Type / Subtype Description General Philippine Literature

Example Example (from your list)

FIGURES OF Creative ways of

SPEECH expressing meaning to
make ideas vivid and
memorable.

– Figures of Compare two unlike

Comparison things or give life to
objects/ideas.

Simile Comparison using like “Her smile is “The road was as white as
or as. like sunshine.” ricefields in bloom.” (How
My Brother Leon Brought
Home a Wife – Manuel
Arguilla)

Metaphor Direct comparison “Time is a thief.” “The world is an apple.”

without like or as. (The World is an Apple –
Alberto Florentino)

Personification Giving human “The stars “The moon waited at the

qualities to winked at me.” bamboo gate.” (How My
objects/ideas. Brother Leon Brought
Home a Wife – Manuel
Arguilla)

Apostrophe Addressing someone “O Death, “O my country, how I long

absent or an abstract where is thy for thee.” (Noli Me Tangere
idea. sting?” – José Rizal)

– Figures of Show differences or

Contrast surprising
contradictions.

Antithesis Opposite ideas placed “Speech is “I am a Filipino – inheritor of

side by side. silver, silence is a glorious past, hostage to
golden.” an uncertain future.” (I Am
a Filipino – Carlos P.
Romulo)

Oxymoron Two contradictory “Bittersweet “Cruel kindness of fate…”

words together. memory.” (El Filibusterismo – José
Rizal)

Irony Saying the opposite of “What a

what is meant. beautiful day!”
(during a storm)

Paradox Statement that seems “The more we “He died so that others may
contradictory but true. learn, the less live.” (El Filibusterismo –
we know.” José Rizal)

– Figures of Use related terms to

Association represent another
idea.
Metonymy Something related “The crown will “The pen is mightier than
stands for the idea. decide.” the sword.” (theme echoed
in El Renacimiento
editorials)

Synecdoche Part stands for the “All hands on “Brown hands till the soil…”
whole or vice versa. deck.” (farmers representing
Filipino masses – Life and
Success – Zoilo Galang)

Allusion Indirect reference to “He met his “To Balintawak we look with
an event/person. Waterloo.” pride.” (I Am a Filipino –
Carlos P. Romulo)

– Figures of Show intensity or

Exaggeration / restraint of feeling.
Understatement

Hyperbole Exaggeration for “I’ve told you a “O land beloved, I would die
emphasis. million times.” a thousand deaths for
thee!” (Mi Último Adiós –
José Rizal)

Litotes Understatement using “He is not a bad “I am not without hope.”

the negative. singer.” (Urbana at Felisa –
Modesto de Castro)

– Figures of Play with word order

Thought / or number of words.
Arrangement

Addition (Pleonasm) Use more words than “I heard it with “I saw it with my own eyes.”
needed. my own ears.” (El Filibusterismo – José
Rizal, Basilio recognizing
Simoun)

Omission (Ellipsis) Words omitted but “Some go to “Gone the hope, vanished
meaning clear. church; others, the dream.” (Isang Dipang
to mosque.” Langit – Amado V.
Hernandez)

Transposition Change normal word “Sweet is the “Beautiful is the land that
(Hyperbaton) order. night.” bore me.” (I Am a Filipino
– Carlos P. Romulo)

IMAGERY Words appealing to

the senses to create
vivid mental pictures.

Visual Appeals to sight. “The crimson “The fields were green with
sunset spread harvest.” (How My Brother
across the sky.” Leon Brought Home a
Wife – Manuel Arguilla)

Auditory Appeals to hearing. “The bells tolled “The clatter of wheels on

mournfully.” the road.” (How My
Brother Leon Brought
Home a Wife)
Olfactory Appeals to smell. “The aroma of “The fragrance of the
fresh bread fields…” (How My Brother
filled the air.” Leon Brought Home a
Wife)

Gustatory Appeals to taste. “The soup was “Taste the salt of tears and
salty and sour.” rice.” (Life and Success –
Zoilo Galang)

Tactile Appeals to touch. “The bark felt “The heat of the afternoon
rough under my sun burned my back.” (How
hand.” My Brother Leon Brought
Home a Wife)

Kinesthetic Suggests movement. “Leaves danced “The carabao moved slowly

in the wind.” along the road.” (How My
Brother Leon Brought
Home a Wife)

Thermal Suggests “The scorching “It was a hot noontime

temperature. sun burned our when we arrived.” (How My
backs.” Brother Leon Brought
Home a Wife)

SYMBOLISM / Central idea or Dove = peace “Apple” = temptation of

MEANING message of the poverty and sin (The World
poem/story. is an Apple – Alberto
Florentino)

Type / Subtype Description General Example Philippine Literature

Example (from your
list)

TONE COLOR Tone color (also called

(Euphony & melody) refers to the
Cacophony) musical quality of
words — how pleasant
or harsh they sound.

