MORDERN HISTORY PART -2

Mahatma Gandhi's Early Movements - Champaran, Ahmedabad & Khera :

M K Gandhi returned from South Africa (where he had lived for more than 20 years) to India in 1915.
There he had led a peaceful agitation against the discrimination meted out to Indians and had
emerged as a respected leader. It was in South Africa that he developed his brand of Satyagraha. In
India, he first used this tool against the British government at Champaran in Bihar.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)  The first civil disobedience movement by Gandhi in the freedom
struggle.  Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo cultivator, Gandhi went to Champaran in Bihar
to investigate the conditions of the farmers there.  The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes
and an exploitative system. They were forced to grow indigo by the British planters under the
tinkathia system.  Gandhi arrived in Champaran to investigate the matter but was not permitted by
the British authorities to do so.  He was asked to leave the place but he refused.  He was able to
gather support from the farmers and masses.  When he appeared in court in response to a
summons, almost 2000 locals accompanied him.  The case against him was dropped and he was
allowed to conduct the inquiry.  After peaceful protests against the planters and landlords led by
Gandhi, the government agreed to abolish the exploitative tinkathia system.  The peasants also
received a part of the money extracted from them as compensation.  Champaran struggle is called
the first experiment on Satyagraha by Gandhi.  It was during this time that Gandhi was given the
names ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatma’ by the people.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)  1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda district of Gujarat due to
droughts.  As per law, the farmers were entitled to remission if the produce was less than a quarter
of the normal output.  But the government refused any remission from paying land revenue. 
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, under Gandhi’s guidance, led the farmers in protest against the collection
of taxes in the wake of the famine.  People from all castes and ethnicities of the district lend their
support to the movement.  The protest was peaceful and people showed remarkable courage even
in the face of adversities like confiscation of personal property and arrest.  Finally, the authorities
gave in and gave some concessions to the farmers.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)  Gandhi used Satyagraha and hunger strike for the first time during
an industrial dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.  The owners
wanted to withdraw the plague bonus to the workers while the workers were demanding a hike of
35% in their wages.  During the peaceful strike led by Gandhi, he underwent a hunger strike.  The
strike was successful and the workers were granted the wage hike they wanted.

In all these movements, Gandhi was able to involve the masses including farmers, artisans and even
the socalled lower castes. This was a change from the previous movements when the participation
was limited to the upper and the middle classes.

Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) :

What is the Rowlatt Act :  Officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919. 
Passed in March 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.  This act authorised the British
government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.  It also authorised the government
to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.  It empowered the police to search
for a place without a warrant.  It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.  The
act was passed as per recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee chaired by a judge, Sir Sidney
Rowlatt, after whom the act is named.  The act was widely condemned by Indian leaders and the
public. The bills came to be known as ‘black bills’.  The act was passed despite unanimous
opposition from the Indian members of the council, all of whom resigned in protest. These included
Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malviya and Mazhar Ul Haq.  In response to this act, a
nationwide hartal was called by Gandhiji on 6 thApril. This was called the Rowlatt Satyagraha.  The
movement was cancelled by Gandhiji when it was marred by rioting in some provinces, particularly
in Punjab where the situation was grim.  The British government’s primary intention was to repress
the growing nationalist movement in the country.  The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite
revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.  Two popular Congress leaders Satya Pal and
Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested.  The protest was very intense when the act came into effect and
the army was called in Punjab to tackle the situation.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre :  The situation in Punjab was alarming as there were riots and protests
against the Rowlatt Act.  Punjab was put under martial law which meant that it became unlawful for
more than 4 people to assemble at a place.  The Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab at that time was
Michael O’Dwyer. Lord Chelmsford was India’s Viceroy.  On the day of the festival of Baisakhi on
13th April 1919 in Jallianwala Bagh, a public garden in Amritsar, a crowd of non-violent protestors
had gathered. Also among the crowd were pilgrims who had come to celebrate Baisakhi.  General
Dyer came there with his troops and blocked the only narrow entrance to the garden.  Then,
without warning, he ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as
well.  The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes until the 1650 rounds of ammunition
were exhausted. This resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500
people.  This tragedy came as a rude shock to Indians and totally destroyed their faith in the British
system of justice.  National leaders condemned the act and Dyer unequivocally.  However, Dyer
was appreciated by many in Britain and the British in India although some people in the British
government were quick to criticise it. Those who criticised his actions included Winston Churchill and
former Prime Minister H.H Ashquith  The government set up the Hunter Commission to inquire into
the massacre. Although the commission condemned the act by Dyer, it did not impose any
disciplinary action against him.  He was relieved of his duties in the army in 1920.  In protest
against the massacre and the British failure to give due justice to the victims, Rabindranath Tagore
gave up his knighthood and Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the
British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.  Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-
Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Brigadier-General Dyer, was assassinated by
Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre. Udham Singh is believed to have
witnessed the massacre as a child.

