- Motivation
o Motivation: degree of persistent effort that one directs toward a
goal
o The basic characteristics of motivation:
 Effort
 Persistence
 Direction
 Goals
o Intrinsic motivation
 Stemming from the direct relationship between the worker
and the task
 Usually self-applied, from inside
 Strong and stable impacts
 “Stay hungry. Stay foolish. I have always wished that for
myself.” - Steve Jobs
o Extrinsic motivation
 Stemming from the work environment external to the task
 Usually applied by others (managers), from outside
 Only works in certain situations, not long lasting
o Goal-setting theory
  A goal is the object or aim of an action
 Goals are motivators of human action
 Proximal vs. distal goals
 Short-term vs. long-term goals
 Goal orientation
 Learning goals: process-oriented goals that focus on
the learning process
 Performance goals: outcome-oriented goals that
focus on the achievement of specific performance
outcomes
o To be motivating, goals require:
 Specificity
 Challenge
 Feedback
 Commitment
- Training motivation
o The direction, intensity, and persistence of learning-directed
behavior in training contexts (motivation to learn)
o Variables that predict training motivation
 Personality:
 Locus of control
 Achievement motivation
 Anxiety
 Conscientiousness
 Self-efficacy
 Job and career:
 Job involvement
 Organizational commitment
 Career planning
 Organizational:
 Supervisor support
 Peer support
 Positive climate
o Outcomes of training motivation
 Declarative knowledge
 Skill acquisition
 Trainee reactions
 On-the-job application of training
- A model of training effectiveness
 o

Week 3: The Needs Analysis Process

- Needs analysis

o A process to identify gaps or deficiencies in EE and organizational

performance
 First step of ISD process (instructional system design)
 Determines the nature of the problem and whether training
is the best solution
 o A need is a gap between current and desired results
 Needs = required results – current results
- The needs analysis process
o There are 4 steps
 A concern
 Importance
 Consult stakeholder
 Data collection

- Needs analysis outcomes

o A needs analysis can determine:
 The type of performance gap
 Where training may be needed in an organization
 What type of training is required
 Who should receive training
  Whether training and development is needed or is a good
solution
o It can inform
 Training objectives
 Training design and delivery
- Needs analysis levels
o Organizational analysis
 Strategic alignment
 An organization’s mission, goals, and objectives
 Strategic training and development
 Environment
 E.g., government regulations, competitive and social
concerns, new technologies, recessions, etc.
 Resource analysis
 Ability to design and deliver a training program
 Organizational context
 Training transfer climate: characteristics in the work
environment that can either facilitate or hinder the
application of training on the job
 Continuous learning culture: a culture in which
members of an organization believe that knowledge
and skill acquisition are part of their job
responsibilities and that learning is an important part
of work life in the organization
o Task analysis
 Cognitive task analysis: A set of procedures that focuses on
understanding the mental and cognitive processes and
skills required for performing a job
 Team task analysis: An analysis of tasks as well as the
team-based competencies (knowledge, skills, and
attitudes) associated with the tasks
 The process of obtaining information about a job by
determining the tasks and activities involved and the KSAs
required to perform the task
 Six steps involved in task analysis:
 Identify target jobs
 Obtain a job description
 Develop rating scales (importance, difficulty,
frequency)
 Survey a sample of incumbents
  Analyze and interpret information
 Provide feedback on the results
o Person analysis
 The process of studying employee behaviour and
performance to determine whether performance meets
work standards
 Three steps:
 Define the desired performance
 Determine the gap between desired and actual
performance
 Identify the obstacles to effective performance
- Determining solutions to performance problems
 o

- Obstacles to needs analysis

 o Managers are not rewarded
o Managers prefer action over analysis
o Managers believe that they can identify training needs
themselves
 Needs analysis wastes time
o Managers may have their own perceptual biases and agenda
o Needs analysis is costly and time consuming

Week 4: Training design

- Training design
o The process of preparing and planning events to facilitate
learning
o Learner engagement
 The extent to which learners are cognitively, physically,
and emotionally immersed in the training content and the
learning process

o
 Training objectives
 A statement of what trainees are expected to be able
to do after a training program
 Writing training objectives:
o Who is to perform the desired behavior
o What is the actual behavior to be used to
demonstrate mastery of the content or
objective
o Where and when is the behavior to be
demonstrated and evaluated (i.e. under what
conditions)
o What is the standard by which the behavior will
be judged
  The final written objective should include
o Performance
 What trainee will be able to do after the
training
o Condition
 The tools, time and situation under which
the trainee is expected to perform the
behavior
o Criterion
 The level of acceptable performance,
standard, or criteria against which
performance will be judged
- The purchase or design decision
o Outsourcing
 The use of an external supplier to provide training and
development programs and services
o Purchase decision factors
 Cost benefit analysis
 Time
 To design program
 Implementation
 Expertise
 Number of employees
 Need for training in the future
- Request for proposal
o A document that outlines to potential vendors and consultants an
organization’s training and project needs
o Things to consider when creating an RFP
 Have a clear vision of your overall
 Create proper scope for the project
 Develop a vendor pre-qualification checklist
 Create a vendor scorecard
 Use a template
 Don’t overstate the positive or negative
 Design a request for information questionnaire
 Allow sufficient time for responses
- Training content
 o Designing an in-house training program
o Derived from needs analysis process and based on training
objectives
o Meaningfulness: training content that is rich in associations and
is easily understood by trainees
o May be determined by
 Legislation/legislative requirements
 Using subject matter experts (SMEs): people who are
familiar with the KSAs required to perform a task or job
- Training methods
o Productive responses
 The trainee actively uses the training contenet rather than
passively watching, listening to, or imitating the trainer
o Blended training
 The use of a combination of approaches to training such as
classroom, on the job training, and computer technology
o Active practice
 Practice: physical or mental rehearsal of a task, skill, or
knowledge in order to achieve some level of proficiency in
performing the task or skill or demonstrating the
knowledge
 Active practice: providing trainees with opportunities to
practice performing a training task or using the knowledge
being learned during training
 Can facilitate learner engagement and maximize
learning and change in behaviour
 Conditions of practice: practice conditions that are
implemented before and during training to enhance the
effectiveness of active practice and maximize learning and
retention
o Active learning
 Routine expertise: the ability to reproduce specific
behaviours in similar settings and situations
 Adaptive expertise: the ability to use knowledge and skills
across a range of tasks, settings, and situations
 Active learning: An approach to training that gives trainees
control over their own learning experience
 Design elements for active learning:
 Exploratory or discovery learning
  Error framing
 Emotion control