Euphony Use of soft, “So long as men can “Sweet is the native land,
harmonious, pleasing breathe or eyes can the land of my birth.” (I
sounds. see.” Am a Filipino – Carlos
P. Romulo)

Cacophony Use of harsh, “The clash and clang “The crash of guns, the
discordant sounds. of clattering cans.” clash of steel.” (I Am a
Filipino)

RHYME Repetition of similar

sounds, usually at the
end of lines.

Terminal Rhyme at the end of Twinkle, twinkle, little “I die just when I see the
Rhyme lines. star / How I wonder dawn break, / Of the land
what you are I love so dear for your
sake.” (Mi Último Adiós
– José Rizal)
Internal Rhyme Rhyme within a line. “I bring fresh showers “The road was long, but
for the thirsty song was strong.”
flowers.” (adapted from Bamboo
Flute – Marcelo de
Gracia Concepcion)

Exact (Perfect) Exact repetition of the “Night / Light” “Tread / Dead” (Mi
Rhyme final sound. Último Adiós)

Imperfect Similar but not “Shape / Keep”

(Slant) Rhyme identical sounds.

Double Rhyme Rhyme of two “Glory / Story” “Holy / Lowly” (Urbana

syllables. at Felisa)

Triple Rhyme Rhyme of three “Beautiful / Dutiful”

syllables.

Compound Rhyme using “Bluebell / New spell” “Rainfall / Pain-call”

Rhyme compound words or (Isang Dipang Langit –
split words. Amado V. Hernandez)

Identical Same word used as “Night / Night” “Die / Die” (Mi Último
Rhyme rhyme. Adiós)

Monorhyme One rhyme sound aaaa

repeated in all lines.

Dirime Two-line rhyme pattern Couplets Found in didactic verse

(aa, bb). in Urbana at Felisa

Tririme Three-line rhyme Triplet rhyme Present in some stanzas

pattern (aaa). of Azucena – Marcelo
de Gracia Concepcion

RHYTHM Pattern of stressed (´)

(METER) and unstressed (˘)
syllables that creates
musical flow.

Iamb (˘ ´) Unstressed + stressed. “de-LIGHT” Found in many formal

sonnets translated from
Rizal’s works.

Trochee (´ ˘) Stressed + unstressed. “TA-ble” “FRE-dom calls us” (I

Am a Filipino)

Anapest (˘ ˘ ´) Two unstressed + “inter-VENE” “In the DARK of the

stressed. NIGHT we PRAY.” (Mi
Último Adiós)

Dactyl (´ ˘ ˘) Stressed + two “BEAU-ti-ful” “GLOR-ious land of my

unstressed. FA-thers” (I Am a
Filipino)

Spondee (´ ´) Two stressed syllables. “HEARTBREAK” “DAWN BREAK” (Mi

Último Adiós)

Pyrrhus / Two unstressed “in a” Found in transition words

Dibrach (˘ ˘) syllables. in El Filibusterismo
passages.
Tribrach (˘ ˘ ˘) Three unstressed Very rare, used for Found in playful verses
syllables. quick light rhythm. in Urbana at Felisa
(moral lessons in light
tone).

Amphibrach (˘ Unstressed + stressed “re-PLY-ing” In lyric rhythm of

´ ˘) + unstressed. Bamboo Flute –
Marcelo de Gracia
Concepcion

Baccius (˘ ´ ´) Unstressed + two “be-FORE TIME” Used in rhetorical

stressed. passages of I Am a
Filipino

Antibaccius (´ ´ Two stressed + one “LIFE IS hard” Present in declamatory

˘) unstressed. tone of I Am a Filipino

Amphimacer (´ Stressed + unstressed “LOVE is TRUE” “FIGHT for LOVE”

˘ ´) + stressed. (Isang Dipang Langit)

Cretic (´ ˘ ´) Same as Amphimacer, “FAITH in GOD” Found in solemn lines of

used in stately rhythm. Mi Último Adiós

Molossus (´ ´ ´) Three stressed “LOUD WILD CRIES” “BLOOD SWEAT

syllables in a row. TEARS” (Isang Dipang
Langit)

Structure Description Actual Example (Philippine Literature)

Element

Vertical Measure

Couplet Two-line stanza,

often rhyming.