The Lucknow Pact, 1916 : The Lucknow Pact is an agreement between the Indian National Congress
(INC) and the All India Muslim League reached at a joint session of both the parties held at Lucknow
in 1916. The pact was important in that it enhanced the League’s power in Indian politics and
established communalism as an unavoidable part of Indian politics despite the apparent bonhomie
between the two communities at the session.

 When the Muslim League was formed in 1906, it was a relatively moderate organisation with a
proBritish stance.  After the First World War, the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford had solicited reform
suggestions from Indians in return for the Indian support to the British war effort.  The Muslim
League led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah wanted to use this opportunity to press for constitutional
reforms through a joint Hindu-Muslim platform.  Jinnah was then a member of both the parties and
he was largely responsible for the Pact.  In December 1915, the extremists led by Bal Gangadhar
Tilak and the moderates led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale met the leaders of the League at Bombay. 
This was the first time that leaders of both the INC and the Muslim League were meeting for a joint
session.  At the meeting, the leaders consulted with each other and drafted a set of demands for
constitutional reforms.  In October 1916, 19 elected Indian members of the Imperial Legislative
Council addressed a memorandum to the Viceroy seeking reforms.  In November 1916, leaders
from both the parties met again in Calcutta and discussed and amended the suggestions.  Finally, at
their respective annual sessions held at Lucknow in December 1916, the INC and the League
confirmed the agreement. This came to be known as the Lucknow Pact.  For his efforts, Sarojini
Naidu gave Jinnah the title ‘the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity.

Reforms suggested in the Lucknow Pact :  Self-government in India.  Abolition of the Indian
Council.  Separation of the executive from the judiciary.  Salaries of the Secretary of State for
Indian Affairs to be paid from British coffers and not the Indian funds.  1/3 rd representation to be
given to Muslims in the Central Government.  The number of Muslims in the provincial legislatures
to be laid down for each province.  Separate electorates for all communities until a joint electorate
is demanded by all.  Introduction of a system of weightage for minority representation (it implied
giving minorities more representation than their share in the population).  Increasing the term of
the Legislative Council to 5 years.  Half the members of the Imperial Legislative Council to be
Indians.  All elected members to be elected directly on the basis of adult franchise. 4/5 th of the
members of the provincial legislatures to be elected and 1/5 th to be nominated.  Members of the
Legislative Council to elect their President themselves.

Results of Lucknow Pact  The Lucknow Pact gave the impression of a Hindu-Muslim unity in the
national political scene. But it was only an impression and short-lived.  The agreement between the
parties on a separate communal electorate formally established communal politics in India. 
Through this pact, the INC also tacitly accepted that India consisted of two different communities
with different interests.  This pact pushed the hitherto less relevant Muslim League into the
forefront of Indian politics along with the Congress Party.

Non-Cooperation Movement : The non-cooperation movement was launched on 1 st August 1920 by

the Indian National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It signified a new
chapter in the history of Indian freedom struggle.

Non-Cooperation Movement and Mahatma Gandhi : Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind
the non-cooperation movement. In March 1920, he issued a manifesto declaring a doctrine of the
non-violent non-cooperation movement. Gandhi, through this manifesto, wanted people to: 1.
Adopt swadeshi principles 2. Adopt swadeshi habits including hand spinning & weaving 3. Work for
the eradication of untouchability from society Gandhi travelled across the nation in 1921 explaining
the tenets of the movement.