o Error management training

 Training that explicitly encourages trainees to make errors
during training and to learn from them
 How it works:
 Trainees are provided only basic, training-relevant
information and told to explore problems on their
own
 Trainees are told to expect errors and frame them
positively (error-management instructions)
 Errors inform and help focus trainees on which
knowledge and skills need improvement, leading
them to develop strategies to improve
 Errors also lead to more practice
- Model of training effectiveness
 o

Week 5: off the job training methods

- Off the job training
o Instructional methods: the techniques used to stimulate learning
o Off-the-job methods take place outside the work setting
 Typically occur in a classroom
- Lecture method
o Lecture: a training method in which the trainer presents to
trainees the content to be learned
 One-directional flow of information
 Passive form of learning
o Effective for:
 Providing large amounts of information
  Emphasizing key information
 Gaining declarative knowledge
- Discussion method
o Two-way communication between the trainer and trainees as well
as among trainees
o Increases trainee involvement in the learning process
o Group discussion serves the following purposes:
 Helps trainees recognize what they do not, but should,
know
 Provides an opportunity for trainees to have questions
answered
 Allows trainees to get advice, share ideas and derive a
common wisdom, and learn about others and their
experiences
- Case study
o A training method in which trainees discuss, analyze, and solve
problems based on a real situation
o Objectives:
 Introduce realism into trainees’ learning
 Deal with a variety of problems, goals, facts, conditions,
and conflicts that often occur in the real world
 Teach trainees how to make decisions
 Teach trainees to be creative and think independently
- Case incident method
o A training method in which one problem, concept, or issue is
presented for analysis
o One of the most accessible ways of adding an experiential or
real-world component into a lecture
- Behavior modelling method
o A training method in which trainees observe a model performing
a task and then attempt to imitate the observed behaviour
o It is based on social cognitive theory and observational learning
o It is based on four principles of learning:
 Observation (modelling)
 Rehearsal (practice)
 Reinforcement (reward)
 Transfer
 o Mixed modelling strategy: BMT that shows trainees what should
be done (a positive model) as well as what should not be done (a
negative model)
- Role play
o A training method in which trainees are given the opportunity to
practice new behaviours in a safe environment
o Three phases in the role-play experience:
 Development
 Enactment
 Debriefing
o Reverse role play: role play in which trainees put themselves in
another person’s position (i.e., outside their own official role)
o Multiple role play: Groups of trainees acting out various roles
- Simulation
o The use of operating models of physical or social events
designed to represent reality
o They are active representations of work situations
o Designed to increase motivation, involvement, and learning
o Simulations should have both physical and psychological fidelity
 i.e., they should be similar to the physical and
psychological aspects of the actual job and actual work
environment, respectively
- Games
o Training methods that involve structured competition that allows
trainees to learn specific skills
o They enhance the learning process by introducing fun and
competition, generating energy, and providing opportunities for
people to work together
o To be most effective, games should:
 Be well planned and prepared
 Linked to training objectives
 Include a debriefing session so that trainees understand
the purpose of the game and the critical skills and
behaviours to be learned
- Action learning
o A training method in which trainees solve real-world problems
and accept responsibility for the solution
o Based on problem-based learning in which trainees solve real or
simulated open-ended problems
 o Allow for trainee involvement and provide an opportunity to use
and enhance their knowledge and skills to solve problems
 e.g., problem-solving and critical thinking skills
- instructional media
o The medium or media used to deliver the training content and
methods to trainees
 Not an instructional method
 E.g., videos
o Allow the trainer to set the pace of training, clarify a concept,
illustrate key points, provide examples, and supplement lectures
and discussions
- Choosing an instructional method
o Choosing an instructional method depends on:
 Training objectives and learning outcomes
 Cost and resource availability
 On-the-job application
 Trainer skills and preferences
 Trainee preferences and characteristics
 e.g., aptitudes, self-efficacy
o Blended training: the use of a combination of approaches to
training, such as classroom training, on-the-job training, and
computer technology

