UNIT-I : CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES—NATURE AND BEHAVIOUR

Chapter-1
Chemical Reactions and Equations

1 Chemical Reactions
Concept covered:
chemical equation.
l Chemical reaction and examples l Skeletal and balanced chemical equation l Steps to balance a

Chemical Reaction  [Board, 2020] Writing a Chemical Equation:

• A chemical reaction is a process in Chemical (i) The symbols of elements and the formulae of reacting

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which the original substance(s) loses Reactions substances (reactants) are written on the left-hand side
its nature and identity and forms new of the equation, with a plus (+) sign between them.
substance(s) with different properties. (ii) The symbols and formulae of the substances formed
• Breaking of the chemical bonds and (products) are written on the right-hand side of the
formation of new chemical bonds
equation, with a plus sign (+) between them.
'results in a' or 'causes' a chemical
reaction. Scan Me! (iii) An arrow sign (→) is put between the reactants and

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• The substances that take part in a the products.
chemical reaction are called Reactants. (iv) The physical states of the reactants and products are
• The substances that are formed in a chemical reaction also mentioned in a chemical equation.
are called Products. Skeletal Chemical Equation: A chemical equation which
• A chemical reaction can be identified by either of the simply represents the symbols and formulae of reactants
following observations: [Board, 2024] and products taking part in the reaction is known as
S. No. Characteristics Examples skeletal chemical equation for a reaction.

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1. Change in The combustion reaction of For example: Mg + O2 → MgO is a skeletal equation.
state candle wax is characterised by Balanced Equation: The equation in which atoms of
[Board, 2024] a change in state from solid to various elements on both sides of a chemical equation
liquid and gas. are equal in accordance with the Law of Conservation of
2. Change in The chemical reaction between Mass. [Board, 2024]
colour citric acid and purple-coloured For example:
potassium permanganate solution 340 atm
(i) CO(g) + 2H2 (g) 
 CH3OH(l)
is characterised by a change in
colour from purple to colourless. 
(ii) 6CO2(g) + 12H2O(l)
sunlight
 C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2 (aq)
chlorophyll
3. Evolution of The chemical reaction between
Glucose + 6 H2O (l)
gas zinc and dilute sulphuric acid is
characterised by hydrogen gas. The process of equalising the atoms of the elements on
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + both sides of an equation is called balancing a chemical
H2 ↑ (g) equation. This is known as hit and trial method. Let
4. Change in The reaction between quicklime us understand this with the help of an example given
temperature and water to form slaked lime is below:
characterised by an increase in
temperature. Example 1
CaO +H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat
5. Formation of When an aqueous solution of Balancing a chemical equation:
a precipitate sodium sulphate is mixed with Step 1: Write the chemical equation.
the aqueous solution of barium
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
chloride, barium sulphate comes
in the form of white precipitate. Step 2: Count the number of atoms of each element on
Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → both sides of the chemical equation.
BaSO4(↓)+2NaCl(aq) No. of atoms at No. of atoms at
Element
Chemical Equations  [Board, 2016] reactant side product side
• A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a 1. Fe 1 3
chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae. 2. H 2 2
• It is a way to represent the chemical reaction in a concise 3. O 1 4
and informative way.
Step 3: Equalise the number of atoms of element with
• For example,
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide the maximum number by trial and error method 'by
(Reactants) (Product) placing it in front of it.' Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
This equation is called word equation. Step 4: Try to equalise all the atoms of elements on both
• The word equation can be converted into chemical reactant and product sides by adding coefficient in
equation by writing symbols and formulae of the front of it. 3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
substance instead of their names 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
 1
2 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

Types of Chemical Reactions

2 Concept covered: l Combination reaction l Decomposition reaction l Displacement reaction l Double displacement reaction l Redox reaction
l Oxidation and reduction reaction l Exothermic and endothermic reaction.

Types of Chemical Reactions White precipitate of BaSO4 is formed,

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I. Combination Reaction: The reaction in which two or so it is also called precipitation Precipitation reaction:
ons
more reactants combine to form a single product. e.g., rection. Precipitation reacti
and
(i) Burning of coal V. Oxidation and Reduction: occur when cations
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) an ion s in aqueous solu-
Loss of electron/s is called
bine to form an
(ii) Formation of water Oxidation and gain of electron/s is tion com ionic solid called
insoluble
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) call Reduction.
a precipitate. e.g.,
Oxidation: It is a process of gaining

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(iii) CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat NaCl + AgNO3 →A
gCl +
oxygen or loss of hydrogen atom NaNO3 (Precipitat
e)
(Quicklime) (Slaked lime)
during a reaction by an atom,
Exothermic Reactions: Reaction in which heat is released
molecule, or ion. When any atom
along with the formation of products e.g., loses electron or increase in oxidation number is observed
(i) Burning of natural gas. by another atom, ion or molecule, it is said to be oxidation.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat
(ii) Respiration is also an exothermic reaction. 2Cu + O2 Heat
  2CuO [Board, 2019]

C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(aq) + 6H2O(l) + Energy Reduction: It is a process of gaining hydrogen or loss of
(Glucose) oxygen atom during a reaction by an atom, molecule, or
II. Decomposition Reaction: [Board 2024]
ion. When any atom gain electron or decrease in oxidation
number is observed by another atom, ion or molecule, it
The reaction in which a compound splits into two or more
is said to be reduction.
simpler substances is called decomposition reaction.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
A→B+C
(a) Thermal Decomposition: When decomposition is MNEMONICS
carried out by heating. e.g.,
Concept 1: Types of decomposition reaction
(i) 2FeSO4(s) Heat
  Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Mnemonics: PET
(Ferrous sulphate) (Ferric oxide)
Interpretations:
Green colour Red-brown colour
PET: Photolytic reaction, Electrolytic reaction, Thermal reac-
(ii) CaCO3(s) Heat
  CaO(s) + CO2(g) tion
(Lime stone) (Quicklime) Concept 2: Oxidation and reduction reaction
(b) Electrolytic decomposition: When decomposition is Mnemonics: OIL RIG
carried out by passing electricity. e.g., Interpretations:
Electric OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain
2H2O(l) current
  2H2(g) + O2(g) of electrons
(c) Photolytic decomposition: When decomposition is Concept 3: Types of chemical reactions
carried out in presence of sunlight. e.g., Mnemonics: ROC.D3
Sunlight Interpretations:
(i) 2AgCl(s) 
 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
ROC.D3: Reduction, Oxidation, Combination, Decomposi-
Sunlight
(ii) 2AgBr(s) 
 2Ag(s) + Br2(g) tion, Displacement, Double Displacement
Endothermic Reaction: The reactions which require Redox (Oxidation and Reduction) Reaction: In this
energy in the form of heat, light or electricity to break reaction, CuO is reduced to Cu and H2 is oxidised to
reactants are called endothermic reactions. e.g., H2O. In other words, one reactant gets oxidised while the
(i) NH4Cl (s) + H2O (l) → NH4Cl (aq) – Heat other gets reduced. Such reactions are called oxidation–
III.  Displacement Reaction: The chemical reactions reduction reactions or redox reactions. [Board 2024]
in which more reactive element displaces less reactive
element from its salt solution. e.g.,
(i) Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(Iron) (Copper sulphate) (Ferrous sulphate) (Copper)
(ii) Zinc displaces copper forming zinc sulphate.
Zinc is more reactive than copper.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) A redox (oxidation-reduction)reaction in- Oxidation and
(Zinc Sulphate) volves the transfer of electrons between Reduction
IV. Double Displacement Reaction: A reaction in which
reactants. Oxidation involves the loss of
new compounds are formed by mutual exchange of ions
electrons, while reduction involves the
between two compounds. e.g.,
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq) gain of electrons.  [Board, 2023]
(Sodium (Barium (Barium (Sodium
Scan Me!
sulphate) chloride) sulphate) chloride)
 Revision Notes | 3

Chapter-2
Acids, Bases and Salts

1 Acids and Bases

Concept covered: l Definition of acids and bases l Properties of acids and bases l Indicators and its type l pH scale and
importance of pH in everyday life.

Acids
• Acids are the substances that furnish H+ ions in aqueous For Bases: It changes colour to green in bases.

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solution. Acids are sour in taste. They turn blue litmus red. (iii) Turmeric: For Acids: It remains yellow in acids.
• Its examples include: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Acetic For Bases: It changes colour to red in bases.
acid (CH3COOH), Nitric acid (HNO3), etc. 2. Synthetic Indicators: These are the indicators which
• If in an aqueous solution, concentration of acid is low changes their colour in bases and acids, but made synthetically.
as compared to water, it is called dilute solution and if Example: Methyl Orange, Phenolphthalein
concentration of acid is high, it is called concentrated (i) Phenolphthalein: For Acids: It remains colourless

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solution. in acids.
• Acids which dissociate into ions completely are called For Bases: It changes colour to pink in bases.
strong acids, e.g., H2SO4, HCl, HNO3, etc. (ii) Methyl Orange: For Acids: It changes colour to red
in acids
• Acids which do not dissociate into ions completely are
called weak acids, e.g., citric acid, acetic acid, formic acid, For Bases: It changes colour to yellow in bases.
etc. 3. Olfactory Indicators: These are the indicators which

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changes their smell in bases and acids
Note: Example: Onion ,Clove oil, Vanilla Extract
Although we talk about ‘taste’ of acids and bases, (i) Onion: For Acids: Its smell retains in acids.
it is not advisable to taste any acid or base. Most of For Bases: It loses its smell in bases.
them are harmful. Similarly, touching the solutions (ii) Vanilla Extract: For Acids: Its smell retains in acids.
of strong acids and bases should be avoided. They
For Bases: It loses its smell in bases.
may harm the skin.
(iii) Clove Oil: For Acids: Its smell retains in acids.
Bases For Bases: It loses its smell in bases.
• Bases are those chemical compounds Acid, Bases and • Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases: [Board 2018]
which are bitter in taste, soapy in touch, Salts
1. Reaction of Metals with: [Board 2024]
turn red litmus blue and give OH– ions
in aqueous solution. Acids Bases
• The examples include sodium Acid + Metal → Salt + Base + Metal → Salt +
hydroxide (NaOH), potassium Hydrogen gas Hydrogen gas
hydroxide (KOH), etc. Scan Me! e.g., 2HCl + Zn e.g., 2NaOH + Zn
• The substances/bases which ionise → ZnCl2 + H2(g) → Na2ZnO2 + H2(g)
completely to furnish OH- ions are called strong bases, Zinc chloride Sodium zincate
e.g., KOH, NaOH, etc.
Test for H2 gas: Hydrogen gas released can be tested by
• The bases which ionise only partially are called weak
bringing a burning candle near gas bubbles; it bursts with
bases, e.g., Mg(OH)2, Cu(OH)2, etc.
pop sound. [Board 2024]
• Both acids and bases conduct electricity in their aqueous
2. Reaction of Metal Carbonates/Metal Hydrogen
solution due to the presence of free ions.
Carbonates with:
• Indicators: These are the substances which change their
colour/smell in different acids or bases. Acids Bases
• Identification using indicators: Acid + Metal Carbonate Base + Metal Carbonate
There are different type of indicators used to distinguish /Metal Hydrogen /Metal Hydrogen
between acids and bases Carbonate Carbonate
1. Natural Indicators: These are the indicators which changes ↓ ↓
their colour in bases and acids,but extracted naturally.
Example: Turmeric, Litmus, China rose Salt + CO2(g) + H2O No Reaction
(i) Litmus Paper: For Acids: Blue litmus paper changes e.g., 2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl + CO2(g) + H2O
colour to red in acids. HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + CO2(g) + H2O
For Bases: Red litmus paper changes colour to blue in Test for CO2: CO2 can be tested by passing it through
bases. lime water. Lime water turns milky due to formation of
(ii) China Rose: For Acids: It changes colour to red in insoluble calcium carbonate (white precipitate).
acids. Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
4 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

When excess CO2 is passed, milkiness disappears due to • Similarly, substances which when dissolved in water
formation of soluble calcium hydrogen-carbonate. ionise to produce hydroxide ions, OH– (aq).
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2 Examples: When sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water, it
3. Reaction of Acids and Bases with Each Other dissociates into hydroxide and sodium ion.
When an acid reacts with base, the hydrogen ion of acid
combines with hydroxide ion of base and forms water. As NaOH(s) Na+(aq) + OH– (aq)
these ions combine together, they form water instead of 4. Reaction of Acids with Metal Oxides:
remaining free, thus both neutralise each other. Metal oxides react with acids to give salt and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water  [Board 2024] Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Since in the reaction between an acid and Properties of Example: Copper oxide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid
a base both neutralise each other, it is also Acids and Bases to form copper chloride (salt) and water.
known as neutralisation reaction.
Example: Sodium hydroxide (a strong CuO + 2HCl(dil.) → CuCl2 + H2O
base) reacts with hydrochloric acid to form Copper oxide Copper chloride
sodium chloride and water. Copper oxide is black in colour. When dilute hydrochloric
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + acid is added to it, the colour of the solution becomes blue-
Scan Me!
H2O(l) green due to the formation of copper chloride.
4. Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids: How Strong Are Acid or Base Solutions?
When metallic oxides react with acids, formation of salt
and water takes place. • Strength of an acid or base depends on the number of
Metal Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water H+ ions or OH– ions produced by them respectively.
For Example: Copper oxide reacts with hydrochloric • Based on its ability to dissociate into ions in the solution,
acid, formation of copper chloride and water take place acids and bases are classified as strong acid or base and
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) weak acid or base.
5. Reaction of Non-Metallic Oxides with Basess: (a) Strong Acids: Acids that completely dissociate in
When non-metallic oxides react with bases, formation of water to produce large amount of hydrogen ions are
salt and water takes place. called strong acids. For example, hydrochloric acid
Non-Metal Oxide + Base → Salt + Water (HCl), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) are
For Example: Carbon dioxide reacts with calcium strong acids as they get completely ionised in water to
hydroxide, formation of calcium carbonate and water form ions.
take place
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl– (aq)
Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2(aq) + → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Common Properties of All Acids and Bases [Board 2024] (b) Weak Acids: Acids which get partially ionised in
water to produce small amount of hydrogen ions are
• Acids give hydrogen gas when they react with metal. known as weak acids. For example, acetic acid partially
This shows that all acids contain hydrogen. dissociates in water to produce small amount of
• When acids are dissolved in water they dissociate as hydrogen ions.
H+ ions. The dissociation of hydrogen ions in aqueous CH3COOH (aq) → H+ (aq) + CH3COO–(aq)
solution is the common property of all acids. As a result,
(c) Strong Bases: Bases which completely ionise in
an acid shows acidic behaviour.
water to produce large amount of hydroxide ions are
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl– (aq)
called strong bases. Examples include NaOH, KOH, etc.
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3– (aq)
(d) Weak Bases: Bases which partially pH Scale
CH3COOH (aq) → H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq) dissociate in water to furnish lesser
• As H+ ion cannot exist alone, it combines with water amount of hydroxide ions are called
molecules and forms H3O+ (hydronium) ions. weak bases. Examples include
Example: ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl– calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2.
Scan Me!
H+ + H2O → H3O+ pH
The concentration of H+ is generally
Thus, acids can also be defined as substances, which when small, therefore concentrations of H+ pH: A scale for measu
ring
dissolved in water ionise to produce hydrogen ions, H+ (aq). is expressed in terms of pH. H+ ion con cen tra tio n in
a solution..
Key Diagram
 Revision Notes | 5

Importance of pH in Everyday Life: [Board 2024] • Many plants and animals produce certain acids to
• Plants and animals are pH sensitive. defend themselves. For example, bee stings leave an acid
• Our body works within the pH range of 7–7.8. into the skin, which causes pain and irritation. If a mild
• When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called acid base like baking soda is applied to the stung area, it gives
rain. Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation relief.
that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated
levels of hydrogen ions (low pH).
Key Facts
• Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. When you mix acid with water, it's extremely
important to add the acid to the water rather than the

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• pH of stomach is 1.5–3.0 due to the secretion of HCl.
In case of indigestion, acidity increases, which can be other way around.
neutralised by antacids like milk of magnesia. Just Remember: If we add water to acid, the high
• Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower concentration of acid may produce a violent
than 5.5. To prevent tooth decay, toothpastes which are exothermic reaction.
basic in nature are used to neutralise the excess acid.