Features of the Non-Cooperation Movement :  The movement was essentially a peaceful and non-
violent protest against the British government in India.  Indians were asked to relinquish their titles
and resign from nominated seats in the local bodies as a mark of protest.  People were asked to
resign from their government jobs.  People were asked to withdraw their children from
government-controlled or aided schools and colleges.  People were asked to boycott foreign goods
and use only Indian-made goods.  People were asked to boycott the elections to the legislative
councils.  People were asked not to serve in the British army.  It was also planned that if the above
steps did not bring results, people would refuse to pay their taxes.  The INC also demanded
Swarajya or self-government.  Only completely non-violent means would be employed to get the
demands fulfilled.  The non-cooperation movement was a decisive step in the independence
movement because, for the first time, the INC was ready to forego constitutional means to achieve
self-rule.  Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this movement was
continued to completion.

Causes of Non-Cooperation Movement :

 Resentment at the British after the war: Indians thought that in return for the extensive support of
manpower and resources they had provided to Britain during the First World War, they would be
rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But the Government of India Act 1919 was
dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also passed repressive acts like the Rowlatt Act which further
angered many Indians who felt betrayed by the rulers despite their wartime support.  Home Rule
Movement: The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak set the
stage for the non-cooperation movement. The extremists and the moderates of the INC were united
and the Lucknow Pact also saw solidarity between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. The
return of the extremists gave the INC a militant character.  Economic hardships due to World War I:
India’s indirect participation in the war caused a lot of economic hardships to the people. Prices of
goods began to soar which affected the common man. Peasants also suffered because the prices of
agricultural products did not increase. All this led to resentment against the government.  The
Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre: The repressive Rowlatt Act and the brutal massacre
at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound effect on the Indian leaders and the people. Their faith
in the British system of justice was broken and the whole country rallied behind its leaders who were
pitching for a more aggressive and firm stance against the government.  The Khilafat Movement:
During the First World War, Turkey, which was a German ally, had fought against the British. After
Turkey’s defeat, the Ottoman caliphate was proposed to be dissolved. The Khilafat movement was
launched by Muslims in India to persuade the British government not to abolish the caliphate. The
leaders of this movement accepted the non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji and led a joint
protest against the British.

Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement suspended? :

 Gandhiji called off the movement in February 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident.  In
Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station killing 22 policemen during a
clash between the police and protesters of the movement.  Gandhiji called off the movement
saying people were not ready for revolt against the government through ahimsa. A lot of leaders like
Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of the movement only due to sporadic
incidents of violence.

Significance of Non-Cooperation Movement :  Swaraj was not achieved in one year as Gandhiji had
told.  However, it was a truly mass movement where lakhs of Indians participated in the open
protest against the government through peaceful means.  It shook the British government who
were stumped by the extent of the movement.  It saw participation from both Hindus and Muslims
thereby showcasing communal harmony in the country.  This movement established the popularity
of the Congress Party among the people.  As a result of this movement, people became conscious
of their political rights. They were not afraid of the government.  Hordes of people thronged to jails
willingly.  The Indian merchants and mill owners enjoyed good profits during this period as a result
of the boycott of British goods. Khadi was promoted.  The import of sugar from Britain reduced
considerably during this period.  This movement also established Gandhiji as a leader of the masses.

Jawaharlal Nehru :  Encouraged the formation of Kisan Sabhas  Was against Gandhi’s decision to
withdraw the movement. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel  Spread the movement in Gujarat. , Ali brothers
(Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali)  At the All India Khilafat Conference, Muhammed Ali declared that
‘it was religiously unlawful for the Muslims to continue in the British Army’.

Home Rule Movement : Between the years 1916 and 1918, the Indian independence movement
witnessed the growth and spread of the home rule movement spearheaded by leaders like Bal
Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant. The aim of the home rule movement was the attainment of
home rule or a dominion status for India under the British Empire along the lines of countries like
Canada and Australia. This movement was carried out through the two home rule leagues.