Week 6: On-the-job training Methods

- On-the-job training methods
o On-the-job training: a training method in which a trainee receives
instruction and training at their workstation from a supervisor or
an experienced co-worker
 The most common method of training
 Useful for small businesses because of limited investment
of resources
 o
- Problems with on-the-job training
o While on-the-job training is a common approach, it is often
misused:
 Lack of planning or structure
 Those assigned as “trainers” haven’t received training on
how to be trainers
 Poor employees teach undesirable work habits and
attitudes
 Trainer may be worried that trainee will take their job
 May require trainee to do the “dirty work”
 Can be time consuming
 May feel penalized—unable to meet goals when they are
training
 Results in training that is inconsistent, inefficient, and
ineffective
o When on-the-job training is planned and structured, it can be
highly effective
- Job instruction training
o A formalized, structured, and systematic approach to on-the-job
training that consists of four steps:
 Preparation
 Instruction
 Performance
 Follow-up
- Performance aids
o A device at the job site that helps an employee perform their job
 E.g., signs or prompts, troubleshooting aids, checklists
 o Training Today 6.1 on the importance of performance aids
- Job rotation
o A training method in which trainees are exposed to different jobs,
functions, and areas in an organization
o Broadens an individual’s knowledge and skills by providing
multiple perspectives and areas of expertise
o An effective way of cross-training employees, which is when
employees are trained to perform each other’s jobs
 Helpful so that anyone can step in to perform a team
member’s job when needed
 Helpful in cross-functional teams
o Can be used to provide employees with developmental job
experiences through stretch assignments, which are job
assignments that aim to “stretch” employees by working on
challenging tasks and projects that involve learning new
knowledge and skills
- Apprenticeships
o Training methods for skilled trades workers that combine on-the-
job and classroom instruction
o Broken down into two components:
 Classroom instruction (20%) that focuses on technical
training
 Practical on-the-job training (80%) to teach the skills of a
trade or occupation
o Covers four occupational sectors: construction, motive power,
industrial, and service
o Regulated through a partnership between government, labour,
and industry
- Coaching
o An experienced and knowledgeable person is formally called
upon to help another person develop the insights and techniques
pertinent to the accomplishment of their job and the
improvement of their job performance
o A one-to-one learning and development intervention
o Consists of four core elements:
 The formation and maintenance of a helping relationship
between the coach and employee
 A formally defined coaching agreement or contract that
includes personal development goals and objectives
  Providing the employee with tools, skills, and opportunities
for growth and development
 The fulfillment of the agreement and achievement of the
objectives
- Mentoring
o A senior member of an organization takes a personal interest in
the career of a junior employee
o Occurs through two mechanisms:
 Career support
 E.g., coaching, sponsorship, exposure, visibility,
protection, the provision of challenging assignments
 Psychosocial support:
 E.g., listening, counseling, accepting and providing
feedback, being a role model for success
- Off-the-Job vs. On-the-Job Training Methods: Advantages
o Off-the job training methods
 Use a variety of training methods and can tailor a program
to needs and preferences of trainees
 Trainer can control the training environment
 A large number of trainees can be trained at one time
o On-the-job training methods
 More cost-effective
 Greater likelihood of application on the job/transfer of
training
- Off-the-Job vs. On-the-Job Training Methods: Disadvantages
o Off-the-job training methods
 Can be much more costly than on-the-job methods
 Takes place in an environment that is different from work
environment; difficulty applying training on the job
o On-the-job training methods
 Work environment is full of distractions
 Potential for damage to expensive equipment
 Disruption of service or slowdown in production
 Safety can be compromised
- Combining off and on the job training methods
o Being aware of and understanding the advantages and
disadvantages of each is important in choosing which method to
use
 It is also important to think about practicality and
feasibility
 o Effective training programs often take a blended approach and
mix and combine off-the-job and on-the job training methods

Week 8: Technology-based training methods

- Technology based training methods
o Technology-based training: training that involves the use of
technology to deliver training programs
 E.g., web-based training, computerized self-study,
simulations, computerized games
o We are comparing this to traditional training, which refers to
training that does not involve using technology to deliver training
 E.g., classroom training with a live instructor (regardless of
the instructor’s or learners’ use of technology), non-
computerized games
- Computer based training and e-learning
o Computer-based training: training that is delivered via the
computer for the purpose of teaching job-relevant knowledge
and skills
o E-learning: the use of computer network technology such as the
intranet or Internet to deliver information or instruction to
individuals
 A specific type of computer-based training
 Also known as web-based instruction
 Learners can access training materials from various
devices, such as computers, tablets, or smartphones
- Instructor led training and self directed learning
o Instructor-led training: training methods that involve an
instructor or facilitator who leads, facilitates, or trains online
o Self-directed learning: a process in which individuals or groups
take the initiative and responsibility for learning and manage
their own learning experiences
 o
- Asynchronous and synchronous training
o Asynchronous training: training that is pre-recorded and available
to employees at any time and from any location
 E.g., “ONLN” courses at York University
o Synchronous training: training that is live and requires trainees
to be at their computer at a specific time
 E.g., “LECT” courses at York University during the COVID-19
pandemic
- Electronic performance support systems
o A computer-based system that provides information, advice, and
learning experiences to improve performance
 E.g., a technology-based performance or job aid
 Provides learning at the time that it is needed
o Useful for:
 Jobs with high turnover
 Difficult tasks
 Tasks that are performed infrequently
 Tasks that must be performed perfectly
- The virtual classroom
o A Web-based platform to deliver live, instructor-led training to
geographically dispersed learners
o Made possible through:
 Videoconferencing – linking an expert or trainer to
employees via two-way television and satellite technology
 Web conferencing – a live meeting or conference that takes
place on the Internet
 Webinars – a seminar that takes place live over the Web
 Webcasts – a live or recorded video or audio broadcast
over the Internet
- Social media and web 2.0 technologies
o Social media: the use of technology for sharing and exchanging
information
 E.g., LinkedIn
o Employees can share information and knowledge through the
use of communities of practice (i.e., groups of employees who
share similar concerns and problems and meet regularly to share
their experiences and knowledge, learn from one another, and
identify new approaches for working and solving problems)
 Based on the core principle that learning is social and that
people can learn from each other
 Can use technology to communicate and share
information, which is referred to as Web 2.0 technology
 E.g., blog, wiki, podcast
- Mobile learning
o The use of mobile or portable technologies across locations for
obtaining information and training
 E.g., Calfrac Well Services opening vignette
 Makes learning accessible across time, location, and device
so it is ideal for employees who are out of the office or
work on location
 More effective for shorter sessions and smaller amounts of
information due to potential for distractions
- Synthetic learning environment
o Technology-based training media that augment, replace, create,
and/or manage a learner’s experience with the world
o Provide realistic experiences to enhance learning and
performance
o Examples:
 Virtual reality: an artificial three-dimensional experience
that simulates and re-creates an actual environment
 Augmented reality: computer-generated virtual imagery
information is overlaid or superimposed onto a real-world
environment in real time
- Designing effective technology based training programs
o Effective training programs include active practice and conditions
of practice
o Other design factors:
 Computer simulations
  E.g., virtual worlds
o Games
 E.g., computer-based simulation games
 Gamification – the use of game mechanics and
elements from video games to engage and motivate
employees in the workplace
o Other design factors cont’d:
 Role plays
 Stories
 Customization
 Personalization
 Human interaction
 Feedback
- Benefits and disadvantages of technology based training – trainees
o Benefits
 Increased training flexibility
 Increased learner control
 Self-pacing
 Learner-controlled practice difficulty
 Adaptive guidance