Salts, Their Properties and Uses

2 Concept covered: l Salts l Types of salts l Preparation and uses of Sodium Hydroxide, Bleaching powder, Baking soda,
Washing soda and Plaster of Paris.

• Salts: A salt is an ionic compound that results from the The process is called chlor-alkali process because of the
neutralisation reaction of an acid products formed for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.

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and a base. Salts are composed ­Neutralisation reaction: Uses:
ich
with the equal numbers of cations The reaction in wh (a) Sodium hydroxide is used in making of paper, soap
reacts
and anions, so that, the product is base or basic oxide and detergents, for de-greasing metals, etc.
wit h aci d or acidic oxide
electrically neutral. n
is called neutralisatio (b) Chlorine gas is used in water treatment,
Types of Salts: cti on . Ex am ple :
rea
q)
manufacturing of PVC, pesticides, etc.
(a) Neutral Salts: Salts pro- NaOH(aq) + HCl(a
→ NaCl(aq) + H2O
(l). (c) Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel, in

4
duced by the reaction of a
strong acid and a strong base hydrogenation process of oil to produce vegetable ghee
are neutral in nature with the pH value 7. For example, (margarine) and in making of ammonia for fertilisers.
sodium chloride formed by a reaction between sodium • Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2):
hydroxide (strong base) and hydrochloric acid (strong Preparation: It is produced by the action of chlorine on dry
acid). slaked lime.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) Cl2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
(b) Acidic Salts: Salts formed by a reaction between a Properties:
Water of
strong acid and a weak base are acidic in nature with (a) It has a strong smell of chlorine. Crystallisation and
the pH value of less than 7. For example, ammonium (b) Soluble in water. Plaster of Paris
hydroxide. It is a salt of hydrochloric acid (strong acid) (c) It loses chlorine by the action of
and ammonium hydroxide (weak base). carbon dioxide.
NH4OH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l) Uses:
(c) Basic Salts: Salts formed by Acid and Base (a) Bleaching cotton and linen in
reaction of a strong base and a weak textile industry. Scan Me!
acid are basic in nature with the pH (b) Bleaching wood pulp in paper
value of more than 7. For example, factories.
sodium carbonates. It is a salt of (c) Oxidising agent in chemical industries.
carbonic acid (weak acid) and sodium (d) Disinfecting drinking water.
hydroxide (strong base). Scan Me!
H2CO3 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2CO3 (aq) • Baking Soda (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate) (NaHCO3):
+ 2H2O (l) Preparation: NaCl+ H2O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4Cl
+ NaHCO3
• Common Salt (NaCl): Baking soda
Preparation: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O Properties:
Properties: (a) It is mild non-corrosive base.
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) +Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) (b) When it is heated during cooking, the following
Uses of common salt:
reaction takes place.
(a) Used as daily food. ∆
(b) Used as preservative. 2NaHCO3(s)  → Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)
(c) Used in manufacture of metal (Na) and gas (Cl2) in Uses:
molten state by electrolysis. (a) For making baking powder (mixture of baking
• Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)  [Board 2024] soda and tartaric acid). When baking powder is heated
Preparation: 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 or mixed with water, CO2 is produced which causes
(g) + H2 (g) breads and cakes to rise, making them soft and spongy.
6 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

NaHCO3 + H+ → CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of an acid It is a white powder and on mixing with water it changes to
 [Board 2020] gypsum.
(b) An ingredient in antacid. 1 1
CaSO4 .2 H 2O → CaSO4 . H 2O + 1 H 2O
2 2
(c) Used in soda acids, fire extinguishers.
Properties: POP reacts with water to form gypsum.
• Washing Soda (Na2CO3.10H2O):  [Board 2024]
1 1
Preparation: Re-crystallisation of sodium carbonate gives CaSO4 . H 2O + 1 H 2O → CaSO4 .2 H 2O
washing soda. It is a basic salt. 2 2
Uses: Gypsum
Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3.10H2O (a) Doctors use POP to support fractured bones.
Properties: (b) It is also used to make toys and material for
(a) Transparent crystalline solid. decoration.
(b) It has 10 molecules of water of crystallisation. Water of Crystallisation
(c) It dissolves in water and the aqueous solution is • Water molecules present in the crystal structure of
alkaline. salt are called water of crystallisation and such salts are
(d) It liberates carbon dioxide when treated with called hydrated salts. Water of crystallisation is the fixed
hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. number of water molecules present in one formula unit
Uses: of a salt.
(a) In glass, soap and paper industry. Examples:
(b) Manufacture of borax. • Copper Sulphate Pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O): It
(c) It can be used as cleaning agent. has five water molecules in one formula unit of copper
(d) It can be used to remove permanent hardness of sulphate (blue vitriol).
water. • Sodium Carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O): It
has ten molecules of water as water of crystallisation.
• Plaster of Paris (Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate)
(CaSO4.½H2O):  [Board 2024] • Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O): It has two molecules of water
Preparation: When gypsum CaSO4.2H2O is heated at 373K, as water of crystallisation.
it loses water molecules and becomes Plaster of Paris (POP).

Chapter-3
Metals and Non-Metals

1
Properties of Metals and Non-Metals
Concept covered: l Physical properties of metals and non-metals l Chemical properties of metals and non-metals l Reaction with oxygen l Reac-
tion with water l Reaction with acids l Reaction with other metal salt solutions l Reaction between metals and nonmetals (ionic bond formation).

• Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals:

Property Metals Non-Metals

2
1. Lustre Metals have shining surface. They do not have shining surface.
• Except iodine.
2. Hardness They are generally hard. Generally soft.
• Except sodium, lithium and potassium which are • Except diamond, a form of carbon which is
soft and can be easily cut with knife. the hardest natural substance.
3. State Exist as solids. Exist as solids or gases.

3
• Except mercury that exists as liquid. • Except bromine that exists as liquid.
4. Malleability Metals can be beaten into thin sheets. Non-metals are non-malleable.
• Gold, silver and aluminium are the most • They are brittle.
malleable metals.
5. Ductility Metals can be drawn into thin wires. They are non-ductile.
6. Conductor Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and

4
of heat & electricity.
electricity • Except graphite.
7. Density and Generally, metals have high density and high Non metals have low density and low melting
melting point melting point. point.
• Except sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium
and Gallium
8. Sonorous Metals produce a sound on striking a hard They are not sonorous.
surface.
9. Oxides Metallic oxides are basic in nature. Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
 Revision Notes | 7

• Chemical Properties of Metals: [Board, 2019] • Reactivity or Activity Series of Metals: All metals do
(A) Reaction of Metals with Air: Metals combine with not react with the same rate. Some react very fast, some
oxygen to form metal oxides. react moderately, whereas others react very slowly. The
Metals + O2 → Metal oxide series of metals in decreasing order of reactivity is called
Examples: reactivity series or activity series of metals. The metals
(i) 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO at the top (K at the top most) are most reactive whereas
Copper (II) oxide (black) metals at the bottom (Pt at the extreme bottom) are least
reactive. [Board, 2024]
(ii) 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Aluminium oxide
(iii) 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Magnesium Oxide
Different metals show different reactivity towards O2.
 Na and K react so vigorously with oxygen that they
catch fire if kept in open. So, they are kept immersed in
kerosene. [Board, 2024]
 Surfaces of Mg, Al, Zn and Pb are covered with a thin layer
of oxide which prevents them from further oxidation.
 Fe does not burn on heating but iron fillings burn vigorously.
 Cu does not burn but is coated with black copper (II) oxide.
 Au and Ag do not react with oxygen.
 Amphoteric Oxides: Metal oxides which react with
both acids as well as bases to produce salt and water are
called amphoteric oxides. [Board, 2024]
Examples: Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
Aluminium
chloride MNEMONICS
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O
Sodium Concept: Activity Series of Metals
aluminate Mnemonics: Popular Scientists Can Make A Zoo In The Low
(B) Reaction of Metals with Water: Metals react with Humid Country More Satisfactorily
water to produce metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Interpretations:
This metal oxide further react with water to give metal Arrange vertically: Iron
hydroxide. Potassium Tin
Lead
Metal + Water → Metal oxide + Hydrogen Sodium
Calcium Hydrogen
2Na + H2O → Na2O + H2 (↑) Copper
Magnesium
Examples: Aluminium Mercury
Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide Zinc Silver
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2
Magnesium • Reaction of Non-Metals:
Hydroxide  Reaction with oxygen: Non-metals react with oxygen to
• Sodium and potassium react vigorously with cold form acidic oxides. e.g.,
water. [Board, 2024] C + O2 → CO2
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) +H2(g) +  Reaction with Water: Non-metals do not react with water
Physical proper-
Heat ties of metals and but their oxides (like carbon di oxide or sulphur di oxide ) do
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) +H2(g) + non-metals react with water to form acids.
Heat CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
• Magnesium metal reacts with hot  Reaction with dil. acids: No reaction.
water to produce magnesium hydroxide  Reaction with Salt Solutions: A more reactive non-metals
and hydrogen gas. will displace less reactive non-metal from its salt solution.
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2  Reaction with Chlorine: Non-metals react with chlorine to
Scan Me!
• Aluminium and zinc react with steam form their respective chlorides. e.g.,
to produce metal oxide and hydrogen gas. H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
• Metals like silver, gold, copper and lead does not react  Reaction with Hydrogen: Non-metals react with hydrogen
with water. to form their respective hydrides. e.g.,
(C) Reactions of Metals with Acid: H2 + S → H2S
• Metal + Dil. Acid → Salt + Hydrogen gas • Aqua Regia It is a strong oxidising agent due to the
e.g., Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2 (↑) formation of NOCl (Nitrosyl
Mixture of
• Copper, mercury and silver don’t react with dilute chloride) and chlorine produced Aqua regia: in
by reaction of two acids. conc.HCl and HNO3
acids. 3: 1.
HNO + 3HCl → NOCl + Cl + the ra tio
(D) Reaction of Metals with Solutions of Other Metal 3 2
Salts: 2H2O
Metal A + Salt solution B → Salt solution A + Metal B It can dissolve gold and platinum.
 Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their • Reaction Between Metal and Non-metals:
compounds in solution form.  Reactivity of an element is the tendency to attain completely
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu filled valence shells.
8 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

 Atoms of metals can lose electrons from valence shells to

form cations while atoms of non-metals can gain electrons in Example 2
valence shells to form anions.
Another example of a reaction between a metal and
 Opposite-charged ions attract each other and held by strong
a non-metal is the combination of magnesium (Mg),
electrostatic forces of attraction.
a metal, with oxygen (O2), a non-metal, to form
 Let us understand formation of NaCl with the help of
magnesium oxide (MgO). The balanced chemical
Lewis structures:
equation for this reaction is:
2Mg+O2 → 2MgO
Example 1 In this reaction:
1. Magnesium (Mg), a metal, reacts with oxygen (O2),
Step 1: Atomic number of sodium (Na) is 11. Electron in a non-metal.
the last shell is 1. (2, 8, 1) 2. Each magnesium atom loses two electrons to achieve
Step 2: Atomic number of chlorine (Cl) is 17. Electrons in a stable electronic configuration, forming Mg²+ ions.
the last shell are 7. (2, 8, 7) 3. Oxygen gains two electrons to achieve a stable
Step 3: So, Na gives 1 electron to chlorine atom. electronic configuration, forming O²– ions.
Step 4: This involves the complete transfer of electrons. 4. The oppositely charged ions combine in a 1:1 ratio
So, it is an ionic compound. to form the ionic compound magnesium oxide (MgO).
5. This reaction is an example of the formation of an
ionic compound through the combination of a metal
and a non-metal, resulting in the transfer of electrons
from the metal to the non-metal.

2 Ionic Compounds, Metallurgy and Corrosion

Concept covered: l Ionic compounds l Occurrence of Metals l Extraction of Metals l Corrosion l Alloy.

• Ionic Compounds Ionic com- These metals are very unreactive. The oxides of these metals
The compounds formed by the transfer of pounds and their can be reduced to metals by heating alone. For example,

3
electrons from a metal to a non-metal are properties cinnabar (HgS) (an ore of mercury). When it is heated in air, it
called ionic compounds or electrovalent is first converted into mercuric oxide which is further reduced
to mercury on heating.
compounds.  [Board, 2019]
∆
2HgS(s) + 3O2(g) 
→ 2HgO(s) + 2SO2(g)
• Properties of Ionic Compounds
∆
(i) Physical nature: They are solid and 2HgO(s)  → 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
Scan Me!

4
hard, generally brittle.  Metals at the top of the activity series are so reactive that they
(ii) Melting and Boiling Point: They have high melting are not found in nature as free state. e.g., K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al.
and boiling points.  Metals in the middle of the activity series are moderately
(iii) Solubility: Generally soluble in water and insoluble reactive. They are found in the earth’s crust as oxides,
in organic solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc. sulphides and carbonates. e.g., Zn, Fe, Pb, etc.
(iv) Conduction of electricity: Ionic compounds  [Board, 2024]

conduct electricity in molten and solution form but not The highly reactive metals are used as reducing agents
in solid state. [Board, 2024]
because they can displace metals of lower reactivity from their
compounds.
• Occurrence of Metals For example:
 Minerals: The elements or compounds which occur naturally 3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s) → 3Mn(l) + 2Al2O3(s) + heat
in the earth’s crust are called minerals. Thermite reaction:
 Ores: Minerals that contain very high percentage of particular Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s) + heat
metal and the metal can be profitably extracted from it, such The amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals are
minerals are called ores. All ores are minerals but every mineral produced in the molten state. This reaction is used to join
is not an ore railway tracks or cracked machine parts.

• Metals on the Basis of Reactivity Can Be Grouped Into • Extraction of Metals: It is the process of obtaining pure
metal from its ore. Extraction of metals can be classified
Three Categories:
into three steps: [Board, 2019]
 Metals at the bottom of the activity series are least reactive
 Enrichment of ores or concentration of ores.
and are often found in free state. e.g., gold, silver, platinum and
 Extraction of metal from the concentrated ores.
copper.
 Refining of metal.
 Revision Notes | 9

• Steps Involved in extraction of metals from ores are as  Silver reacts with sulphur in air to form silver sulphide and
follows: [Board 2024] articles become black.
 Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in air and forms
green coat of copper carbonate.
 Iron acquires a coating of brown flaky substance called rust.
 Rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide, i.e., Fe2O3.xH2O

• Prevention of Corrosion: By painting, oiling, greasing,

galvanising and by making alloys.
• Galvanisation: It is the process
which involves coating of iron Galvanisation: Coating
with zinc. The oxide thus formed of metal with zinc.
is impervious to air and moisture
thus protects further layers from getting corroded.
• Alloys: These are homogeneous mixture of metals with
metals and non-metals. For example,
 Stainless steel: Alloy of iron-carbon, nickel and chromium.
 Brass: Alloy of copper and zinc.
 Bronze: Alloy of copper and tin. [Board, 2024]
• Metallurgy: Extracting metals from their ores and then  Solder: Alloy of lead and tin.
refining them for use is known as metallurgy.
• Amalgam: If one of the metals is mercury, then the
• Corrosion: It is the deterioration of a metal as a result alloy is known as amalgam, e.g., sodium amalgam and
of chemical reactions between it and surrounding
silver amalgam.
environment. For example, [Board, 2024]

Chapter-4
Metals and Non-Metals

1
Carbon and Its Properties, Homologous Series
Concept covered: l Covalent bonding in carbon compounds l Versatile nature of carbon l Homologous series l Nomenclature of carbon compounds
containing functional groups l Difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons l Chemical properties of carbon compounds.

• Properties of Carbon The atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
 The element carbon is a non-metal. Its symbol is C. and chlorine also forms bonds by sharing electrons.

2
 Carbon is a versatile element. The percentage of carbon in (iii) The bond formed by sharing of What are
the earth's crust in the form of mineral is 0.02% and in the electrons between same or different Covalent Bonds?
atmosphere as CO2 is 0.03%. Carbon atoms is covalent bond. In a covalent
 All the living things like plants and animals Compounds bond, the shared pair of electrons
are made up of carbon-based compounds. belongs to the valence shell of both the
 Carbon always forms covalent bonds. atoms.