Triplet Three-line stanza,

often with same
rhyme.

Tercet Three-line stanza

with varied rhyme
(ABA, AAA, etc.).

Terza Rima Three-line stanza

with interlocking
rhyme (ABA
BCB...).

Quatrain Four-line stanza,

most common
form.

Cinquain Five-line stanza

with set
syllable/stress
pattern.
Sestet Six-line stanza (last
6 lines of a sonnet).

Septet Seven-line stanza.

Octave Eight-line stanza,

first part of a
Petrarchan sonnet.

Nonet Nine-line stanza,

descending syllable
count (9 to 1).

Etheree Ten-line poem,

ascending syllable
count (1 to 10).

Sonnet 14-line poem with

formal
rhyme/meter.

Horizontal
Measure

Monosyllabic – Lines based on

Dodecasyllabic syllable count (1 to
12 syllables).

Monometer – Lines based on

Octameter number of metrical
feet per line.

Parallelism Repetition of “I am a Filipino — / I am a child of the sun, / I am of

structure or idea. the earth...” (I Am a Filipino by Romulo)

Ellipsis Omission of words “Through night... to dawn we go.” (Poems by

but sense is clear. Doveglion by Jose Garcia Villa)

Forms of Poetry

Form Description

Free Verse Poetry without fixed meter or rhyme

scheme

Rondeau 15-line poem, rhyme scheme

aabba–aabR–aabbaR (R = refrain)

Triolet 8-line poem, lines 1 & 2 repeat later

Villanelle 19 lines, five tercets + quatrain, two refrains

Acrostic First letters of each line spell a word

Shape Words arranged to form a picture

Poem

Classification of Short Stories

Type Description

Character Focus on character

development

Setting Emphasizes place/time

Theme Revolves around central

idea

Plot Driven by sequence of

events

Drabble Exactly 100 words

Flash Under 1,000 words

Fiction

Flash Lyrical flash fiction

Prose

Tale Traditional/folkloric
narrative

Other Short Prose Forms

Form Description Example

Legend Explains origin of place/object “Legend of Mayon Volcano”

Myth Explains gods/creation Captan & Magwayan creation myth

Fable Animals as characters, moral “Monkey and the Turtle”

lesson

Vignette Short sketch capturing mood “Moon Shadows on the Water” by

Aurelio Alvero

Feghoot Humorous story ending with a Joke stories in campus papers

pun

Molbo Story Nonsensical or satirical story Rare in PH literature

Short Prose Short work less than 1,000 “The Filipino Way of Life” by Camilo
words Osias
Sketch Story Extremely short, little or no Writing challenges
plot

Classification of Novels

Type Description Example

Historical Novel Based on historical events “Noli Me Tangere,” “El Filibusterismo”

Romance Novel Centers on love story “Filipino Love Stories” collection

Psychological Focus on mental/emotional “Maganda Pa Ang Daigdig” by Lazaro

Novel life Francisco

Social Novel Exposes social problems “Isang Dipang Langit” by Amado

Hernandez

Bildungsroman Coming-of-age story Coming-of-age themed novels

Realistic Novel True-to-life depiction Modern Filipino realist fiction

Picaresque Novel Adventures of rogue hero Stories of tricksters/antiheroes

Elements of Narrative

Element Description

Characters People, animals, or entities in the

story

Setting Time and place of events

Plot Sequence of events

Conflict Problem or struggle

Theme Central idea or message

Point of View Narrator’s perspective

Style/Tone Language, mood, attitude

Short Story vs. Novel

Aspect Short Story Novel

Length Can be read in one Longer, read in several

sitting sittings

Focus Single incident/character Multiple characters, subplots

Complexity Simple structure More complex plotlines

Elements of Essay

Part Description

Introduction Hook + thesis statement

Body Supporting points and

details

Conclusion Wrap-up, insight

Formal vs. Informal Essay

Aspect Formal Essay Informal Essay

Tone Objective, serious Conversational, personal

Languag Academic, formal Colloquial, may use humor

e

Purpose Inform, argue logically Entertain, reflect personally

Classification of Essays

Type Description

Descriptive Paints a picture (people,

places)

Narrative Tells a story

Expository Explains an idea

Persuasive Convince reader

Critical/Analytical Evaluates a text/idea