o Disadvantages
 Less interpersonal contact and interaction
 Computer literacy required
- Benefits and disadvantages of technology based training –
organizations
o Benefits
 Increased training standardization
 Ability to train a large number of employees at the same
time
 Ability to track employee training and performance
 Learning management system
 Reduced travel and overhead costs
o Disadvantages
 Higher up-front development costs
 Discomfort and resistance from employees
 Computer literacy
 Self-efficacy
- How effective is technology based training
 o Technology-based (i.e., computer) training is overall slightly more
effective than traditional (i.e., classroom) instruction (6%) for
declarative knowledge but both methods are equally effective for
procedural knowledge
o It is more effective for declarative knowledge when:
 Trainees are older
 A variety of instructional methods were used
 Trainees were able to choose the training medium
 Trainees had greater learner control
 The benefits are outlined to trainees or when there is
accountability
o Both are equally effective if practice and feedback are integrated
into the program

Week 9: Training Delivery

- Training delivery
o Involves thinking about who should attend training, who the
trainer will be, how to train the trainers, etc.

o
- The lesson plan
o The starting point in training delivery is developing the lesson
plan
o This is the blueprint that outlines the sequence of activities that
will take place in the training program
o It is a cohesive unit of instruction with a specific learning
objective
 o

- The trainer
o Qualities of an effective trainer:
 Subject-matter expert (SME)
 Ability to make the material interesting
 Expressive
 Engaging
 Use of seductive details
o Train-the-trainer: training programs that teach subject-matter
experts how to design and deliver training programs
- The trainees
o Donald Kirkpatrick provides four questions to consider when
selecting participants:
 Who can benefit from the training?
  What programs are required by law or by government
edict?
 Should training be voluntary or compulsory?
 Should participants be segregated by their level in the
organization, or should two or more levels be included in
the same class?
o Trainability test: a test that measures an individual’s ability to
learn and perform the training tasks
 This information can be used to develop a training plan
(who in an organization needs training, the type of training
that they need, and how the training will be delivered to
them)
- Training materials and equipment
o Training materials: expendable items such as note pads, pens,
markers, and tape
o Equipment: things that have a life beyond a single use
 E.g., projectors, computers, DVD players
o Important to determine ahead of time to have a clearer sense of
the costs associated with training and to increase the chances
that the training session will run smoothly
- Training site
o The facility or room where the training will take place
o The training site should be:
 Conducive to learning
 Free of noise or distractions that might interfere with or
disrupt learning
 Set up in a manner appropriate for the training program
o It is important for the trainer to come early and inspect the room
ahead of time to ensure that it will be conducive to learning
- Seating arrangements
o This is important because it can facilitate or limit trainee
participation and involvement
o It should be determined by training program objectives, the level
of trainee involvement, and the instruction method
 o
- Scheduling the training program
o The following factors should be taken into consideration:
 Accommodating trainees
 The needs and desires of employees and their supervisors
 Trainer availability
 Training site, equipment, and material availability
 Massed vs. distributed practice
- Training administration
o The coordination of all the people and materials involved in a
training program
o The following should be taken into consideration and completed
as needed:
 Records
 Training histories
 Customized learning opportunities
 Schedules
 Course and material inventories
 Tracking registrations
 Informing supervisors of objectives and content
 Informing supervisors and participants of location
 Enrolling trainees
 Tracking the number of trainees attending
 Distributing pre-session materials
 Booking the site
 Arranging equipment
 Ordering supplies
 Preparing the budget
- The role of ethics in TnD
o Ethics involves the use of systematic thinking about the moral
consequences of one’s actions and decisions on various
stakeholders
 o
- Implementing the training program
o Develop a climate that is conducive to learning (learning
climate):
 Pre-arrival factors
 Greeting participants
 Ensure that the learning facility/environment is appropriate
 Consider the trainer’s style and behaviour
o Consider Gagné’s nine events of instruction to stimulate and
activate trainees’ internal learning processes
 Gain attention
 Describe the objectives
 Stimulate recall of prior knowledge
 Present the material to be learned
 Provide guidance for learning
 Elicit performance practice
 Provide informative feedback
 Assess performance
 Enhance retention and transfer
o Close the training program to signal its successful completion
 E.g., a form of recognition or a ceremony in which
certificates are awarded
- Training delivery problems
o Sometimes training delivery problems are a result of difficult or
uncooperative trainees
 
o There are also several training delivery problems that are related
to the trainers themselves
 Fear
 Credibility
 Personal experiences
 Difficult learners
 Participation
 Timing
 Adjusting instruction
 Questions
 Feedback
 Media, materials, facilities
 Opening, closing techniques
 Dependence on notes