 In the Congress session of December 1915, it was decided to let the extremists re-join the party
largely due to Annie Besant’s persuasion. Besant had also recognized the need for Congress approval
and the active participation of the extremists in the national struggle.  There were two home rule
leagues launched.  Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.  Annie
Besant launched the Home Rule League in September 1916 at Madras.  They had the common
objective of achieving self-government in India.  There was an informal understanding between
both the leagues wherein Tilak’s league worked in Maharashtra (except Bombay), Karnataka, Berar
and the Central Provinces. Besant’s league worked in the rest of the country.

Objectives  To achieve self-government in India.  To promote political education and discussion to

set up agitation for self-government.  To build confidence among Indians to speak against the
government’s suppression.  To demand a larger political representation for Indians from the British
government.  To revive political activity in India while maintaining the principles of the Congress
Party. Activities  The leagues organised demonstrations and agitations.  There were public
meetings in which the leaders gave fiery speeches.  They were able to create a stir within the
country and alarm the British to such an extent that Annie Besant was arrested in June 1917.  This
move by the British created a nation-wide protest and now even moderate leaders joined the
league. Besant was released in September 1917.

gnificance  The Home Rule League functioned throughout the year as opposed to the Congress
Party whose activities were confined to once a year.  The movement was able to garner huge
support from a lot of educated Indians. In 1917, the two leagues combined had around 40,000
members.  Many members of the Congress and the Muslim League joined the league. Many
prominent leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Joseph Baptista, G S Kharpade and Sir S Subramanya
Iyer were among its members.  The moderates, extremists and the Muslim League were briefly
united through this movement. gnificance  The Home Rule League functioned throughout the year
as opposed to the Congress Party whose activities were confined to once a year.  The movement
was able to garner huge support from a lot of educated Indians. In 1917, the two leagues combined
had around 40,000 members.  Many members of the Congress and the Muslim League joined the
league. Many prominent leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Joseph Baptista, G S Kharpade and Sir S
Subramanya Iyer were among its members.  The moderates, extremists and the Muslim League
were briefly united through this movement.  The movement was able to spread political
consciousness to more regions in the country.  This movement led to the Montague Declaration of
1917 in which it was declared that there would be more Indians in the government leading to the
development of self-governing institutions ultimately realizing responsible governments in India.
This Declaration (also known as August Declaration) implied that the demand for home rule would
no longer be considered seditious. This was the biggest significance of the movement.

Failure and Decline  The movement was not a mass movement. It was restricted to educated
people and college students.  The leagues did not find a lot of support among Muslims, Anglo-
Indians and non-Brahmins from Southern India as they thought home rule would mean a rule of the
upper caste Hindu majority.  Many of the moderates were satisfied with the government’s
assurance of reforms (as preluded in the Montague Declaration). They did not take the movement
further.  Annie Besant kept oscillating between being satisfied with the government talk of reforms
and pushing the home rule movement forward. She was not able to provide firm leadership to her
followers. (Although ultimately she did call the reforms ‘unworthy of Indian acceptance’).  In
September 1918, Tilak went to England to pursue a libel case against Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol,
British journalist and author of the book ‘Indian Unrest’. The book contained deprecatory comments
and had called Tilak the ‘Father of Indian Unrest.’ (Tilak lost the case).  Tilak’s absence and Besant’s
inability to lead the people led to the movement’s fizzing out.  After the war, Mahatma Gandhi
gained prominence as a leader of the masses and the Home Rule Leagues merged with the Congress
Party in 1920.

Salt Satyagraha : The Salt Satyagraha was a mass civil disobedience movement initiated by Mahatma
Gandhi against the salt tax imposed by the British government in India. He led a large group of
people from Sabarmati Ashram on 12 th March 1930 till Dandi, a coastal village in Gujarat, to break
the salt law by producing salt from seawater.

 By 1930, the Congress Party had declared that Poorna Swarajya or complete independence was to
be the sole aim of the freedom struggle.  It started observing 26 January as Poorna Swarajya Day,
and it was decided that civil disobedience was to be the means employed to achieve it.  Mahatma
Gandhi was asked to plan and organise the first such act. Gandhiji chose to break the salt tax in
defiance of the government.  The then Viceroy, Lord Irwin was hardly perturbed by the threat of a
salt protest and the government did nothing to prevent the salt march from taking place.  But
Gandhiji’s choice of using salt was nothing short of brilliant because it touched a chord with every
Indian.  Indians had been making salt from seawater free of cost until the passing of the 1882 Salt
Act that gave the British monopoly over the production of salt and authority to impose a salt tax. It
was a criminal offense to violate the salt act.  Gandhiji also hoped to unite Hindus and  The salt tax
accounted for 8.2% of the British Raj revenue from tax and Gandhiji knew that the government could
not ignore this.