3
 The atomic number of carbon is 6.
 Electronic Configuration:
• Conditions for the Formation of a Scan Me!

K L Covalent Bond:
Scan Me! (i) The combining atoms should have 4–7 electrons in
C (6) 2 4
their valence shell.
• How carbon attains noble gas configuration?
(ii) The combining atoms should not lose electrons
(i) Carbon is tetravalent in nature. It does not form
easily.

4
ionic bond because it has 4 valence electrons, half of
(iii) The combining atoms should not gain electrons
an octet. To form ionic bonds, carbon molecules must
readily.
either gain or lose 4 electrons.
(iv) The difference in electronegativity (It is the
Gain of 4 electrons to form C4– anion is not favourable
tendency to attract shared pair electrons) of two bonded
because it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to
hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons. atoms should be low.
Loss of 4 electrons to form C4+ cation is not favourable • Properties of Covalent Compounds:
as it would require a large amount of energy to remove four (i) Physical state: The covalent compounds exist as
electrons, leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its gases liquids, and soft solids.
nucleus holding on to just two electrons. (ii) Solubility: They are generally insoluble in water
(ii) Carbon forms covalent compounds (by sharing and other polar solvents but soluble in organic solvents
electrons). such as benzene, toluene, etc.
10 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

(iii) Melting and boiling points: They generally have • Versatile Nature of Carbon: Carbon can form large
low melting and boiling points. number of carbon compounds. The factors that enable
(iv) Electrical conductivity: They are non-conductors carbon to form a large number of compounds are
of electricity in solid, molten, or aqueous state. catenation and tetravalency. [Board, 2022]
• Steps for Writing the Lewis Dot Structures of a
Covalent Compound: • Catenation: It is the unique ability of elements to form
(i) Write the electronic configuration of all the atoms long, straight or branched chains and rings of different
present in the molecule. sizes. Carbon shows maximum catenation in the periodic
(ii) Identify how many electrons are needed by each table.
atom to attain noble gas configuration. • Tetravalency: It is the state of an atom in which there
(iii) Share the electrons between atoms in such a are four electrons available with the atom for covalent
way that all the atoms in a molecule have noble gas
chemical bonding.
configuration.
(iv) Keep in mind that the shared electrons are counted • Hydrocarbon: Compounds made up of hydrogen and
in the valence shell of both the atoms sharing it. carbon are called hydrocarbons.
• Lewis dot structures reflect the electronic structures
of the elements, including how the electrons are paired.
In Lewis dot structures each dot represents an electron.
A pair of dots between chemical symbols for atoms
represents a bond.

Example 1
(i) H2

MNEMONICS
Concept: Saturated and unsaturated compounds
Mnemonics: Thank You DeSa.
Interpretations:
T: Triple bond, Y: Alkyne, D: Double bond, e: Alkene
S: Single bond, A: Alkane

H – H: Single bond between hydrogen atoms Tips&Trick T&T
(ii) O2
single, double, triple bond, as alphabetically.
a- single bond e- double bond y- triple bond

• Electron Dot Structure of Saturated Hydrocarbons:

Ethane C2H6

O = O: Double bond between oxygen atoms

• Electron Dot Structure of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
(iii) N2 Ethene: C2H4 Ethyne: C2H2

H–CºC–H

N ≡ N: Triple bond between nitrogen atoms • On the Basis of Structures, Hydrocarbons Can Be:
(i) Straight chain hydrocarbons: Propane, butane, etc.
 Revision Notes | 11

(ii) Branched chain hydrocarbon: Iso-butane, iso- Number of carbon atoms Word root (Greek name)
pentane, etc.
1 Meth
(iii) Cyclic hydrocarbons: Cyclohexane C6H12, benzene
C6H6, etc. 2 Eth
3 Prop
• Cyclic or Closed Chain Hydrocarbons: These are the
hydrocarbons which have carbon–carbon closed chain. 4 But
They are classified as: 5 Pent
(i) Alicyclic hydrocarbons: These are the hydrocarbons 6 Hex
which do not have benzene ring in their structures. 7 Hept
(ii) Aromatic hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons which 8 Oct
have benzene ring in their structures. When hydrogen 9 Non
bonded to carbon of benzene is substituted with 10 Dec
halogens, radicals, or other functional groups, the
(ii) Suffix: It depends on the type of carbon-carbon
derivatives are called aromatic compounds.
bond. For a single bond suffix is – ane; for double bond,
• Benzene: It is an aromatic hydrocarbon which has suffix is – ene; and for triple bond suffix is – yne.
the molecular formula C6H6. It has alternating carbon–
carbon single and double bonds.
• Types of Formulae for Writing Hydrocarbons:
(i) Molecular formula: It involves the actual number of
each type of atom present in the compound.
(ii) Structural formula: The actual arrangement of
atoms is written in structural formula.
(iii) Condensed formula: It is the shortened form of
the structural formula.
oatom: An atom
• In hydrocarbon chain, one or Heter or
oth than carbon
er
• Benzene can also be represented as: more hydrogen atom is replaced
hydrogen atom.
by other atoms in accordance with
their valencies. These are heteroatoms.
• These heteroatoms or group of atoms which make
• IUPAC name of hydrocarbon consists of two parts. It carbon compounds reactive and decides its properties are
involves: called functional groups.
(i) Word root: Number of carbons in the longest carbon • Some Important Functional Groups in Carbon
chain. Compounds Are:
Heteroatoms Functional group Formula of functional group Prefix/suffix
[Board, 2024]

Cl/Br Halo (Chloro/Bromo) — Cl, — Br, — I Chloro/Bromo/Iodo

Oxygen 1. Alcohol — OH — ol
2. Aldehyde — CHO — al
3. Ketone — one

4. Carboxylic acid — oic acid

Double bond 1. Alkene group >C=C< — ene

Triple bond 2. Alkyne group —C≡C— — yne

• Homologous Series: A series of organic Homologous • Properties of a Homologous Series: As the molecular
compounds in which every succeeding series mass increases in a series, physical properties of the
member differs from the previous one by compounds show a variation, but chemical properties
– CH2 or 14 a.m.u. by mass is called which are determined by a functional group remain the
homologous series. The molecular same within a series.
formula of all the members of a
homologous series can be derived from a
general formula. [Board 2024] Scan Me!
 12 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

burn in air releasing a lot of heat energy.

MNEMONICS  Saturated hydrocarbons generally burn in air with blue and
non-sooty flame.
Concept 1: Homologous series
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn in air with yellow sooty
Mnemonics: Monkeys Eat Peeled Bananas flame because the percentage of carbon is higher than saturated
Interpretations: hydrocarbons which do not completely oxidise in air.
M: Methane (1C), E: Ethane (2C),
P: Propane (3C), B: Butane (4C) (b) Oxidation: Alcohols can be converted into
carboxylic acid in the presence of oxidising agent like
Concept 2: Reactions in saturated and unsaturated com- alkaline KMnO4 (potassium permanganate) or acidic
pounds potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7.

Mnemonics: SaSUnA
Interpretations: Sa: Saturated, S: Substitution, Alkaline KMnO Or
CH3CH2OH  4
Acidic K Cr O
→ CH3COOH
Un: Unsaturated, A: Addition 2 2 7

Ethanol Ethanoic acid

• Homologous Series of Alkanes: General formula: (c) Addition Reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons
CnH2n+2, where n = number of carbon atoms. e.g., CH4, (alkene, alkyne) undergo addition reactions.
C 2H 6, C 3H 8.
• Homologous Series of Alkenes: General formula:
CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms. e.g., C2H4,
C 3H 6, C 4H 8.
• Homologous Series of Alkynes: General formula: In unsaturated hydrocarbons, hydrogen is added in the
CnH2n–2, where n = number of carbon atoms. e.g., C2H2, presence of the catalyst: palladium or nickel. Vegetable oils
C 3H 4, C 4H 6. are converted into vegetable ghee using this process. It is also

1
• Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds called hydrogenation of vegetable oils.
(a) Combustion: Carbon compounds burn in air to (d) Substitution Reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons
give carbon dioxide, water, heat and light. undergo substitution reaction in the presence of
Combustion
CH4 + 2O2  → CO2 + 2H2O + Heat + Light sunlight. [Board, 2024]
Sunlight
 Carbon and its compounds are used as fuels because they
CH4 + Cl2  → CH3Cl + HCl

2 Ethanol, Ethanoic Acid, Soaps and Detergents

Concept covered: l Properties and Uses of Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid l Soaps and Detergents.

• Ethanol: Ethanol is commonly known as alcohol. It is (iii) Reaction with NaOH:

3
the second member of the alcohol series. The molecular CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
formula of ethanol is C2H5OH. (iv) Reaction with ethanol (Esterification):
• Chemical Properties: [Board, 2022]  [Board, 2024] [Board 2023]
(i) Reaction with sodium: Formation of sodium CH 3COOH + CH 3CH 2OH 
2 4 conc . H SO
→ CH 3COOC 2 H 5 + H 2O
ethoxide and hydrogen. [Board, 2024]
2CH3CH2OH + 2Na → 2CH3CH2ONa + H2 Note: eet-
Ester: Ester is a sw

4
and
(ii) Reaction with acid: Formation of ester (ethyl Conc. H2SO4 is used here smelling substance
ult of
ethanoate) – a sweet-smelling ester. This process is as dehydrating agent. is produced as a res
acid
called esterification. [Board, 2024] the reaction of an
id
This reaction is reversible. such as ethanoic ac
d an alcohol such as
conc . H 2 SO4
CH 3COOH + C 2 H 5OH  → CH 3COOCH 2CH 3 + H 2OThe conc. H SO absorbs an
ce
ethanol in the presen is
2 4
conc . H 2 SO4 formed water and stops of an acid catalyst.
It
CH 3COOH + C 2 H 5OH  → CH 3COOCH 2CH 3 + H 2O es
the reversibility of the used in making perfum
vou rin g age nts .
 Uses: In preparation of soap, cosmetics, alcoholic beverages, reaction. an d fla
medicines, laboratory reagent, etc.
 Ethanoic acid: The common name of ethanoic acid
• Soap and Detergents
 Soap is sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic
is acetic acid and it belongs to the group of acids called
acid. e.g., C17H35COONa+
carboxylic acid. It is the second member of the series. The
 On hydrolysis, ester gives parent alcohol
molecular formula of the compound is CH3COOH. Soaps and
and sodium salt of carboxylic acid. Alkaline Detergents
 Vinegar — 5-8 % solution of acetic acid in water.
hydrolysis of ester is called saponification.
 Glacial acetic acid — Pure acetic acid
 Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid  [Board 2017]
 Soaps are effective only in soft water.
(i) Reaction with sodium carbonate:  [Board, 2024]
 Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
(ii) Reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate: salts of long chain of carboxylic acid. Scan Me!
 Detergents are effective in both hard and
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Brisk effervescence marks the presence of carbon dioxide. soft water.
 Revision Notes | 13

 Soap molecule has:

(i) An ionic (hydrophilic) part
(ii) A long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic) part

Structure of the soap molecule

• Cleansing Action of Soap: Most dirt is oily in nature.
The hydrophobic end of a soap molecule attaches itself
with dirt and the ionic end is surrounded with molecules
of water. This result in formation of a radial structure  The magnesium and calcium salts present in hard water
called micelles. [Board 2024]
reacts with soap molecules to form insoluble product called
 Soap micelles help to dissolve dirt and grease in water and scum. This scum create difficulty in cleansing action.
the cloth gets cleaned. [Board 2025]  Detergents prevent the formation of the insoluble scum with
hard water and clothes get cleaned effectively.

UNIT-II : WORLD OF LIVING

Chapter-5
Life Processes

1
Nutrition
Concept covered: l Modes of nutrition: Autotrophic and heterotrophic l Process of photosynthesis l Nutrition in human beings l Human digestive
system.

Introduction
• The basic functions performed by living organisms • Main Events of Photosynthesis are:

2
for their survival and body maintenance are called life (i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
processes. (ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and
• All living things perform certain life processes like splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
nutrition, excretion, respiration, circulation and (iii) Reduction of CO2 to form carbohydrates.
reproduction, etc.  [SQP 2024-25]

• Energy required to carry out the different life processes, • Site of photosynthesis in the leaf is chloroplast. It
contains a green colour pigment called chlorophyll.

3
is obtained from carbon-based food sources through
nutrition. • Plants carry out exchange of gases with surrounding
• There are two modes of nutrition: atmosphere through stomata.
(i) Autotrophic nutrition: It is a kind of nutrition in • The opening and closing of stomatal pores are
which organism prepare its own food by a process controlled by the turgidity of guard cells.
called photosynthesis. For example, Green plants and • When guard cells uptake water from surrounding cells,
they swell to become turgid body. This enlarges the pore

4
some photosynthetic bacteria. [Board, 2020]
in between and causes stomatal opening.
ria:
the Photosynthetic bacte • When water is released, guard cells become flaccid.
Photosynthesis: is are microorg an ism s tha t
process by which pla
nts This closes the pore in between, causing stomatal closing.
d fro m use light energy and
synthesis e foo
xide pigmentse like chlor
ophyll • Amoeba is a unicellular organism,
water and carbon dio to synthesize food which follows holozoic mode of Alimentary canal: It
an d
using ch lor oph yll
through photosynthe
sis. nutrition. Amoeba captures food is a continuous tube
sunlight. with the help of temporary finger- that runs from the
and
mouth to the anus
(ii) Heterotrophic nutrition: It is a kind of nutrition like processes called pseudopodia. le for the
is responsib
in which an organism obtains food from another • Human Digestive System: The ption
digestion and absor
organism. For example, Animals and fungi. It is of three human digestive system of foo d.
types: Holozoic (e.g., Amoeba, animals), Saprophytic comprises of alimentary canal and
(e.g., fungi) and Parasitic (e.g., Cuscuta, ticks and mites). associated digestive glands. [Board, 2020]

• Green plants manufacture their own food by the • Various regions are specialised Salivary gland: It e
process of photosynthesis. They utilise CO2 and H2O in alimentary canal to perform secretes an enzym
se
different functions. called salivary amyla
(water) in presence of sunlight to produce glucose aks
(or ptyalin), which bre
(C6H12O6) as food, with the help of chlorophyll. Oxygen • Associated glands include down starch into simple
(O2) is released as a by-product. salivary gland, gastric gland, liver sugars.
and pancreas.
14 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

MNEMONICS
Concept: Components of the Human Alimentary Canal
Mnemonics:
MOSS DJ I LA – Remember this as “Kate MOSS is a DJ In LA”
Interpretations:
M = Mouth O = Oesophagus
S = Stomach S = Small Intestine
D = Duodenum J = Jejunum
I = Ileum L = Large Intestine
A = Anus

Digestion in
Human beings

Simpler
Sugar
Scan Me!

:
Peristaltic movement
ic mo vem ent is
Peristalt
thmic
the involuntary, rhy
xation
contraction and rela
in the digest ive
of muscles
d
tract that moves foo
forward.

Key Facts
 Small intestine is the site
of the complete digestion
of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats.
 Bile is secreted by liver and
Complex Carbohydrates
stored in gall bladder.
 Emulsification of fats is
conversion of large fat
molecules into very fine fat
Helps in absorption
of digested food
globules.
into the blood

[Board, 2025]
 1
Revision Notes | 15

Respiration
2 Concept covered: l Breakdown of glucose by various pathways l Types of respiration l Human respiratory system l Process of breathing
lRespiration in plants l Respiration in animals.