Week 10: transfer of training and training

evaluation
- Transfer of training
o The generalization of knowledge and skills learned in training
and the maintenance of acquired knowledge and skills over time
o In other words, when the knowledge and skills that are learned
during training are:
 Generalized to the job
 Maintained over a period of time on the job
o
o A large percentage of training is not applied on the job
o Barriers to the transfer of training


o Transfer of training process


 Training inputs:
o Training characteristics
 These include trainees’ capabilities (e.g.,
cognitive ability), personality traits (e.g.,
locus of control), motivational factors
(e.g., self-efficacy), values and interests
(e.g., occupational interests), attitudes
and emotions (e.g., motivation to learn),
 and perceptions (e.g., climate for
learning)
 All directly affect transfer
 Motivation to transfer (i.e., a trainee’s
intended effort to use on the job skills
and knowledge learned in training) has
also been found to be a positive predictor
o Training design
 Identical elements: experiences and
conditions during training that closely
resemble those in the actual work
environment
 E.g., physical and psychological
fidelity
 General principles: general rules and
theoretical principles that underlie the
application of trained knowledge and
skills
 Stimulus variability: a variety of stimuli
and experiences, such as multiple
examples of a concept and practice
experiences in a variety of situations
o The work environment
 Pre-training environment: signals and
messages that managers send to
employees before training about its
importance and the extent to which the
organization supports training
 Post-training environment: Factors in the
post-training environment can
encourage, discourage, or prevent
employees from applying new knowledge
and skills on the job
 Training transfer climate: characteristics
in the work environment that facilitate or
inhibit the application of training on the
job
 Includes cues to apply the newly
acquired knowledge and skills,
positive consequences (e.g.,
 feedback and rewards) for doing
so, and support while doing so
 Continuous learning culture: a culture in
which employees believe that knowledge
and skill acquisition are part of their job
responsibilities and that learning is an
important part of work life
- Transfer of training strategies: before training
o Management
 Decide who should attend the training
 Assess readiness to learn/trainability: The extent to
which an individual has the knowledge, skills,
abilities, and the motivation to learn the training
content
o Ability x motivation x perceptions of the work
environment
 Meet with employees before training to discuss the training
program, outline why it is important (what’s in it for me;
WIIFM)
 Valence (beliefs about the desirability of outcomes
obtained from training) is important here
 Involve employees in the training process and get their
input
 Provide them with support (e.g., time to prepare for
training)
o Trainer
 Ensure that the program is operating under the
instructional systems design (ISD) model
 Ensure that managers and trainees are prepared for the
training program
 Managers and trainees should discuss training
objectives, expectations, content, and benefits of the
program
 Assess manager/trainee needs and expectations
 Ensure that trainees are well prepared for the training
program
o Trainees
 Get information about the training program
 E.g., know what the objectives are, what they are
expected to learn
  Meet with manager to discuss training and develop a plan
of action for learning and transfer
 Prepare for the training program to ensure that they are
ready to learn and that they will benefit from the training
 E.g., preparatory reading, pre-training exercises
- Transfer of training strategies: during training
o Management
 Show support for the training program
 Participate in it along with trainees
 Attend the program before the trainees
 Reassign trainees’ work to reduce stress
 Ensure that trainees are not distracted or interrupted
o Trainer
 Incorporate training methods that promote learning and
retention in the program design
 E.g., active practice and conditions of practice, active
learning, adult learning principles, etc.
 Increase trainees’ training motivation during training
 Have trainees prepare and commit to a performance
contract
 This is an agreement that outlines how the newly
learned knowledge and skills will be applied to the
job
o Trainees
 Have a positive attitude toward the training program and
motivation to learn
 Actively participate and engage in the content
 Develop a plan of action for applying the training
 E.g., setting goals for transfer
- Transfer of training strategies: after training
o Management
 Ensure that trainees have immediate and frequent
opportunities to practice their learning on the job
 Encourage and reinforce the application of the new
knowledge and skills on the job
 E.g., recognition, praise, new opportunities and/or
challenges, extrinsic rewards
 Develop an action plan with trainees for transfer and show
support
  Evaluate employees’ use of trained skills on the job and
provide feedback
o Trainer
 Remain involved in the training and transfer process after
the training program has been delivered
 E.g., observe trainees’ use of the trained knowledge
and skills, provide feedback and support
 Conduct a follow-up session to discuss transfer problems
and solutions
o Trainees
 Use the trained knowledge and skills as soon as possible
and frequently
 Be proactive and discuss opportunities for transfer with
their manager
 Establish a “buddy system” or network with others who
have attended the training program for assistance,
support, and reinforcement
- Transfer of training interventions
o These are provided at the end of training to encourage the
transfer of training
o Relapse prevention: instructs trainees to anticipate transfer
obstacles and high-risk situations in the work environment and to
develop coping skills and strategies to overcome them
 Involves anticipating relapses (e.g., barriers), preventing
them (i.e., using coping strategies), and recovering from
them
o Self-management: teaches trainees to manage their transfer
behaviours
 Anticipating performance obstacles
 Planning to overcome them
 Setting goals
 Monitoring progress
 Rewarding oneself for goal attainment
o Goal setting: instructs trainees about the goal-setting process
and how to set specific goals for using trained skills on the job
 Specifies the specific steps and the timeline by which each
will be completed
- Post training supplements
o These interventions provide support and guidance after trainees
return to work
 o Booster sessions: extensions of training programs that involve a
review of the training material
 Sometimes involve debriefs in which trainees discuss
transfer experiences, obstacles, and problems with using
the trained knowledge and skills on the job
 Debriefs lead to plans to overcome obstacles and problems
and the transfer of goals
o Self-coaching: involves reflecting on one’s performance and
setting transfer goals upon completion
o Upward feedback: involves providing trainees with data on the
frequency with which they engaged in trained behaviours and
written comments from subordinates on their performance
- Model of training effectiveness

o
- Training evaluation
o A process to assess the value or worthiness of training programs
to employees and to organizations
o Why conduct training evaluation
 Training evaluation is of value to:
 Improve training
 Identify the programs that are most useful to
employees and determine who should be trained
 Determine cost benefits and cost-effectiveness of a
program
 Determine if a program has achieved expected
results or solved the problem it was meant to solve
 Diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of a
program and identify needed improvements
  Use the data to justify and reinforce (if merited) the
value and credibility of the training function to the
organization
o Barriers to training evaluation
 Fall under two categories:
 Pragmatic barriers
o May be intimidating as it involves a knowledge
of evaluation models, research design,
measurement, questionnaire construction, and
data analysis
o Requires a lot of time and effort
o It costs money
 Political barriers
o Ethical grounds
o Can be threatening
o It is an investment
o It requires accountability
o Types of training evaluation
 The data that are collected
 Trainee perceptions at the conclusion of training
o E.g., whether trainees liked the program, the
extent of learning, post-training behaviours
 Psychological states
o E.g., affective, cognitive, and skill-based states
that influence learning and job behaviours
 The work environment
o E.g., transfer climate, learning cultures
 The purpose of the evaluation
 Formative vs. summative
o Formative evaluation: provides data about
various aspects of a training program and the
value of training processes and materials
 Used to identify improvements to the
instructional experience
o Summative evaluation: provides data about the
worthiness or effectiveness of a training
program
 E.g., cost-benefit analysis
o Models of training evaluation
 Kirkpatrick’s Hierarchical Model
 Identifies 4 levels to assess training
 A training program is “effective” when:
o L1 – Reactions: Trainees report a positive
reaction to a training program
o L2 – Learning: Trainees learn the material
o L3 – Behaviours: Trainees apply on the job what
they learn in training
o L4 – Results: Training has a positive effect on
organizational outcomes
o L5 – Return on investment (cost-benefit
analysis)
 The levels are arranged in a hierarchy in which each
new level provides more important information than
the previous one
 In this way, each level has a causal link to the next
one
 COMA Model
 Designed for formative evaluation and involves the
measurement of the following types of variables:
 Cognitive – level of learning gained from the training
o E.g., declarative and procedural learning
 Organizational – variables in the work environment
that impact transfer of training
o E.g., learning culture, level of support upon
return to job
 Motivational – the desire to apply the learned skill on
the job
o E.g., training motivation
 Attitudinal – individuals’ feelings and thinking
processes
o E.g., self-efficacy
 Decision-Based Evaluation Model
 Specifies the target, focus, and methods of
evaluation:
o Targets: What do we want to find out from the
evaluation?
o Focus: What are the variables we will measure?
 o Methods: What methods may be appropriate
for conducting the evaluation?
 Useful for both formative and summative evaluations
- Data collection designs in training evaluation
o All training evaluations involve one or more of these three
comparisons:
 Trainee states relative to a predetermined criterion
 E.g., after studying the chapter, can you pass a
knowledge test?
 Trainee changes
 E.g., after studying the chapter, is your knowledge of
training evaluation greater than it was before?
 Trainees compared to non-trained people
 E.g., compared to students who have not read the
chapter, do you know more about training evaluation
than they do?
o Descriptive training evaluation design
 Post-only design
 Whether trainees have attained a predetermined
level of proficiency
 Often used for certification purposes
o Pre-post design
 Whether trainees have changed/improved
o Time series design
 Whether the post-training results persist
 Often rely on objective performance records
o Causal evaluation design
 Training is judged to be effective when the trained group
outperforms the untrained group on the relevant post-
training measures
 Involves five steps:
 Select which basic design you’ll use (i.e., post only,
pre-post, time series data)
 Identify a group of “identical” employees who need
to go through the specific training
 Randomly assign these employees into two groups
o One group will attend the training and the
other will not (control group)
 Measure both groups on the same variables at the
same time
  Statistically compare the outcomes achieved by both
groups
o The internal referencing strategy (IRS) model
 Data are collected from the trained group only using a pre-
post design
 On both pre- and post- measures, two types of outcomes
are measured:
 Relevant outcome – the one for which training is
provided
 Irrelevant but germane outcome – the one for which
training could have been provided but was not
 Is there a greater pre-post change on the relevant outcome
compared to the irrelevant but germane outcome?