• Respiration is the process in living organisms, which from the atmosphere and release of CO2.
involves: (ii) Cellular Respiration: Breakdown of glucose in

3
(i) Breathing (Gaseous exchange): Intake of oxygen order to release energy inside the cell. [Board, 2020]

• Breakdown of Glucose by Various Pathways: [Board, 2025]

4
Key Facts
 The breakdown of sugars by
yeast to make alcohol in the
absence of air (oxygen) is called
fermentation.
 The accumulation of lactic acid
in muscles(a product of glucose
breakdown in absence of oxygen)
causes muscle cramps.
)
ast
ye
(In

• Types of Respiration: nares → Pharynx → Glottis → Larynx → Trachea →

Respiration Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveolar duct → Alveoli
(b) Expiration (Breathing OUT): It is the passive expelling
Aerobic Anaerobic
of air from the lungs.
Takes place in the Takes place in the absence of
presence of oxygen. oxygen. The path followed by foul air (carbon dioxide) is:
Occurs in mitochon- Occurs in cytoplasm. Alveoli → Alveolar duct → Bronchioles → Bronchi →
dria. Trachea → Larynx → Glottis → Pharynx → Internal
End products are CO2 End products are alcohol or nares → Nasal cavities → External nares → Outside
and H2O. lactic acid. • The alveoli of lungs are richly supplied with blood and
More amount of en- Less amount of energy is re- are the actual sites where exchange of gases (O2 and CO2)
ergy is released. leased. occurs between blood and atmosphere.
Examples: Most plants Examples: Muscle cells, • During breathing, a residual volume of air remains in
and animals. bacteria, yeast and parasitic the lungs to allow continuous gas exchange—oxygen
worms, etc. absorption and carbon dioxide release.
• Human Respiratory system: • In humans, the respiratory pigment
haemoglobin carries oxygen from lungs Respiration in
Respiratory system in human Human Respiratory
of Plants
serves to provide oxygen to all system: It consists to different tissues of the body.
that
body cells and removes harmful organs and tissues  [Board, 2024, 225]
nge of
facilitate the excha
carbon dioxide from the body. dioxide • Respiration in Plants: In plants,
oxygen and carbon
• It comprises nostrils, nasal bet we en the bod y an d
gaseous exchange takes place through
cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, the environment. stomata in leaves, lenticel in stems,
bronchi, bronchiole, alveoli, blood Scan Me!
general surface of roots.
capillaries and lungs.
• Breathing involves two main processes: • Respiration in Animals: [Board, 2018]

(a) Inspiration (Breathing IN): Inspiration is the active (i) Unicellular animals: Diffusion
intake of air from atmosphere into lungs. (ii) Earthworm: Skin.
The path followed by fresh air (oxygen) is: (iii) Aquatic animals: Gills which extract dissolved
Outside → External nares → Nasal cavity → Internal oxygen in water.
 1
16 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

(iv) Insects: Tiny holes called spiracles.

Key Facts (v) Land animals: Lungs
Trachea contains rings of cartilage which ensure that  Terrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for

2
air passage does not collapse. respiration.
Respiration in plants occurs all through out the day,  Aquatic organisms use oxygen dissolved in water.

but the photosynthesis process occurs in the daytime, • The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much
in the presence of sunlight only. faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms.  [Board, 2024]

3
Circulation and Transportation
Concepts covered: l Human circulatory system l Double circulation system in humans l Circulation of blood in animals l Transportation in
Plants l Transpiration

Human Circulatory System Human 3. Walls thick, elastic and 3. Thin, non-muscular
Circulatory System

4
• The circulatory system in human muscular. and less elastic.
beings consists of: a circulatory medium
4. Deep seated within 4. Superficial as com-
(blood and lymph), blood vessels (veins,
the body. pared to arteries.
arteries and capillaries) and heart.
• Heart is a muscular organ which is 5. Have no valves. 5. Have valves, which
Scan Me!
composed of cardiac muscles. It is the prevent backward flow
main pumping organ which pumps the of blood.
blood to all parts of the body.
• Human heart is four chambered. It is composed of: right Key Facts
atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle and left atrium. The Valves ensures that blood does not flow backward
chambers are separated by a muscular wall that prevents
when the atria and ventricles contract.
the mixing of the blood rich in oxygen with the blood rich
in carbon dioxide.
• Amphibians and many reptiles have a three-
• Blood pressure is the force that the blood exerts on the chambered heart, allowing some mixing of oxygenated
blood vessels.
and deoxygenated blood. Fish have a two-chambered
• Humans have double circulation system. Blood travels heart, where blood is pumped to the gills for oxygenation
twice through the heart in one complete cycle of the body. and then directly circulated to the body. This is single
• Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the left atrium, circulation, meaning blood passes through the heart only
which contracts to push blood into the left ventricle. The once per cycle.
left ventricle then pumps it to the body. Deoxygenated
• Transportation in plants:
blood from the body enters the right atrium, which sends There are two main conducting channels in vascular
it to the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps it to the plants. These are xylem and phloem. [Board, 2025]
lungs for oxygenation.
• Pulmonary Circulation: Blood moves from the heart to Xylem Phloem
the lungs and back to the heart.
1. Transports water and 1. Transports product of
• Systemic Circulation: Blood moves from the heart to minerals from the photosynthesis from
rest of the body and back to the heart. roots to upper parts leaves to the non-pho-
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It comprises four of the plant. tosynthesising parts of
components- plasma, RBCs, WBCs, and platelets. the plants such as root
• Lymph is a colourless fluid and has less protein than and stem.
blood plasma. It forms when fluid escapes from the blood 2. No energy is used for 2. Energy is used from
capillaries into the intercellular spaces.  [Board, 2024, 2025] transport. ATP for transport.
• Blood Vessels: There are three types of blood vessels:
arteries, veins and capillaries. 3. On maturity, the xy- 3. Phloem exists as living
lem becomes dead soft tissue.
• Differences between arteries and veins: tissue and gives me-
Arteries Veins chanical support to
the plant.
1. Carry oxygenated 1. Carry deoxygenated
blood from heart to blood from different • Transpiration: It is the process of loss Transportation
in Animals and
different body parts body parts to the heart of water as vapours from aerial parts of
Plants
except pulmonary ar- except pulmonary the plant. [Board, 2019]
tery. vein. • Translocation: Transport of food from
leaves (food factory) to different parts of
2. Also, called distribut- 2. Also, called collecting
the plant is called translocation.
ing vessel. vessel.
[Board, 2024] Scan Me!
 3
Revision Notes | 17

4 Excretion
Concept covered: l Excretion in human l Structure of Nephron l Urine formation l Artificial Kidney l Excretion in plant

Excretion in Human beings: [Board, 2020] absorbed by the blood vessels surrounding the tubules.
• During excretion, the harmful metabolic nitrogenous • The amount of water re-absorbed depends upon:
wastes like urea and uric acid generated are removed  How much excess of water is there in the body and,
from the body.  How much nitrogenous wastes need to be excreted out.
• Human Excretory System: Excretory system of human • The fluid now flowing in the tubular part is urine,
beings includes a pair of kidney, a urinary bladder, a pair which gets collected in collecting ducts of nephrons.
of ureter and a urethra. • These collecting ducts together leave the kidney at a
• Nephrons: Each kidney contains many filtration units common point by forming the ureter.
called nephrons. Nephrons are the basic filtration units of • Each ureter drains the urine in the urinary bladder
kidneys. They carry out filtration, selective reabsorption where it is stored until the pressure of expanded bladder
and tubular secretion to form urine in kidney, which is leads to an urge to pass it out through urethra.
then passed out through the urethra, via the ureters and
urinary bladder.
• This bladder is a muscular structure which is under
nervous control.
• 180 litres of filtrate is formed daily but only 2 litres is
excreted out as urine so the rest is re-absorbed in the
body.

Key Facts
The expulsion of urine from the body is known as
micturition.

• Urine formation in Kidneys:

Urine formation involves three steps: [Board 2024]
(i) Glomerular filtration: Nitrogenous wastes, glucose,
water, amino acids filter from the blood into Bowman’s
Fig 5.1 : Human Excretory system
capsule of the nephron.
• A nephron is made up of a cluster of (ii) Tubular reabsorption: Useful substances from the
thin walled capillaries called glomerulus Excretory
System and filtrate are re-absorbed back by capillaries surrounding
which is associated with a cup like Nephron the nephron.
structure called as Bowman's capsule and
(iii) Secretion: Urea, extra water and salts are secreted
a long tube. which continues through
in the tubule which open up into the collecting duct
different segments and ultimately
and then into the ureter.
connects to the collecting duct.
• Haemodialysis: In case of kidney failure, haemodialysis
• The renal artery brings oxygenated Scan Me!
is the process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney.
blood to the kidneys along with the
nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid and many • Excretion in plants: In plants, excretion of oxygen, CO2
and water takes place through stomata by the process of
other substances. [Board 2024]
transpiration.
• The blood gets filtered through the glomerulus and this • Plants also manage waste by storing it in vacuoles,
filtrate enters the tubular part of nephron.
leaves that later fall off, or in resins and gums within
• As this filtrate moves down the tubular part, glucose, old xylem. Some wastes are also excreted into the
amino acids, salts and excess of water gets selectively re- surrounding soil. [Board 2025]

Chapter-6
Control and Co-ordination in
Animals and Plants

1 Control and Co-ordination in Animals

Concepts covered: l Nervous System l Voluntary and involuntary action l Reflex action l Animal hormone
18 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

• Control and coordination is brought about in all animals • Involuntary Action: These are not under the control
with the help of two main systems: Nervous system and of the will of an individual and are automatic responses
Endocrine system. to a stimulus which is not under the voluntary control
of the brain. It occurs without the conscious choice of an
• Nervous System: It is the system of conducting tissues
organism. For example, breathing, digestion, blinking of
that receives the stimulus and transmits it to other parts
eyes etc.
of the body forming a network of nerves. It is involved
in receiving information (sensation) and generating • Reflex Action: It is quick, sudden and immediate
response of the body to a stimulus. For example, knee
responses to that information (motor response).
jerk, withdrawal of hand on touching hot object.
The units which make up the nervous system are called nerve  [Board 2024, 2025]
cells or neurons.
• Reflex Arc: The pathway through which nerve impulse
• A Typical Neuron Consists of Following Parts: travels to produce a reflex action is called reflex arc. It
(i) Cyton or Cell Body: It is star shaped which contains involves sensory input, signal processing and motor
nucleus with abundant cytoplasm called neuroplasm. output, bypassing the brain for a faster response.
The information acquired by it travels as an electrical  [Board, 2023, 2024]
impulse.
(ii) Dendrite: The hair-like structure protruding out
from margins of cell body is called dendrite. It receives
the nerve impulses.
(iii) Axon: It is the longest fibre on the cell body. It ends
in several hairs like structures called axon terminals,
which transmits electrical impulse from cell body to
dendrite of next neuron.
Fig.: 6.2 Reflex pathway
(iv) Myelin Sheath: It is a protective insulating layer
made of lipids and proteins, wrapped around the axon. • Example: When exposed to heat (stimulus), sensory
(v) Synapse: It is the point of contact between the nerve receptors in the skin detect the high temperature. A nerve
ending of one neuron and dendrite of an other neuron. impulse travels through sensory neurons to the spinal
It is the site where an electrical signal is converted cord, triggering an immediate response. Motor neurons
into chemical signal for onward transmission to next send signals to the muscles, causing the withdrawal of
the hand, protecting the body from harm.
neuron.  [Board, 2023]

MNEMONICS
Concept: Reflex Arc
Mnemonics: RACEE
Interpretations:
R: Receptor
A: Afferent or Sensory Nerve
C: Centre (Spinal cord)
E: Efferent or Motor Nerve
E: Effector

• Stimulus and Response: Stimulus is an observable or

Fig.: 6.1 Structure of a Neuron detectable change in the external or internal environment
• A chemical synapse formed by the contact between a to which an organism reacts while response is the final
motor neuron and a muscle fibre is called a neuromuscular reaction after reflex action.
junction. [Board, 2024]
• Responses Are of Three Main Types:
• Functioning of Neuron (Pathway of signal (a) Voluntary: Controlled by forebrain. For example,
transmission): Dendrites → Cell body → Axon → Nerve talking, writing, walking, etc.
endings at the tip of axon → Synapse → Dendrite of next
(b) Involuntary: Controlled by midbrain and hindbrain.
neuron
For example, heartbeat, vomiting, respiration, etc.
• The receptors pass the information to the brain through
a type of nerve cells called sensory neurons. (c) Reflex Action: Controlled by spinal cord. For
example, Withdrawal of hand on touching a hot object.
• Motor neurons transmits the information from the
brain to the effector organs, mainly muscles and glands. • Need of Reflex Actions: In some situations such as
• Nerve Impulse: It is the transmission of information touching a hot object, pinching, etc., we need to act
in the form of electrical signals along the neuron and quickly, otherwise our bodies would be harmed. Hence,
chemical signals across synapses. These impulses are this response is generated from spinal cord instead of
received by dendrites and carried toward the cell body. brain.
• Voluntary Action: These are the actions which need • Human Nervous System: The nervous system of
thinking and are performed knowingly, i.e., these are vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central
controlled by conscious thought. For example, Speaking nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system
to a friend, writing a letter, etc. (PNS). [Board, 2016, 2025]
 Revision Notes | 19

(b) Midbrain: Controls involuntary actions.

(c) Hindbrain: It has three parts:
(i) Cerebellum: Controls posture and balance,
precision of voluntary actions, e.g., picking pen.
[Board, 2025]
(ii) Medulla: Controls involuntary actions, e.g., blood
pressure, salivation, vomiting. [Board, 2025]
(iii) Pons: Controls voluntary actions and helps in
regulation of respiration.
• Human brain is the main coordinating Human Brain
centre of the body. It has three major • Peripheral Nervous system: There are 31 pairs of spinal
parts: Forebrain, midbrain and hind nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves in humans.
brain. [Board, 2023] • Spinal cord is a cylindrical
• The brain is protected by the skull structure and a part of the central
gata,
called the cranium and is surrounded by nervous system. It is made up The medulla oblon
Scan Me! olii an d mid brain
three membranes called the meninges. of nervous tissue that extends pons var
ar e collectively known as
 [Board 2024] from medulla oblongata in the
the brainstem.
(a) Forebrain: It is the most complex or specialised part brain stem to the lumbar region
of the brain. It consists of cerebrum. The main functions of vertebral column. It functions
of forebrain are as follows: primarily in the transmission of nerve signals.
(i) Main thinking part of the brain. • Endocrine System: Endocrine system comprises
endocrine glands and its secretions called hormones.
(ii) Controls the voluntary actions.
(iii) Stores information (memory). • Hormones are chemical messengers secreted in very
small amounts by specialised tissue called ductless
(iv) Receives sensory impulses from various parts of glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away
the body and integrate it. from their source.
(v) It is the centre associated with hunger. [Board,
2025]
• Hormones assist the nervous system in control and
coordination.
• Endocrine Glands with the Hormones Names and Their function to the target site in Humans:
No. Gland Hormones Functions Target Site
1. Hypothalamus (i) Releasing Regulates secretion of pituitary hor- Pituitary gland
hormones (RH) mones.
(ii) Growth hormone
inhibiting
hormones
2. Pituitary Gland (i) Growth hormone Stimulates growth; deficiency causes Various body
(GH) dwarfism, excess causes gigantism. cells which un-
dergo growth
3. Thyroid Gland (i) Thyroxine Regulate basal metabolic rate, RBC forma- Body cells, and
(ii) Triiodothyronine tion. heart
(iii) Thyrocalcitonin Regulate calcium level.
(TCT)
4. Adrenal Gland (i) Adrenaline Increase alertness, pupillary dilation, pilo- Body tissues and
(ii) Noradrenaline erection, sweating and heart rate. heart
(iii) Corticoids
5. Pancreas (i) Insulin Lowers blood glucose by promoting Liver, muscles
glycogenesis and cellular glucose uptake. and tissues
(ii) Glucagon Raises blood glucose by stimulating glu-
coneogenesis and glycogenolysis.
6. Testis (i) Testosterone Plays a role in development of male re- Male body tis-
(ii) Androgens productive tissues and promotes second- sues
ary sexual characters in males.
7. Ovary (i) Estrogen Helps in the development of female Female body
(ii) Progesterone secondary sexual characters. tissues
Support pregnancy.
20 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

• Hormonal Disorders: All hormones are secreted make thyroxine, which helps in regulating the metabolism
in precise quantities. Its hypo-(less) or hyper-(more) of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.  [Board 2024]
secretion may lead to different disorders. For example: (d) Diabetes: Deficiency of insulin hormone causes
(a) Dwarfism: Hyposecretion (Deficiency) of growth
diabetes. Diabetes can be treated by injecting insulin
hormone causes a disease called dwarfism.
(b) Gigantism: Hypersecretion of growth hormone hormone in the patient’s body.
causes a disease called gigantism or excessive growth. • Feedback Mechanism: The excess or deficiency of
(c) Goitre: Deficiency of iodine causes a disease called hormones have a harmful effect on our body. Feedback

1
goitre which results from decreased secretion of the mechanism makes sure that hormones are secreted in
thyroid hormone (thyroxine).
precise quantities and at the right time.
• Importance of Iodine: Thyroid gland needs iodine to
For example, if the sugar levels in blood rise, they are detected by the cells of the pancreas which respond by producing
more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is reduced.