Week 11: training costs and benefits and

training programs
- Training and the bottom line
o Effectiveness of training depends on costs and benefits
o Human Resources and training professionals must learn how to
calculate and demonstrate results of training investments
 Shows the value of training programs to the organization
 Justifies share of budget for training and protects budgets
during economic downturns
 Improves its status and influence within the organization
o To calculate the effect of training and development on the
bottom line, you must calculate the costs and benefits of training
and development programs
- Costing training programs
o The process of identifying all expenditures used in training
o There are five main cost categories:
 Direct
 Indirect
 Developmental
 Overhead
 Trainee compensation costs
- The benefits of training programs
o The benefits of a training program can be calculated in monetary
or non-monetary terms
 o Two types of benefit evaluation:
 Cost-effectiveness evaluation: a comparison of the cost of
training in monetary terms to the benefit of training in
monetary terms
 Cost-benefit evaluation: a comparison of the cost of
training in monetary terms to the benefits of training in
non-monetary terms
o Once the cost and benefit of a training program in monetary
terms has been determined, it is possible to do several benefit
calculations:
 Net benefit: the estimated value of the benefit minus the
cost of the training program
 Training Benefit – Cost of the program
 Benefit-cost ratio (BCR): The benefit divided by the cost of
the training program
 Training Benefit/Cost of the program
 Return on investment (ROI)
 Return on investment: a comparison of the cost of a
training program to its benefits by dividing the net
benefit by the cost of the training program
o The most popular approach
 Benefits – cost of program/cost of the program
- Utility analysis
o A method to forecast the financial benefits that result from
human resource programs such as training and development
o Involves procedures in which the effectiveness of a training
program is translated into dollars and cents
o Factors involved in utility analysis:
 Effect size
 Standard deviation of job performance
 Number of employees trained
 Time that the training benefits will last

o
 o Break even analysis: Finding the value at which benefits equal
costs and utility is equal to zero
 Helps reduce the uncertainty associated with the estimates
of the various parameters used to calculate utility


- The credibility of benefit estimates
o Benefit estimates are not an exact science
o Assumptions and judgments are made when estimating the
monetary benefits of a training program
o The process works only if both managers and clients accept the
assumptions
o The data must be accurate and the process believable
o Use internal and external experts in making benefit estimates
- Orientation training
o Programs that introduce new employees to their job, the people
they will be working with, and the organization
 One of the main methods used by organizations to
socialize new employees
- Essential skills training
o Essential skills: skills required for work, learning, and life
o Literacy: the ability to understand and use printed information in
daily activities to achieve one’s goals and develop knowledge
and potential
o Essential skills training: programs that are designed to provide
employees with the essential skills required to perform their job
and adapt to workplace change
- Technical and non technical skills training
o Technical skills training: training in specific job-related skills all
employees need to perform their job
o Non-technical skills training: training in a variety of skills that
employees need to work and interact with others
 E.g., communication skills, interpersonal skills, negotiation
skills
- Information technology training
o Training programs that focus on the use of computers and
computer systems
o Computer software training: Training that focuses on how to use
a specific computer software application
- Health and safety training
o Training programs that educate employees in safe work methods
and practices and how to recognize the chemical and physical
hazards in the workplace so that they are prepared and capable
of taking corrective action in the event of an incident
 E.g., Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
(WHMIS) training
- Total quality management training
o Total quality management (TQM): the systematic process of
continual improvement of the quality of an organization’s
products and services
o TQM training: programs that involve team training and training in
the use of statistical tools that are used for problem-solving and
decision-making processes
- Team training
o Training programs that are designed to improve the functioning
and effectiveness of teams in areas such as communication and
coordination
o Focuses on two types of skills:
 Task-work skills: Skills to perform the team’s tasks
 Teamwork skills: Skills to interact, communicate, and
coordinate tasks effectively with other team members
o E.g., crew resource management (CRM) training
 A specialized type of team training that teaches team
members to use all available resources – people,
information, and equipment
 Focuses on critical cognitive and interpersonal skills
- Sales training
o Training programs that are designed to upgrade sales
professionals’ skills and help them deal with new competitive
challenges
- Customer service training
o Training programs that are designed to provide employees with
interpersonal and service skills that are required for interacting
with customers and for providing quality service
o Focuses on ability and motivation to perform
- Sexual and racial harassment training
o Sexual harassment: unwelcome sexual advances, requests for
sexual favours, and verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature
 that is a condition of employment, interferes with work
performance, or creates a hostile work environment
o Sexual and racial harassment training: training programs that are
designed to educate employees about sexual and racial
harassment and the organization’s policies and procedures
regarding sexual and racial harassment
- Ethics training
o Training programs that educate employees about the
organization’s values, ethical policies, and on making ethical
decisions
o Should not only go over ethical guidelines but also how to
address common ethical problems/dilemmas that might be
encountered in the workplace
- Diversity training
o Training programs that focus on differences in values, attitudes,
and behaviours of individuals with different backgrounds
o Three main objectives:
 Increase awareness about diversity issues
 Reduce biases and stereotypes
 Change and utilize behaviours needed to work effectively
in a diverse workforce
o They should focus on:
 Increasing awareness of what diversity is and why it is
important
 Providing skills required to work effectively in a diverse
workforce
 Providing application strategies to facilitate the use of
diversity awareness and skills to improve work
performance, interactions, and communication
- Cross cultural training
o Training programs that prepare employees for working and living
in different cultures and for interactions with persons from
different backgrounds
o An important factor for the success of cross-cultural training
programs is training rigour
 The degree of mental involvement and effort that must be
used by the trainer and the trainee for the trainee to learn
the required concepts
 o The level of cross-cultural training rigour needed by an
expatriate for a specific foreign assignment depends on the
following dimensions:
 Cultural toughness: how difficult it is to adjust to a new
culture
 Communication toughness: the extent to which the
expatriate will have to interact with the locals of the host
country
 Job toughness: how difficult the tasks will be for the
expatriate compared to what they are used to doing