2 Control and Co-ordination in Plants

Concept covered:
ene.
l Tropic movements in plants l Plants hormones-Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid and Ethyl-

Introduction variations in the outside environment. For example,

• All the living organisms respond and react to the changes Folding or drooping of leaves of 'Touch me not plant'

3
that happens in the environment around them. on touching it. This is known as seismonasty.
• The changes in the environment to which the organisms • Plant Hormones: Plant hormones
respond and react are called stimuli such as light, heat, or phytohormones are the chemical Hormones: Chemical
ulate
cold, smell, touch, etc. compounds produced naturally in substances that regh
act ivit ies and growt
plants which control the growth
• Both plants and animals respond to stimuli but in a organisms, acting in
and other physiological functions' in all concentrations at
different manner. sm

4
at a site, far away from the place distant sites from their
• Plant Movements: Unlike animals plants do not of secretion. They are required production
locomote but they show the movements of the individual
in very small amount and help to
plant parts like shoot, root, etc., due to some external
coordinate growth, development and responses to the
stimuli like light, force of gravity, chemical substance,
environment.
water, etc.
• Main Plant Hormones are: [Board, 2019]
• Tropic Movement: It is the movement because of the
directional growth of a plant organ in response to an (a) Auxins Synthesised at shoot tip.
external stimulus. Growth towards the stimulus is positive Promotes cell elongation.
Involved in tropic movements (e.g.,
tropism and growth away from the stimulus is negative phototropism and gravitropism)
tropism. [Board 2024]
(b) Gibberellin Stimulate stem elongation
• Plants Show Two Different Types of Movement: Play a role in breaking seed
 [Board, 2024]
dormancy and initiating
(A) Growth-dependent Movements germination.
(Tropic movements): These are Coordination in
Plants (c) Cytokinins Promotes cell division.
directional movements of plants
Found in higher concentrations in
caused due to the presence of a specific regions of active growth, such as
stimulus. It is of four types: fruits and seeds.
 [Board, 2023]
(d) Abscisic Inhibits growth.
(i) Phototropism: Growth movements Acid Induces leaf wilting and stomatal
Scan Me!
of plants towards light. For example, closure under stress.
Shoots bend or move toward light (positively Also called as stress hormone.
phototropic) and roots move away from light (e) Ethylene A gaseous hormone which helps in
(negatively phototropic). (H2C=CH2) ripening of fruits.
(ii) Geotropism: Movement towards gravity. For Promotes senescence (ageing) and
example, roots of a plant are positively geotropic while abscission of leaves.
shoots of a plant are negatively geotropic.
(iii) Chemotropism: Movement towards chemicals. MNEMONICS
For example, Growth of pollen tube towards ovule. Concept: Plant Hormone
(iv) Hydrotropism: Movement towards water. For Mnemonics: A CAGE
example, Movement of plant roots towards water. It is Interpretations:
positively hydrotropism. [Board 2024] A–Auxins, C–Cytokinins, A–ABA (Abscisic Acid)
(B) Growth-Independent Movements: These are G–Gibberellins, E–Ethylene
directionless movements of plants caused due to
 Revision Notes | 21

Chapter-7
Reproduction

1 Asexual Reproduction and Vegetative Propagation

Concept covered: l Reproduction and its type l Various types of asexual reproduction

Introduction (i) Binary Fission: It is the division of one cell into

• Reproduction is the process by which living organisms two similar or identical cells. The nucleus first divides

2
produce new individuals similar to themselves. It ensures amitotically into two, followed by the division of the
continuity of life on the earth. cytoplasm. The cell finally splits into two daughter
cells, e.g., Amoeba [Board 2022, 2020]
• Nucleus of the cell contains DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
acid), which is the hereditary material.
• DNA replicates and forms new cells. Sometimes, slight
differences during the copying of the DNA, leading to

3
variations. As a result, the new cells are similar but may
not be identical to original cell. [Board, 2017]
• Variations arise mainly through sexual reproduction.
They are useful for the survival of the individual and
species over time. It is the base of evolution. Fig.: 7.2 Binary fission in Leishmania
Some unicellular organisms with more structured bodies
• Types of Reproduction like in Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), have a whip-
I. Asexual Reproduction Gametes are haploid

4
(sperm like structure at one end of the cell. In such organisms,
• A single individual give rise to reproductive scelinls fem ales) reproduction through binary fission occurs in a definite
new individual. [Board, 2018] in ma les , egg
bin e dur ing orientation with respect to their structure. [Board 2022]
that com
• Gametes are not formed. fertilisation to form
a (ii) Multiple Fission: In multiple fission, many
• New individuals are identical to zyg ote . individuals are formed from a single individual,
their parents. e.g., Plasmodium. The nucleus divides repeatedly,
• Asexual reproduction is seen in most of the lower producing many nuclei and many daughter cells
organisms and plants as well. are formed.  [Board 2025, 2024, 2020, 2017]

II. Sexual Reproduction (b) Fragmentation: It takes place in multicellular

organisms with simple body organisation such as in
• Two individuals i.e., one male and one female are Spirogyra. In this, the body breaks up into two or more
needed to give rise to new individual. [Board, 2018]
small pieces of fragments upon maturation. These
• Gametes are formed. fragments grow into new individuals.[Board, 2024, 2020, 2017]
• New individual, is genetically similar but not identical (c) Regeneration: It is the ability of a fully differentiated
to parents. organism to give rise to new individuals from its body
• It is useful to generate more variations in species. section. Small cut or broken sections of the organism can
 [Board, 2018] grow or regenerate into complete individuals. For
• Adopted by higher organisms. example: Planaria and Hydra.[Board, 2019] [Board 2024, 2017, 2016]
• Asexual Reproduction takes place through fission,
fragmentation, regeneration, budding, vegetative ntous
Spirogyra is a filame
propagation and spore formation. These modes of green alga with spira
l
reproduction depends on the body design of the ch lor opl ast s, com mo nly
organisms. found in freshwater
(a) Fission: It is of two types - binary fission and environments.
multiple fission.

Fig.: 7.3 Regeneration in Planaria

(d) Budding: In budding, a small part of the parent's
body develops into a bud, which then separates to form
a new organism. Hydra reproduces by budding using the
regenerative cells.  [Board, 2023, 24]

Fig.: 7.1 Binary fission in Amoeba

22 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

(e) Vegetative Propagation: In many plants, new small pieces of plant tissue in a nutrient medium. This
plantlets develops from vegetative parts of a plant body technique is also known as micro-propagation, and in
such as stem, roots, leaves, etc. [Board, 2022] vitro culture because it takes place outside the body of the
 Methods of Vegetative Propagation: parent plant in a test tube in an artificial environment,
(i) Natural methods: e.g., Ornamental plants, orchids.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation: Early flowering and
• By roots: e.g., Dahlia, sweet potato.
fruiting, propagation of seedless plants like banana and rose,
• By stems: e.g., Potato, ginger. genetic similarity. [Board, 2025]
• By leaves: e.g., Bryophyllum (leaf margins bear buds (f) Spore Formation: Spores are small bulb-like
which develop into plants). [Board 2024, 2017, 2016]
structures which are covered by thick walls. Under
(ii) Artificial Methods:
favourable conditions, they germinate and produce
• Grafting: e.g., Mango new organisms. For example, Rhizopus.
• Cutting: e.g., Rose  [Board, 2024, 2023, 2017, 2016]
• Layering: e.g., Jasmine
MNEMONICS
Concept: Vegetative Reproduction
Mnemonics: Positive Example Based Learning
Interpretations:
P - Potato,
E - Eyes,

1
B - Bryophyllum,
L - Leaf buds

• Tissue Culture: Tissue culture is the production or

propagation of new plants from isolated plant cells or
Fig.: 7.5 Spore formation in Rhizopus

2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Concept covered: l Parts of Flower l Pollination and Fertilisation

• Parts of Flower
MNEMONICS

3
 Flowers are main reproductive part of a plant. The main parts
of a flower are: sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. Concept: Reproductive parts of a flower
 Stamens and carpels are the reproductive parts of a Mnemonics:
flower which contains the germ a CAR belongs to Women but STeering belongs to Men
cells. The male organ of a flower Interpretations:
Pollen producing
called ‘stamen’ produces the male Stamen: ive organ of a CARpel : Female organ of the plant.
reproduct

4
gamete which are present in the STaMEN : Male part of the plant
flower. red: Female
pollen grain. The female part of reproductive organ
of
a flower called ‘red’ produces the flo we r  Flowers may be unisexual contains either stamens or pistil/
a
female gamete, which are present in carpel (e.g., papaya and watermelon) or bisexual contains both
ovules of the plant. [Board, 2019, 2022] stamens and pistil/ carpel (e.g., Hibiscus and mustard).
 [Board, 2017, 2025]

• Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen Pollination

grains from the anther of a stamen to
the stigma of a carpel. Pollination is of
two types: Self-pollination and cross-
pollination. [Board, 2016, 2019]
 Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen
in the same flower. In cross-pollination, Scan Me!
pollen is transferred from one flower to another.
 [Board, 2017]
 Cross-pollination introduces variations in plants because
of the mixing of different genes. These variations further
increase the adaptability of plants towards the environment or
surroundings. [Board, 2017]
 The transfer of pollens take place by agents like wind, water
Fig.: 7.6 Parts of flower or animals.
 Revision Notes | 23

 After pollination, a pollen tube grows out of pollen grains, fruit.

through which male germ cell reaches the ovary and fuses with  Seed is the final (last) product of sexual reproduction in
the female germ cell. angiosperms. It is the fertilised ovule that is developed inside a
 Fertilisation is the fruit.
process of fusion of male  Seed protects the future plant, i.e., embryo.
and female gamete to  A seed consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) and an
produce zygote. It occurs embryonal axis.
inside the ovary.  Embryonal axis has two parts: Plumule and radical.
Fig.; 7.7 Germination of Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into
pollen on stigma root.  [Board, 2016]
 [Board, 2019, 2024, 2025]  The process of development of seedling from the embryo

1
• Po s t - f e r t i l i s a t i o n under suitable conditions such as air, moisture, etc., is known
changes:  [Board, 2017, 2025] as germination.
 The outer layers of the
ovule become impervious
and hard and function as a
seed coat.

2
 An ovule with an embryo inside is called a seed.
 The ovary enlarges and ripens to become a fruit.
 [Board, 2019]
 Other floral parts such as sepals, petals, stamens, styles and
stigma may fall off. However, in some cases, they persist in the Fig 7.8 Seed germination

Reproduction in Human Beings

3 Concept covered: l Puberty l Male and female reproductive system l Process of fertilisation l Menstrual cycle l Sexually
Transmitted Diseases
l Methods of contraception.

• Humans have sexual mode of reproduction. MNEMONICS

• It needs sexual maturation, which is the period of life

4
when production of germ cells, i.e., ova (female) and Concept: Parts of Male Reproductive System
sperm (male) start in the body. This period of sexual Mnemonics: SEVEn UP
Interpretations:
maturity is called puberty. [Board, 2022]
S: Seminiferous tubules, E: Epididymis, V: Vas deferens,
 Changes at Puberty are:  [Board, 2022]
E: Ejaculatory duct, U: Urethra, P: Penis
(a) Common in Boys and Girls:
 Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area. (b) Vas deferens: It passes sperms from testes towards
 Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples. the urethra. [Board, 2024, 2023]
(b) In Girls: (c) Urethra: It is a common
 Breast size begins to increase.
passage for both sperm and Fibromuscular:
that
urine. Its outer covering is called Referring to tissue
 Girls begin to menstruate. com pos ed of both
penis. It is like a fibromuscular is
(c) In Boys: muscular
long tube which travels through fibrous and ically found
 Thick hair grows on face in the form of beard and moustache. ele me nts, typ
penis.
uctures like the
 Voice begins to crack. (d) Associated Glands: Seminal in str of certain organs
• These changes signals that sexual maturity is taking walls
vesicles and prostate gland are
or blood vessels.
place. associated glands, which add
• Male Reproductive System their secretion to the sperms. This
al
Scrotum: The extern fluid provide nourishment to sperms and make their
(a) Testes: A pair of testes are
sac that holds and transport easy. Sperm along with secretion of glands
located inside scrotum which is protects the testes, form semen. [Board, 2025, 2023]
present outside the abdominal regulating their
rm
cavity. Scrotum has a relatively temperature for spe
2°C lower temperature needed produc tio n.
for the production of sperm.
 [Board, 2025, 2024, 2023, 2017]
• Functions of Testes: Male
 Produce male germ cells, i.e., sperms Reproductive
 Testes release male sex hormone System
(testosterone). Its function is to:
(i) Regulate production of sperms.
(ii) Bring changes at puberty.
[Board, 2023]
Scan Me!
Fig.: 7.9
24 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

• Placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to the

MNEMONICS developing embryo. It also helps in removal of wastes
Concept: Accessory glands in Males generated by developing fetus. [Board, 2024, 2023]
Mnemonics: Saint Peters • Each month, one egg is released, and the uterus
Interpretations: prepares to receive a fertilised egg by developing a thick,
S: Seminal vesicle, P: Prostate gland spongy lining.
• The breakdown and removal of the inner, thick and
• Female Reproductive System The Female
soft lining of the uterus along with its blood vessels in
(a) Ovary: A pair of ovary is located in Reproductive the form of vaginal bleeding is called menstrual flow or
both sides of abdomen. [Board, 2017] System menstruation This occurs when the egg released during
 Female germ cells, i.e., eggs are the menstrual cycle is not fertilised. [Board, 2025, 2024]
produced here. [Board, 2016] • Reproductive Health:
 Atthe time of birth of a girl, thousands of Reproductive health is all those aspects of general health
immature eggs are present in the ovary. which help a person to lead a normal, safe and satisfying
Scan Me! reproductive life.
 At the onset of puberty, some of these eggs
start maturing. • Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are the diseases
 Ovary produces and secretes the female sex hormone which spread by sexual contact from an infected person
estrogen and progesterone. [Board, 2016] to a healthy person. Some common STDs are gonorrhoea,
syphilis, warts, HIV-AIDS.
• Birth Control Methods: There are different methods
which are developed to prevent and control pregnancy.
These are also known as methods of contraception.
Contraception is the avoidance of pregnancy, which can
be achieved by preventing the fertilisation of ova. [Board,
2017, 2024]

• Methods of Contraception
(a) Physical Barrier Methods [Board, 2022, 2023]
 To prevent union of egg and sperm.
 Example include condoms, cervical caps and diaphragm.
Fig.: 7.10 Human female reproductive system (b) Chemical Methods
(b) Oviduct or Fallopian Tube  Example include oral pills.
 Receives the egg produced by the ovary and transfer it to the  They alter hormonal balance of body so that eggs are not
uterus. released.
 Fertilisation, i.e., fusion of gametes takes place here.  May have side effects. [Board, 2022, 2023]
 The cell which is formed by the fusion of a male gamete and (c) Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD)
female gamete is called zygote, i.e., it is a ‘fertilised ovum’ or  They prevent pregnancy by interfering with sperm movement
‘fertilised egg.’ The zygote undergo multiple divisions to form or egg implantation.
an embryo.  Contraceptive devices such as the loop or the copper-T is
(c) Uterus: It is a bag-like structure where development placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy. [Board, 2022, 2023]
of the foetus takes place. (d) Surgical Methods
 Uterus opens into vagina through cervix.
 In males, the vas deferens is blocked to prevent sperm
 Embryo is the stage of development between the transfer and the process is called vasectomy.
zygote or fertilised egg and the newly formed offspring.  In females, the fallopian tube is blocked to prevent egg
The embedding of the embryo in the thick inner lining of transfer and the process is called tubectomy. [Board, 2025]
the uterus is called implantation. [Board, 2022, 2024]

• The time period from the development of foetus inside MNEMONICS

the uterus till birth is called gestation period. The act of Concept 1: Birth Control Methods
giving birth to the fully developed foetus at the end of Mnemonics: SON Is Born
gestation period is termed as parturition. Interpretations: S: Surgical; O: Oral contraceptive;
• Placenta is a specialised tissue embedded in the uterine N: Natural; I: IUD; B: Barrier
wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side and blood
spaces on the mother’s side. [Board, 2022, 2023]
 Revision Notes | 25

Chapter-8
Heredity and Evolution
• Variations typically arise during sexual reproduction, Seed colour Yellow Green
and are more significant than those in asexual Seed shape Round Wrinkled
reproduction. Pod shape Inflated Constricted
• Minor variations in sexual Variation refers to
the differences in Pod colour Green Yellow
reproduction are caused by slight its
characteristics or tra Height of plant Tall Dwarf/Short
inaccuracies in DNA copying. the
among individuals of
Additionally, crossing over during same species. • Mendel conducted a series of experiments in which
meiosis contributes to variations. he crossed pea plants with different contrasting
• Beneficial variations help the species to survive better characteristics to study one character (at a time).
in the environment.
• Monohybrid cross is a cross between two pea plants
• Nature selects these beneficial Evolution is the gra
dual with one pair of contrasting characters. For example,
variations thereby leading to process through wh
ich cross between a tall and a dwarf plant.
evolution. s un der go ch an ges
specie • In case of monohybrid cross with pure line breeding
over generations,
• While sexual reproduction resulting in the
varieties of plants, the phenotypic ratio obtained in F2
results in offspring with a body development of new generation was 3:1. [Board, 2018, 2024]
n
design similar to their parents, species from commo
the offspring are not identical ances tor s. Example 1
and exhibit considerable
Cross between tall and dwarf pea plants:
variation.
Board 2025, 2024,2019
• Importance of Variation:
Depending upon the nature of variations, different
individuals would have different kinds of advantages.
For example, bacteria that can withstand heat will
survive better in a heat wave (Archaebacteria).
Main advantage of variation to species is that it increases
the chances of its survival in a changing environment.
Mendel and His Work on Inheritance
• Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) started his
experiments on plant breeding and hybridisation. He
proposed the laws of inheritance in living organisms.
• Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics.
(a) Phenotypic ratio:- Tall:Dwarf = 3:1
• Plant selected by Mendel was Pisum sativum (garden
pea). Mendel selected a number of contrasting visible (b) Genotypic ratio:- Pure Tall:Hybrid Tall:Pure Dwarf =
1:2:1
characters of garden peas for his experiment.
• Seven pairs of contrasting characters in garden pea  Dihybrid cross is a cross between two plants considering
plant selected by Mendel were: two pairs of contrasting characters. For example, cross between
Dominant Recessive green round seed with a yellow wrinkled seed.  [Board 2017]
Character
Trait Trait  In case of dihybrid cross, i.e., involving two pairs of

Flower colour Violet White contrasting characters, the phenotypic ratio obtained in F2
generation was 9:3:3:1.
Flower position Axial Terminal
26 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

Example 2
Cross between pea plants bearing round yellow seeds with plants bearing
wrinkled and green seeds: [Board 2025, 2024, 2017]

• Based on the above crosses, Mendel proposed three brown and blue.
laws: • A dominant allele expresses itself in the presence or
• Law of Dominance: It states that “when parents having absence of a recessive trait whereas a recessive allele is
pure contrasting characters are crossed then only one able to express itself only in the absence of a dominant
character expresses itself in F1 generation. This character trait.
is the dominant character and the character which cannot • Law of Segregation: It states that every individual
express itself is called recessive character”. possesses a pair of alleles for a particular trait. During
 [Board, 2022, 2024,2020,2019] gamete formation, a gamete receives only one allele for
• The homozygous dominant trait is Law of Genetics each trait. A trait may appear dominant or recessive in a
denoted by two capital letters whereas particular generation , depending on the combination of
the homozygous recessive trait is denoted alleles inherited.
by two small letters.
• Law of Independent Assortment: It states that alleles
• Alleles are alternate forms of genes. of different characters separate from each other during
For example, the gene for eye colour has
Scan Me! gamete formation. [Board, 2017, 2022]
several alleles. Two major alleles are:
 Revision Notes | 27

• Genes carry information for producing proteins, which • The combination of the male and
in turn control the various body characteristics. female germ cells gives a diploid Diploid Zygote: A
med
zygote. Thus, the normal diploid fertilised egg cell for
• For a particular trait, the offspring receives one allele by the union of two
from the father and one allele from the mother. number of chromosomes in the erm
haploid gametes (sp
offspring is restored. [Board, 2024] and egg), con tai nin g two
s, one
sets of chromosome
• Different mechanisms are used for sex determination in different species. from each parent.

• The process by which sex of a new born individual is result into girl child.
determined is called sex determination. • An egg fertilised by Y chromosome carrying sperm
• Sex Chromosomes: In human beings, there are 23 pairs results into a boy child.
of chromosomes. Out of these, 22 chromosome pairs Thus, sex of the child is determined by the type of sperm
are called autosomes and the last pair of chromosome that fuses with egg.  [Board, 2025, 2024]
which helps in deciding sex of the individual is called sex
chromosome. [Board 2024]

• Autosomes are pairs of chromosomes that are identical

in appearance and are not involved in sex determination.
• Sex chromosomes are pairs of Sex
chromosomes involved in sex Determination
determination and are not identical in
appearance (e.g., X and Y chromosome
in humans).
• Sex determination in human beings: A
male has one X and Y sex chromosomes Scan Me!
(XY) while a female has two X sex
chromosomes (XX).
Fig 8.1 : Sex determination in human beings
• An egg fertilised by X chromosome carrying sperm
UNIT-III : NATURAL PHENOMENA

Chapter-9
Light - Reflection and Refraction

1
Reflection of Light, Images Formed by Spherical Mirror
Concept covered: l Reflection of light l Laws of reflection of light l Images formed by plane mirror and spherical mirrors.

• When light falls on object, it may be absorbed, (ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of

2
transmitted or get reflected back to the same medium. reflection.
Reflection of light: It is the phenomenon Real image is obtained when the rays of light after
of bouncing back of the light rays in Reflection of reflection or refraction actually meet at some point. It can
the same medium. Light
be obtained on the screen and can be seen with the eye.
Laws of reflection: Virtual image forms when rays h
Mirror: A device wit
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray of light do not actually meet, but only one reflecting

3
and the normal, all lie in the same appear to meet when produced surface.
backwards. It cannot be obtained which
plane at the point of incidence. Lens: It is a device
Scan Me! on the screen. refracit light.
28 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

Image formed by plane mirror: [Board, 2015] • The diameter of the reflecting surface is called its
aperture.
• Radius of curvature (R) = 2 × focal length (f).
• Principal focus: It is the point on principal axis through
which the rays of light, which are parallel to it, pass after
reflection or they appear to be arising from this point.
• Rules for making ray diagrams by concave mirror:
 [Board, 2024, 2019]
(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through
the principal focus, after reflection.

Fig 9.1
Characteristics of image formed by plane mirror:
(i) Virtual and erect.
(ii) Size of image is equal to the size of the object.
(iii) Image is formed as far as behind the mirror as the
object is in front of it.
(iv) Laterally inverted.
Lateral inversion: The phenomenon due to which the Fig 9.2
right side of the object appears as left and the left side (ii) A ray passing through the principal focus of
of the object appears as right, i.e., the image is inverted concave mirror becomes parallel to principal axis after
sideways. reflection.
• A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved
inwards is called a concave mirror.
• A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved
outwards is called a convex mirror.
• Concave mirror can form both real and virtual images.
Convex mirror always form virtual images. Fig 9.3
Differentiating between a plane mirror, a concave
(iii) A ray of light passing through the centre of
mirror and a convex mirror, based on
Image curvature of a concave mirror is reflected back along
image formation: formation
the same path as it is a normally incident ray at the
(i) If the formed image is erect, of in Spherical mirror
mirror surface.
same size and equidistant as of object
always, then it is a plane mirror.
(ii) If the image is erect, virtual but
smaller in size, then it is a convex
mirror. Scan Me!
(iii) If the formed image is erect, virtual and magnified
when the mirror is close to the object, then it is a concave Fig 9.4
mirror. [Board, 2024]
(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis of
• The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical a concave mirror is reflected obliquely making equal
mirror is called the pole of the mirror, and it is usually angle with the principal axis.
represented by P.
• The horizontal line passing through the centre of
curvature and pole of the spherical mirror is known as
principal axis.
• The centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the
centre of the hollow sphere of glass, of which the
spherical mirror is a part and is usually represented by C.
• The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the Fig 9.5
radius of the hollow sphere of glass, of which the
spherical mirror is a part and is usually represented by R.
Image formation by a concave mirror for different positions of the object:
Position of Object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished/ point-sized Real and inverted
Beyond C Between F and C Smaller in size Real and inverted
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
 Revision Notes | 29

Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted

At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
Image formation by a convex mirror for different positions of the object:  [Board, 2017]

Position of Object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image

At infinity At the focus F, behind the mirror Highly diminished/point-sized Virtual and erect
Between infinity and the Between P and F, behind the Diminished Virtual and erect
pole P of the mirror mirror
Mirror Formula:  [Board, 2024]
1 1 1
 
u v f
Where, v = Image distance
u = Object distance
f = Focal length
Magnification of Spherical Mirrors:
Mirror formula
It is the ratio of the height of the image to and
the height of the object. magnification
Height of image  [½ + ½] [Marking Scheme, 2019]
m =
Height of object

h
m = i =– v
Example 2
ho u Scan Me!

If 'm' is negative, image is real. The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of
If 'm' is positive, image is virtual. 30 cm from a mirror is formed on a screen placed in
If hi = ho then |m| = 1, i.e., size of image is equal to the size of front of the mirror at a distance of 60 cm from its pole.
the object. What is the nature of the mirror? Find its focal length.
If the height of the flame is 2.4 cm, find the height of
If hi > ho then |m| > 1 i.e., image is enlarged.
its image. State whether the image formed is erect or
If hi < ho then |m| < 1 i.e., image is diminished.
inverted. Ap [Board, 2017]
• Magnification of plane mirror is always + 1. Concept Applied Image formation by concave mirror.
'+' sign indicates virtual image.
1' indicates that image is equal to object's size. ans The nature of the mirror is concave since the
• If 'm' is '+ve' and less than 1, it is a convex mirror. image formed is real.
• If 'm' is '+ve' and more than 1, it is a concave mirror. Given, u = – 30 cm, v = – 60 cm, ho = 2.4 cm,
Using mirror formula,
• If 'm' is '–ve', it is a concave mirror.
1 1 1
= +
Example 1
f v u
A student holding a mirror in his hand, directed the 1 1 1
reflecting surface of the mirror towards the sun. He = 
f 60  30
then directed the reflected light on to a sheet of paper
held close to the mirror. 3 1
=– =–
(a) What should he do to burn the paper? 60 20

(b) Which type of mirror does he have?
(c) Will he be able to determine the approximate value Therefore, f = – 20 cm
of focal length of this mirror from this activity? Give v Height of image
reason and draw ray diagram to justify your answer Magnification, m = − =
u Height of object

in this case. AI Ap [Board, 2019]

v − 60 h
Concept Applied Approximate determination of focal length – =– = i
of concave mirror from image formation of a distant object. u − 30 2.4

ans (a) Move the mirror/paper to focus the rays at one
60
point. [½] hi = × 2.4 = – 4.8 cm
− 30
(b) Concave mirror. [½]
(c) Yes, the distance between the mirror and the point The required height of the image is – 4.8 cm.
at which the sharp focussed image of the sun is formed
gives approximate focal length. [½ + ½]
The image formed by the mirror is inverted. [1 + 1 + 1]
30 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

!
1
Commonly Made Error Answering Tip
Calculation error is commonly seen. In many answers, no unit is While solving numerical, it is advisable that the formula need to be
written for the final answer. written in the beginning. Essential steps needs to be shown, and the
final answer needs to be expressed along with a proper unit.

2 Refraction, Lenses and Power of Lens

Concept covered: l Refraction l Laws of refraction l Refractive index l Lens formula l Magnification l Power of lens

• The phenomenon of change in the path of light from • Absolute Refractive Index: Refractive index of a

3
one medium to another is called refraction of light. medium with respect to vacuum or air.
• The angle formed between the c
n= where, c = 3 × 108 ms–1
incident ray and the normal is An incident ray is the v
called angle of incidence, and ray of light that str
ikes • Refractive index of one medium is reciprocal of other's
a sur fac e or boundary refractive index in a given pair.
the angle formed between the
of two media before 1
refracted ray and the normal is on
reflection or refracti n12 =

4
called angle of refraction. occ urs . n21
• The cause of refraction is the
change in the speed of light as it moves from one medium
• If refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. air is given as 1nair
and if refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. air is given as
to another medium.
2nair, then refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. medium 2 =
Refraction of
• Greater the difference in speed of Light 1 nair
light between the two media across the = 1n2
2 nair
interface, the greater is the deviation and
vice-versa. • Refractive index of diamond is the highest till date.
• When a ray of light passes from a rarer It is 2.42. It means speed of light is
1
times less in a
medium to a denser medium, it bends diamond than in vacuum. 2. 42
Scan Me!
towards the normal. Hence, the angle of
Lens Formula: 1  1  1
Lens Formula
[Board, 2024]
incidence is greater than the angle of refraction. and
v u f  Magnification
• When a ray of light passes from a denser medium to h v
a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. Hence, Magnification: m = i =
ho u
the angle of incidence is less than the angle of refraction.
• Laws of refraction:  [Board, 2024]

 First law: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal • Power of a lens: It is defined as the
Scan Me!
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. reciprocal of focal length in metre. 
 Second law: The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the [Board, 2024] [Board, 2019]
sine of angle of refraction is constant, for the light of a given • The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays is
colour and the given pair of media. This constant is known as expressed in terms of power.
the refractive index of second medium with respect to the first. 1 1
This law is also known as Snell's Law of refraction. Power = or, P =
Focal length (in metre) f
sin i
n= • SI unit of Power is dioptre = (D), 1 D = 1 m–1
sin r • 1 dioptre is the power of lens whose focal length is one
metre.
Key Diagram • Rules for making ray diagrams by convex and concave
lens
(i) A ray of light from a object, parallel to the principal
axis, after refraction, (i) passes through the focus for
a convex lens (ii) refracted ray meets the focus when
extended backward for a concave lens.

• Refractive index (n): The ratio of speed of light in a

given pair of media, [Board, 2024] [Board, 2023]
Velocity of light in medium 1
n =
Velocity of light in medium 2
 Revision Notes | 31

(ii) A ray of light (i) passing through a principal focus

of a convex lens or (ii) directed towards the principal
(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre
focus of a concave lens becomes parallel to the principal
travels undeviated even after refraction for both types
axis after refraction.
of lenses.

• Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex lens for various positions of the object:
 [Board, 2024]

Position of the object Position of the image Relative size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished, point- Real and inverted
sized
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or highly Real and inverted
enlarged
Between focus F1 and optical On the same side of the lens Enlarged Virtual and erect
centre O as the object
• Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a concave lens for various positions of the object:
Position of the object Position of the image Relative size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At focus F1 Highly diminished, point-sized Virtual and erect
Between infinity and optical Between focus F1 and Diminished Virtual and erect
centre O of the lens optical centre O

Chapter-10
Light - Reflection and Refraction

1 Human Eye, Defects of Vision and Its Corrections

Concept covered: l Human eye l Defects of vision and its Corrections.