Week 12: management and leadership

development
- Management
o The process of getting things done, efficiently and effectively,
through and with other people
- Management development vs employee training
o Management development differs from employee training
because:
 It focuses on “people skills”
 It relies more on experiential techniques
 Management behaviours are strongly influenced by the
manager’s personality and preferences
 It is a longitudinal and gradual process
 Incompetent managers can have a negative effect on
organizational survival
 It has unique strategic significance
- Management development
o The complex process by which individuals learn to perform
effectively in managerial roles
o The fundamental roles that managers play include interpersonal,
informational, and decisional roles
 Are related to their core skills/functions: controlling,
organizing, and planning
o Another core skill/function is leadership
 The individual qualities and behaviours that define and
shape the direction of the organization and that inspire
 others to pursue that direction in the face of obstacles and
constraints
- Core managerial roles
o Interpersonal
 Refers to the relationships that managers develop with
other people
 Involves a leadership, liaison, and figurehead role
o Informational
 Involves monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson role
o Decisional
 Involves entrepreneur, resource allocation, negotiator, and
troubleshooter role
- Managerial functions
o Controlling
 Monitoring activities of the organization and its members
o Organizing
 Coordinating and organizing the efforts and tasks of
members and units
o Planning
 Defining and developing goals for the organization and the
departments/units
o Leading
 Influencing the actions of others
- Leadership
o Is a critical function of management
o Involves five key leadership success factors (Kouzes & Posner,
2002)
 Role modelling
 Inspiring a shared vision
 Challenging the status quo
 Encouraging others to do the same
 Recognizing the contributions of others
- Leadership and its development
o Another definition of leadership: an influence process in which
one person (a leader) influences others (subordinates/followers)
to pursue valued organizational goals effectively
o The evolution of understanding leadership:
 Trait-based leadership
 Behaviour-based leadership
 Situational leadership

Transactional leadership

Transformational leadership

 Charismatic leadership
 Authentic leadership
 Servant leadership
- Management skills

o
- Emotional intelligence
o The popular press view (Goleman, 1998)
 Defined as the ability to manage your own and others’
emotions and relationships with others
 Involves five sets of skills:
o Self-awareness
o Self-control
o Motivation or drive
o Empathy
o Interpersonal skills
o The academic view (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000)
 Involves four main abilities:
 Perceiving emotions: The ability to accurately
perceive emotions in oneself and others as well as in
objects, art, stories, music, and other stimuli
 Facilitating thought: The ability to generate, use, and
feel emotion as necessary to communicate feelings
or employ them in other cognitive processes
 Understanding emotions: The ability to understand
emotional information, to understand how emotions
combine and progress through relationship
transitions, and to appreciate such emotional
meanings
  Managing emotions: The ability to be open to
feelings, and to modulate them in oneself and others
to promote personal understanding and growth
- Models of management skills development
o Basic blueprint that identifies the components or steps to be
included in the development of training programs
o Most models of management skill development share four basic
commonalities
- Error training for management development
o Error management training (EMT) allows and encourages
trainees to make errors
o EMT may be superior for jobs such as management, which
require problem-solving skills and where reproduction of learned
behaviours is not adequate
- The content of management development programs
o Management skills fall into three general categories:
 Conceptual Skills
 Managers require three especially important
conceptual skills:
o Problem solving and decision making
o Planning skills
o Performance management and goal setting
 Technical Skills
 Relate to knowledge of a specific type of work or
activity
 E.g., analytical skills, presentation skills, etc.
 Interpersonal Skills
 Refer to the manager’s ability to interact with others
in a constructive manner
 This includes skills in:
o Communication
o Managing conflict
o Managing stress
- Methods of management development
o Some methods of management development are informational
(focus on principles and skill/technique application) and others
are fully experiential (learning by experiences)
o Direct experience is often used
  Experiential learning: skill practice exercises that actively
engage and involve the learner
 E.g., job rotation, special assignments
o There are three general approaches to, and techniques for,
management development:
 Management education programs
 Management education: the acquisition of a broad
range of managerial knowledge, principles, and
general conceptual abilities
 Such programs target the development of the
principles and techniques required to control,
organize, plan, and lead effectively
 Often conducted by colleges and universities
o E.g., MBA programs
 Management training programs
 Management Training Programs
 Management training: programs and activities
designed to develop specific managerial skills
 Some take place in the classroom (e.g., workshops
and seminars) or outside the classroom in alternative
settings (e.g., outdoor wilderness training)
 On-the-job management development
 Programs designed to provide individuals with
managerial learning experiences on the job
 Two of the most common examples are:
o Job rotation
 A planned process that involves posting
the manager to different jobs, areas, or
functions of the organization
o Coaching
 One-on-one structured learning
experience to help the manager develop
the insights and techniques pertinent to
the accomplishment of specific aspects
of the job
 Three key ingredients of a great coach:
 Goal orientation
 Challengers
 Person-focused
  Most helpful when coaches help
managers develop five key elements:
 Insight
 Motivation
 Capabilities
 Real-world practices
 Accountability
- Is management development effective
o According to the Conference Board of Canada, most
organizations are not satisfied with the results of their leadership
development practices
o There have also been differing findings on the effectiveness of
management development programs
- Leadership training: what’s wrong and what’s needed
o What’s Wrong
 There are several common organizational situations that
prevent transfer of training in organizations (Beer,
Finnstrom, & Schrader, 2016):
 Unclear organizational priorities and strategies
 Lack of commitment to change by upper
management
 A reluctance to allow honest discussions of problems
 Inability to identify and nurture talented individuals
 Managers’ reluctance (fear?) to tell the truth about
barriers to behaviour change on the job
o What’s Needed
 It should be tied to organizational development efforts
 Senior management should be directly involved
 HR needs to carefully assess training needs and ensure
congruency between the skills and behaviours being
trained and their importance to management
 Trainers need to provide on-the-job support because the
display of newly learned behaviours can be difficult