Human Eye retina, which are light sensitive. Rods respond to the

2
• Eye is a natural optical device intensity of light. Cones respond to the illumination of
using which humans can see An optical device is colours. There are around 125 million rod and cone cells.
objects around them. It forms an an instrument that Cells generate signals which are transmitted to the brain
manipulates light to through the optic nerve.
inverted, real image on a light
enhance, redirect or Parts of the Human Eye
sensitive surface called retina. ical
analyse visual or opt
• Rods and cones are the cells in sig na ls. • Cornea: It is the outermost, transparent part where the

3
32 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

maximum refraction takes place. adult eye, its value is infinity.

• Lens: The lens, a fibrous, jelly-like structure, focuses • Optic nerve: The optic nerve sends the electrical
light onto the retina, to produce a real, inverted image. impulses from the retina, at the back of the eyes to the
• Iris: It is a dark muscular brain.
Structure and
diaphragm that controls the size A diaphragm is a • Blind spot: The point where exit the Functioning of
ulates
of the pupil. membrane that reg eye and has no light-sensitive cells. This
t of ligh t Human Eye
the am oun point is known as “blind spot.”
• Pupil: It is the window of the passing through an
eye. It is the central aperture in the optical system. • Yellow spot: The point at the middle
iris. It regulates and controls the of the retina has the maximum light-
amount of light entering the eye. [Board 2024] sensitive cells. This point is known as
• Aqueous humor: Aqueous humor is a water-like fluid “yellow point”. Scan Me!
that lies in front of the lens. • Near point or least distance of distinct
• Vitreous humor: Vitreous humor is a gel-like substance vision:
that lies behind the lens and in front of the retina. • It is the minimum distance at which objects can be seen
• Retina: It is a delicate membrane having enormous most distinctively without strain.
number of light sensitive cells. [Board 2024] • For a normal adult eye, its value is 25 cm.
• Ciliary muscles: These muscles change the shape and • Range of human vision is 25 cm to infinity.
size of the eye lens for focussing. [Board 2024]
• Accommodation: The ability of the eye lens to adjust its
• Far point: The maximum distance at which the object focal length is called accommodation. Focal length can be
can be seen clearly is far point of the eye. For a normal changed with the help of ciliary muscles.
 [Board 2024] [Board 2019]
Fig 10.2 (b): Far point of a myopic eye
• The Far point (F) of a myopic eye is less than infinity.
st
Far point: The farthe
point at which an
object is placed where
its image can be
focused on retina.

Fig 10.2 (c): Correction for myopia

• Correction: A concave lens placed in front of the eye. It
forms a virtual image of distant object at far point (F) of
myopic eye. [Board 2024]

• Cause: Nearsightedness happens when eyeball gets

Fig 10.1 Structure of human eye elongated, or when there are problems with the shape of
cornea or lens .
Myopia (near sightedness)  [Board, 2019, 23, 24]
Hypermetropia (Farsightedness):
• Distant objects are not clearly visible. • The affected person can see far objects clearly but
cannot see nearby objects clearly.
• The near point of the eye moves away
Eye Defects
from 25 cm. [Board 2024]
• Image is formed behind the retina.
• Correction: Use of convex lens of
suitable power can correct this defect.
• Cause: Hypermetropia appears when
Fig 10.2 (a): Myopic eye eyeball becomes too short or when there Scan Me!
• In a myopic eye, image of distant object is formed in are problems with the shape of cornea
front of the retina (and not on the retina). or lens. [Board 2024]
 Revision Notes | 33

Fig 10.3 (a): Near point of a hypermetropic eye [Board 2024]

Fig 10.3 (b): Hypermetropic eye

Fig 10.3 (c): Correction for hypermetropic eye

Tips & Trick T&T Example 1

While calculating the power of lens required to correct any eye vi-
sion: A student needs spectacles of power –0.5 D for the
(i) Use lens formula correction of his vision.
(ii) u = 25cm for hypermetropia and distance of infinity for myopia (i) Name the defect in vision the student is suffering
from.
(iii) v = Distance of defective near point for hypermetropia and dis-
tance of defective far point for myopia (ii) Find the nature and focal length of the corrective
lens.
Presbyopia (Old age Hypermetropia): (iii) List two causes of this defect. A [Board, 2019]
 [Board 2024, 2020, 2017]
ans (i) Myopia [½]
• It is the defect of vision due to which an old person (ii) Concave / diverging lens and [½]
cannot see nearby objects clearly and even distant objects 1 1
due to less power of accommodation of the eye. Focal length, f     2 m  [½]
P  0.5 
• The near-point of an old person having presbyopia
gradually recedes and becomes much more than 25 (iii) (a) Excessive curvature of the eye lens. [½]
cm. (b) Elongation of eye ball.[½] [Marking Scheme, 2019]
•
Example 2
Due to gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens, a certain defect of vision
arises. Write the name of this defect. Name the type of lens required by such persons to improve the vision. Explain
the structure and function of such lens. A U [Board 2017]
ans Presbyopia
Bifocal lens
Upper portion/part — Concave/ Diverging lens
— To view far off objects
Lower part — Convex/converging lens
— To facilitate/ view nearby objects [3] [Marking Scheme, 2017]
 1
34 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

2
Refraction of Light Through Prism, Dispersion of Light and
Scattering of Light Concept covered: Dispersion of light Atmospheric refraction Refraction of
l
light using prism Scattering of light. l
l l

• Refraction: A triangular glass prism has two triangular • Atmospheric refraction is the phenomenon of bending

3
bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. These of light on passing through the Earth’s atmosphere.
surfaces are inclined to each other. The angle between its  [Board 2024]
two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism. • As we move above the surface of the Scattering of
• When a polychromatic light enters a prism, different Earth, density of air goes on decreasing. Light
constituent colours, having different speeds, suffer • Light travelling from rarer to denser
deviations of different amounts and thus get separated layers always bends towards the normal.

4
from each other.
Dispersion of • Stars twinkle on account of atmospheric
• The phenomenon of splitting of white Light refraction. [Board 2024]
light into its constituent colours on Scan Me!
passing through a glass prism is called • The sun appears to rise two minutes
earlier and set two minutes later due to atmospheric
dispersion of light. [Board, 2023]
refraction.
• Spectrum: Band of coloured
components of a light beam is known as • The phenomenon in which a part of the light incident
Scan Me!
on a particle is absorbed and then redirected in different
spectrum.
directions is called scattering of light. [Board, 2023]
• Different colours undergo differ- ed
Prism: It is a five fac • Very small particles scatter light of shorter wavelengths
ent deviations on passing through h a tri an gul ar
solid wit better than longer wavelengths.
a prism. cross-section.
• If a second identical prism is • The scattering of longer wavelengths of light increases as
placed in an inverted position with respect to the first the size of the particle increases.
prism, all the colours recombine to form
Rainbow
• Larger particles scatter light of all wavelengths equally
polychromatic light. formation
well.
Example:
MNEMONICS
• A rainbow is a natural spectrum that
appears in the sky after a rain shower. Concept: Colours of spectrum
It is caused by dispersion of sunlight Mnemonics: VIBGYOR
by tiny water droplets present in the Scan Me! Interpretations:
atmosphere. A rainbow always forms in V: Violet I: Indigo B: Blue G: Green Y: Yellow O: Orange
the direction opposite to that of the Sun.  [Board 2024] R: Red

Key Diagram
Difference in refraction of light by a glass slab and a glass prism:

Example 2
State the phenomena observed in the given diagram. Explain with reference to the diagram, which of the two lights
mentioned below will have a higher wavelength?  A [SQP, 2022-23]
Concept Applied Dispersion of Light
ans Dispersion: The splitting of white light into seven colours on
passing through a prism. [1]
During dispersion, as the wavelength increases, bending of emergent
ray decreases. Yellow has bent less than blue. So, yellow has greater
wavelength than blue. [½ + ½]
[3] [Marking Scheme SQP, 2022-23]
 Revision Notes | 35

UNIT-IV : EFFECTS OF CURRENT

Chapter-11
Electricity

1
Electric Current, Ohm’s Law
Concept covered: l Electric current l Potential difference and electric current l Ohm’s law l Resistance l Resistivity l Factors
on which the resistance of a conductor depends.

• Charge is a fundamental quantity of matter. It may be • Conventional direction of current: Conventionally,

positive and negative. the direction of the motion of positive charges through

2
• S.I. unit of charge is Coulomb (C). the conductor is taken as the direction of current. The
• Static and current electricity: Static electricity deals direction of conventional current is opposite to that of
with the electric charges at rest, while the current the negatively charged electrons.
electricity deals with the electric charges in motion.
• Galvanometer: It is a device to detect current in an
• Electric current: The electric current is defined as the electric circuit.
rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section
• Ammeter: It is a device to measure current in a circuit.

3
of a conductor.
Charge Q It is a low resistance galvanometer
vanometer
Electric current = or I = and is always connected in series Ammeter: A gal
Time t wit h low int ern al
in a circuit. Symbol is, achieved by
e resistance,
Electric Current: Th Introduction to placing a low resist
or
ic
rate of flow of electr Electricity (shun t) in par alle l.
char ges , tra dit ion ally • Electric potential is the amount
w
considered as the flo

4
of electric potential energy at a
of positive charges, point.
ion
with current direct
opposite to the flow
of • Potential difference is the difference in the amount
ele ctr on s. Scan Me! of electric potential energy between two points in an
electric circuit.
• Electric current is a scalar quantity. • It is equal to the work done to move a unit charge from
one point to another.
MNEMONICS Work done ( W )
Voltage ( V ) =
Concept 1: Current Formula Charg e (Q)
Mnemonics:
• S.I. unit of potential difference is Volt (V).
• 1 Volt: When 1 Joule of work is done in carrying one
Coulomb charge, then potential difference is called 1 Volt.
Mathematically,
1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb
1 V = 1 JC-1
Interpretations: • Voltmeter: It is a device to measure the potential
I = Q/t, Q = I x t, t = Q/I difference. It is a high resistance galvanometer and is
always connected in parallel to the component across
• Ampere: It is the SI unit of current. If one Coulomb of which the potential difference is to be measured. Symbol
charge flows through any cross-section of a conductor is, [Board, 2023]
in one second, then current through it is said to be one
ampere.
• Electric circuit: The closed path along which an electric • Ohm’s Law: It states that “the current through a
current flows is called an ‘electric circuit’. conductor between two points is directly proportional
to the potential difference across the conductor provided
external conditions remain constant”. [Board, 2024, 2022]

ential
Ohm’s Law Ohm’s Law: The pot
differe nc e acr oss a
metallic conductor is
l to
directly proportiona
cur ren t, ap plic ab le
the
under constant
like
Scan Me! physical conditions
temper atu re.
Fig 11.1: A typical electric circuit
36 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

the flow of charges through it. [Board, 2023]

(i) S.I. unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
MNEMONICS 1 volt
Concept 2: Formula of Ohm’s Law (ii) 1 ohm =
1 ampere
Mnemonics:
• If 1A current flows through a conductor, when 1V
potential difference is applied across it, then the resistance
of the conductor is said to be 1 ohm.
• Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends:
Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is,
(i) Directly proportional to the , Al-
Resistivity of Metal
Interpretations: length of the conductor. loy, and Insulator:
Alloys
To find V : Multiply I and R y
(ii) Inversely proportional to the have higher resistivit
To find I : Divide V and R nt
area of cross-section. Combining than their constitue
To find R : Divide V and I s
(i) and (ii), R = ρL/A [Board, 2024] metals, and insulator
hig hes t res ist iv-
have the
(i) Mathematical expression for Ohm’s law: (iii) Directly proportional to the ity, followed by alloys
and
I∝V temperature. [Board, 2022] metals.
V = IR (where, R = Resistance) (iv) Depends on nature of the
(ii) V-I graph for Ohm’s law: The graph between V material.
Resistance of a
and I is always straight line, passing through origin, • Resistivity (r): The resistance offered conductor
with slope equals to R. by a conductor of unit length and unit
cross-sectional area is called resistivity.
[Board, 2024, 2022]
 Its S.I. unit is ohm-metre (Ω m).
 
Resistivity does not change with change
Scan Me!
in length or area of cross-section, but it
changes with change in temperature.
–8 –6
 Range of resistivity of metals and alloys is 10 to 10 Ω m.
12 17
 Range of resistivity of insulators is 10 to 10 Ω m.

1
 Resistivity of alloy is generally higher than that of its
constituent metals.
 Alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperature, so

Fig 11.2 : V-I Graph [Board, 2023, 24]

they are commonly used in electrical heating devices.
 Copper and aluminium are used for electrical transmission
• Resistance (R): It is the property of a conductor to resist lines as they have low resistivity.

2 Resistance in Series and Parallel Combination,

Electric Power and Heating Effects of Electric Current
Concepts covered: l Series combination of resistors l Parallel combination of resistors l Applications of combination of resistors in daily life
l Heating effect of electric current and its applications in daily life l Electric power l Interrelation between P, V, I and R.

3
• Resistors in series: When two or more resistors are • Joule’s law of heating: It states that the heat produced
connected end to end so that same current flows through in a conductor is directly proportional to (i) the square of
each one of them, they are said to be connected in series.
the current I flowing through it, (ii) its resistance R and (iii)
Here, the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances. [Board 2024, 2022]
the time t, for which current is passed. Mathematically, it
Rs = Rl + R2 + R3 + ........ can be expressed as: [Board 2024, 2023]
Resistor: Parallel
• Resistors in parallel: When two or

4
and Series I 2 Rt VIt
more resistors are connected across two H = I 2 Rt joule = cal Or H = VIt joule = cal
points so that each one of them provides 4.18 4.18
a separate path for current, they are said
• Practical application of the heating effect of electric
to be connected in parallel. Here, the
reciprocal of their combined resistance is current: It is utilised in the electrical heating appliances
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the Scan Me! such as electric iron, room heaters, water heaters, etc.
individual resistances. 
1 1 1 1
• The electric bulb also works on the principle of heating
= + + + .... [Board 2024, 2023] effect of the electric current. When electric current passes
RP R1 R2 R3
through a very thin, high resistance tungsten filament
• Heating effect of current: When an electric current is of an electric bulb, the filament becomes white-hot and
passed through a conductor, heat is produced in it. This emits light. [Board, 2019]
is known as heating effect of current. [Board 2023, 2022]
 Revision Notes | 37

• Electric energy: It is the total work done in maintaining • S.I. unit of power = watt (W)
an electric current in an electric circuit for a given time. 1 watt = 1 volt × 1 ampere
 [Board 2023, 2022]
Electric energy, • Commercial unit of electric energy
W = VIt = I2Rt joule = killowatt hour (kWh)
Electric energy:The
• Electric Fuse: It is a safety energy consumed or 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
device that protects electrical produced by an electr
ic
appliances in case of short circuit cul ate d as the 1 kWh = 1 unit of electric energy
circuit, cal
d
or overloading. [Board, 2024] product of power an • Kilowatt hour: It is the commercial unit of electrical
(i) Fuse is made up of alloy of time. energy. One kilowatt hour is the electrical energy
copper and tin. consumed by an appliance of 1000 watts when used for
(ii) Fuse is always connected in series with live wire. one hour.
(iii) Fuse has a low melting point.
(iv) Current capacity of fuse is slightly higher than that • Watt: It is the S.I. unit of power. The power of an
of the appliance. appliance is 1 watt if 1 ampere of current flows through
• Electric Power: The rate at which electric energy is it on applying a potential difference of 1 volt across its
consumed or dissipated in an electric circuit/device. ends.
 [Board 2024, 2023, 2022] 1 joule
P = VI 1 watt =
1 second
V2
P = I2R = = 1 volt × 1 ampere
R
or 1 W = 1 Js–1
MNEMONICS 1 kilowatt = 1000 W
Concept 3: Electric Power • Power rating: The power rating of an appliance is the
Mnemonics: 2 IRon men have Super Power. electric energy consumed per second by the appliance
Interpretations: when connected across the marked voltage of the
2 represents square of I. IRon - I and R mains.

Chapter-12
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

1
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
Concept covered: l Magnetic field l Field lines l Field due to a current carrying conductor l Field due to current carrying coil
or solenoid l Force on current carrying conductor l Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

H.C. Oersted, a Danish physicist was the first to notice magnetic field at a point, which is not possible.
the magnetic effects of electric current. According to him, a  [Board, 2023]

2
needle kept near the wire carrying current, deflects due to the (iv) Direction of field lines inside a magnet/solenoid is
magnetic field produced. Any change in the direction of current from the South to the North pole.
shows variation in the deflection. (v) The relative strength of magnetic field is shown by
• Magnetic field: It is the area around a magnet in which degree of closeness of field lines. Closer the lines, more
its magnetic force can be experienced. will be the strength and farther the lines, less will be the
(i) Its S.I. unit is tesla (T). [Board, 2022] magnetic field strength.

3
(ii) Magnetic field has both magnitude and direction. It • Right hand thumb rule: Imagine you are holding a
is a vector quantity. current carrying straight conductor in your right hand,
e
• Magnetic field lines: The im- Magnetic Field:a Th gnet,
such that the thumb is pointing towards the direction of
aginary lines of magnetic field region around ma current. Then, the fingers wrapped around the conductor
wh ere magnetic forces
around a magnet are called mag- asured gives the direction of magnetic field. [Board, 2024]
are experienced, me
netic field lines. ger
in Tesla, with stron

4
• Parallel straight magnetic field fiel ds ind ica ted by clo ser
lines indicate uniform magnetic field lines.
field.  [Board, 2024]
• Characteristics of field lines
(i) Field lines arise from the North pole and end into
the South pole of the magnet.
(ii) Field lines are closed curves.
(iii) Field lines never intersect each other as for two Fig. 12.1
lines to intersect, there must be two directions of
38 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

• Magnetic field due to current through a straight

conductor

Fig. 12.4
• Magnetic field is additive in nature, i.e., magnetic field
of one loop adds up to magnetic field to another loop.
Fig. 12.2: A pattern of concentric circles indicating the field
lines of a magnetic field around a straight conducting wire. The This is because the current in each circular turn has the
arrows in the circles show the direction of the field lines. same direction. [Board 2024, 2023, 2022]

 It can be represented by • The strength of magnetic field produced by a current

cles: carrying circular coil can be increased by:
concentric circles around the Concentric Cir the
Circles tha t sha re (a) Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
conductor at every point on
sam e centre but have (b) Increasing the current flowing through the coil.
conductor.
different radii. • Magnetic field due to current
 Direction can be given by the many
right hand thumb rule or compass. in a solenoid: Solenoid is a coil of Solenoid: A coil of insu-
circular tur ns of
 Circles are closer near the conductor. many circular turns of insulated apped
copper wire wrapped closely in lated copper wire wr
Factors affecting the magnetic field due to a current- y in the sh ape of a
closel
carrying straight conductor the shape of a cylinder. The end ere ins ula tion
cylinder, wh
of the solenoid having clockwise con-
 Magnetic field ∝ Strength of current [Board, 2024] prevents electrical
current acts as south, while on the tact between wires.
1 other hand, having anti-clockwise
 Magnetic field ∝
Distance from the conductor current acts as north pole. Thus, a solenoid acts as a
• Magnetic field due to a current through a circular loop normal magnet.
 [Board, 2020] Direction of magnetic field
 It can be represented by concentric circles at every point. (i) Outside the solenoid : North to South
(ii) Inside the solenoid : South to North
 Circles become larger and larger as we move away.
• When a material is placed inside a carrying current
 Every point on wire carrying current would give rise to solenoid, it gets magnetised.
magnetic field appearing as straight line at centre of the loop.
• Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic
 The direction of magnetic field inside the loop is same. field: Ampere suggested that when a current I passes
through a conductor of length l placed in a magnetic field
B, then the force experienced is given by F = IBl sin q,
where q is the angle between the length of the conductor
and magnetic field.
Force is maximum when q = 90° and minimum when
q = 0°. [Board, 2023, 2022]

• Fleming’s left hand rule: Stretch the thumb, forefinger

and middle finger of your left hand such that they are
mutually perpendicular. If forefinger points in the
direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the direction
of current, then the thumb points in the direction of force
acting on the conductor and hence, the direction of its
motion.
Fig. 12.3 : Field lines through and around a  [Board 2024, 2023, 2022]
current carrying circular loop

• Factors affecting magnetic field of a circular current

carrying coil/solenoid:
(i) Magnetic field ∝ Current passing through the coil/
solenoid
1
(ii) Magnetic field ∝
Distance from coil/solenoid
(iii) Magnetic field ∝ No. of turns in the coil/solenoid
 [Board, 2023]
 Revision Notes | 39

1
Fig. 12.5 : Fleming’s left hand rule

2
AC, DC and Domestic Electric Circuits
Concepts covered: l Direct current l Alternating current l Frequency of AC l Advantage of AC over DC l Domestic
electric circuits.

• Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC) leakage of current especially in metallic body
 appliances. It provides a low resistance path for current

3
[Board, 2020]
(i) Alternate current (AC): The current which reverses in case of leakage of current.
Leakage of Current:
its direction periodically is called alternate current. In • Faults and safety measures in The unintended flow
of
India, most of the power stations generate alternate domestic electric circuit. [Board, 2024] ic cur ren t fro m a
electr
h
current. The direction of current changes after every (i) Short circuiting: It is caused circuit, often throug
1/50 second in India. by touching of live wire and insulation or faulty
Frequency= 1/ Time period = 50 Hz neutral wire either directly or via connections, posing

4
conducting wire. safety risks.
(ii) Direct current (DC): The current which does not
reverse its direction and flows in one direction is called (ii) Overloading of an electric
direct current. Sources of DC are solar cell, battery and circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any circuit
storage cells. due to flow of a large current beyond the specified limit
through it is called overloading of the electrical circuit.
• Advantages of AC over DC: [Board, 2023]
1. AC is easy to generate than DC. • Safety measures are:
(i) Electric fuse: It is a protective device which is used
2. AC generation is cheaper than DC generation.
for protecting the circuit from short-circuiting and
3. The loss of energy during transmission is negligible overloading. [Board, 2022]
for AC compared to DC. It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting
4. AC to DC conversion is very easy. point and high resistance. Fuse is always connected in
series to live wire and works on the principal of heating
5. AC amplitude can be easily stepped up or stepped effect. [Board, 2023]
down.
(ii) Earth wire: The metallic body of electric appliances
• Domestic electric circuits: We receive electric supply is connected to the Earth by means of earth wire so
through mains supported through the poles. In our that any leakage of electric current is transferred to the
houses, we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a ground. This prevents any electric shock to the user.
frequency of 50 Hz.
MNEMONICS
• An electric circuit consists of three main wiring
components: Concept: Electrical wiring
(i) Live wire with red or brown insulation cover. Mnemonics: Rare Lawn Beautiful Nature Green Earth
Interpretations:
(ii) Neutral wire with black or blue insulation cover.
Red: Live; Black: Neutral; Green: Earth
(iii) Earth wire with green or yellow-green insulation
cover. It protects us from electric shock in case of
40 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

UNIT-V : NATURAL RESOURCES

Chapter-13
Our Environment

1
Ecosystem and Food Chain
Concept covered: l Ecosystem and its components l Food chain, food web and trophic levels l Energy flow l 10 per cent law l Biological
magnification.

• Everything that surrounds us is environment. It

Endoparasites are

2
includes both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
Etoparasites are parasites that live in-
components.
parasites that live on side the body of their
the surface of their host, such as tape-
MNEMONICS host, such as ticks, worms, roundworms
Concept: Major components of environment lice, and fleas. and protozoa.
Mnemonics: WASAP

3
Interpretations: • Decomposers are microorganisms (bacteria and fungi)
W: Water, A: Air, S: Soil, A: Animals, P: Plants that obtain energy from the chemical breakdown of
dead remains of animals and plants and waste products
• Interaction between these biotic and abiotic components of organisms. Decomposers break down the complex
forms an ecosystem. organic substances into simple inorganic
Food chains,
substances that go into the soil and are
• Ecosystem: All the interacting organisms in an area, Trophic levels with

4
used up again by the plants. They help Energy Flow
together with the non-living constituents of the environment, recycle nutrients, replenishing of natural
form an ecosystem. For example, forest, pond, etc. resources.
• Types of Ecosystem: It is of two types: • Food chain is the sequence of
(a) Natural Ecosystem: The ecosystem which exists in organisms through which food energy
nature on its own. For example, forest, lake, ocean, etc. flows in an ecosystem. It is a succession Scan Me!
(b) Artificial Ecosystem: Man-made ecosystem is of organisms that eat other organisms
called artificial ecosystem, e.g., crop field, aquarium, and may, in turn, be eaten themselves.  [Board, 2022]
garden, etc. Example:
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog
• Biotic components include producers, consumers and (Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore)
decomposers. Decomposer ← Eagle → Snake
( fungi and Bacteria) (Top Carnivore) (Carnivore)
• The first link in a food chain is always a producer
(green plants) as they have the ability to trap solar energy
with the help of chlorophyll. The last link is always a
decomposer.
• Trophic Levels are the various steps or levels in the
food chain where transfer of food or energy takes place.
Producers are the first trophic level, herbivores are the
second trophic level, carnivores or secondary consumers
• Producers include green plants and certain are the third trophic level and large carnivores or tertiary
photosynthetic bacteria. They contain chlorophyll consumers are the fourth trophic level.
pigment which helps them to carry out the process of • Food Web is the network of various food chains which
photosynthesis in the presence of light. are interconnected at various trophic levels. Since an
organism can occupy more than one position in different
• Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and parasites are the
food chains in a food web it occupies more than one
various types of consumers.
trophic level. It represents the feeding relationship
• Consumers are those organisms which depend upon within the community.
the food produced, either directly from producers or • The green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem capture
indirectly by feeding on other consumers. They are also about 1% of the energy of sunlight that falls on their
called heterotrophs. leaves and convert it into food energy. A terrestrial
• Parasites are those organisms that live outside ecosystem is a land-based ecosystem, such as forests,
(ectoparasites) or inside (endoparasites) the body of grasslands, deserts, or tundras, where organisms interact
another organisms, i.e., host. For example, parasites of with each other and their environment.
human include fleas and lice. • When green plants are eaten by primary consumers, a
great deal of energy is lost as heat to the environment,
 Revision Notes | 41

some amount goes into digestion and in doing work, herbivores does not come back to autotrophs.
and the rest goes towards growth and reproduction. An  At every step in a food chain the energy
average of 10% of the food eaten is turned into its own received by the organism is also used for its Biological
body and made available for the next level of consumers. own metabolism and maintenance. The left magnification

• Therefore, 10% can be taken as the average value for over is passed to next higher trophic level.
the amount of organic matter that is present at each step Thus, energy flow decreases with successive
and reaches the next level of consumers. trophic levels.
 The number of trophic levels in a food chain
• 10 Per cent Law: It states that only 10% of total food
energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next is restricted by 10% flow of energy. Very less Scan Me!

level. The remaining 90% energy is used in life processes amount of energy is available to the last trophic
(digestion, growth, reproduction, etc.) by the present level.
trophic level. • Biological Magnification: The concentration of harmful
chemicals such as pesticides and unused chemical fertilis-
• Due to this gradual decrease in energy, food chains ers goes on increasing with every next trophic level in a
contain 3–4 trophic levels. food chain. This is called as biologi-
cal magnification. [Board, 2025, 2024] Pesticides are ch
emical
• The entire process of energy flow can be summarised es us ed to
in the following four steps: [Board, 2022] • The maximum concentration subs ta nc
of such chemicals is found to kill or control pests,
 The flow of energy in an ecosystem is always linear or
accumulate in human body as such as insects, weeds,
unidirectional. The energy captured by the producers does not human occupies the top level in any fungi, or rodents, to
revert to the solar input. Also, the energy which passes to the food chain. protect crops and
public health.
Example 1
Suppose 100,000 J of solar energy falls on green plants. Only about 1% of this energy (i.e., 1,000 J) is captured by green
plants through photosynthesis; the rest (99,000 J) is lost (reflected, absorbed by non-photosynthetic surfaces, or as
heat).
Of the 1,000 J stored by plants, only 10% (i.e., 100 J) is transferred to herbivores when they consume the plants. The
remaining 90% is used by plants for life processes or lost as heat. Similarly, only 10% of the 100 J (i.e., 10 J) is passed
on to carnivores when they eat herbivores, with the rest lost.

2 Affect of Human Activities on Environment

Concept covered: l Methods of waste disposal l Environmental Problems caused by humans l Ozone depletion

• Environmental problems caused by humans are: wastes, pesticides, etc. [Board 2024]
(i) Pollution due to mismanagement of waste disposal.

3
• Methods of Waste Disposal:
(ii) Depletion of the ozone layer due to the over-release (a) Biogas Plant: Biodegradable wastes can be
of ozone-depleting substances (e.g., CFCs). processed in biogas plant to produce biogas and
• Waste Materials: These are unwanted or unusable manure.
materials which are discarded after primary use, or are
worthless, defective and of no use. (b) Sewage Treatment Plant: The drain water can
be cleaned in sewage treatment plant before adding
• Garbage contains following type of materials:

4
(a) Biodegradable Wastes: Substances that can be it to rivers to avoid pollution and eliminate harmful
decomposed by the action of microorganisms are called substances.
biodegradable wastes. For example, fruit and vegetable (c) Land Fillings: The wastes are buried in low lying
peels, cotton, jute, cow-dung, paper, etc. [Board 2017] areas and are compacted by rolling with bulldozers.
(b) Non-biodegradable Wastes: Substances that (d) Composting: Organic wastes are filled in a compost
cannot be decomposed by the action of microorganisms pit and covered with a layer of soil. After about three
are called as non-biodegradable wastes. For example, months, garbage changes to manure.
plastic, polythene, metals, synthetic fibres, radioactive
42 | Oswaal CBSE Question Bank | SCIENCE | Class 10

(e) Reduce: The method for minimizing waste by using layer.

fewer resources and making mindful consumption • The foremost is the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
choices. This can include using less plastic, saving The other factor responsible for ozone destruction is the
electricity, and opting for sustainable products. pollutant nitrogen monoxide (NO).
(f) Recycling: Non-biodegradable Reduce, Reuse • When the harmful chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons
wastes are recycled to make new items. and Recycle
(CFCs) are released into the atmosphere, they accumu-
(g) Reuse: It is a conventional technique late in the stratosphere. These compounds break down
of using an item again, e.g., newspaper ozone molecules, leading to the thinning of the ozone
layer.
for making envelopes.
(h) Biodegradable and non-biodegrad-
• Thus, the ozone layer in the atmosphere becomes thin-
ner and gets depleted allowing more ultraviolet rays
able wastes should be discarded seper- Scan Me! to pass through it. This phenomenon is referred as the
ately in two different dustbins. ozone hole.
• Formation of ozone in the atmosphere: Ozone is • Ozone layer can be protected by:
continuously formed in the stratosphere through the (a) Stopping the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
action of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun on (b) Removing the pollutant nitrogen monoxide.
molecular oxygen. At the same time, it is also degraded (c) Limiting the use of appliances like air conditioners
back into molecular oxygen and atomic oxygen (O) by and refrigerators that use CFCs.
high-energy ultraviolet radiation. • The Montreal Protocol (an international treaty signed
O3 → O2 + [O] + Heat in Canada, in 1987) aims to control the emission of ozone
This oxygen atom then recombine with oxygen (O2) molecule depleting substances.
to form ozone molecule. • Under this treaty, United Nations Environment Pro-
Ozone layer
• Ozone (O3): It is a molecule formed by gramme (UNEP) successfully negotiated an agreement to
three atoms of oxygen. Ozone performs stop CFC production at 1986 levels by all the countries.
an essential function of shielding the • It is now compulsory for all manufacturing companies
surface of the earth from ultraviolet worldwide to produce refrigerators that are free of CFCs.
radiation of the sun.
 [Board, 2024] Scan Me! Key Facts
• Ozone layer is a layer of the earth’s Ozone is present in stratosphere a layer of the
atmosphere in which most of the atmosphere’s ozone is atmosphere located, 20–30 km above the Earth’s
concentrated. surface.
• Ozone Depletion: Ozone depletion is the reduction in The thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica was
concentration of ozone layer. [Board, 2022] first observed in 1985 and was termed as ozone hole.
• There are several reasons for depletion of the ozone
ll