The course of the Salt Satyagraha  Gandhiji informed Lord Irwin of his plan on 2 nd March 1930. 
He would lead a group of people from his Ashram at Sabarmati on 12 th March 1930 and walk
through the villages of Gujarat.  On reaching the coastal village of Dandi, he would make salt from
seawater thereby breaking the salt act. Gandhiji started the march as planned with 80 of his
followers. They were given strict instructions not to resort to any kind of violence.  Sarojini Naidu
joined him on the way. Every day more and more people joined him and on 5 th April 1930, they
reached Dandi.  On the morning of 6 th April 1930, Gandhiji broke the salt law by making salt.
Thousands of people followed suit.

Effects of Salt Sathyagraha :  There was widespread civil disobedience carried on by the people.
Apart from the salt tax, other unpopular tax laws were being defied like the forest laws, chowkidar
tax, land tax, etc.  In Peshawar, the Satyagraha was organised and led by Gandhiji’s disciple, Ghaffar
Khan. In April 1930 he was arrested. Khan’s followers (called Khudai Khidmatgars) whom he had
trained in Satyagraha had gathered in a marketplace called the Qissa Khwani Bazaar. There they
were fired at by the British Indian Army despite being unarmed.  On May 21, 1930, there was a
protest against the Dharasana Salt Works by peaceful non-violent protestors led by Sarojini Naidu.
The police lathi-charged the protestors brutally and it resulted in the deaths of 2 people with several
others being injured. This event was reported in the international media and there was a
condemnation of British policies followed in India  It showed the power of the non-violent
Satyagraha as a tool in fighting imperialism  Gandhiji was released from prison in 1931 and he met
with Lord Irwin who was keen to put an end to the civil disobedience movement and the media
attention it had caught.  As per the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the civil disobedience movement would be
ended and Indians, in return, would be allowed to make salt for domestic use. Lord Irwin also agreed
to release the arrested Indians. Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table Conference in London as
an ‘equal’.

Simon Commission :  Diarchy was introduced in India by the Government of India Act 1919. The Act
also promised that a commission would be appointed after 10 years to review the working and
progress made on the measures taken through the Act.  The Indian people and leaders wanted a
reform of the diarchy form of government.  The Conservative Party-led government in the UK
feared a defeat at the hands of the Labour Party in the elections due, and so hastened the
appointment of a commission in 1928 even though it was due only in 1929 as per the 1919 Act.  The
Commission was composed entirely of British members with not a single Indian member being
included in it. This was seen as an insult to Indians who were right in saying that their destiny could
not be determined by a handful of British people.  The Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead
had berated Indians on account of their perceived inability to formulate a concrete scheme of
reforms through consensus among all sections of the Indian political scene.  Lord Birkenhead was
responsible for setting up the Commission.

Why was Simon Commission boycotted? :  The Congress Party decided to boycott the Commission
at their session at Madras in 1927.  The Muslim League led by M A Jinnah also boycotted it. A
certain section of members led by Muhammad Shafi supported the government.  When the
Commission landed in February 1928, there were mass protests, hartals and black flag
demonstrations all over the country.  People were chanting the slogan, ‘Simon Go Back.’  The
police resorted to lathi charges to suppress the movement. Even senior leaders like Pandit Nehru
were not spared.  In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai, who was leading the demonstration against the Simon
Commission, was brutally lathi-charged. He died later that year due to injuries sustained then.  Dr. B
R Ambedkar had submitted a report on behalf of the Bahishkrita Hitakarini Sabha on the education
of the depressed classes in the Bombay Presidency.

Impact of the Simon Commission : Impact of the Simon Commission  The Commission’s report was
published in 1930. Before the publication, the government assured that henceforth, Indian opinion
would be considered and that the natural outcome of constitutional reforms would be dominion
status for India.  It recommended the abolition of diarchy and the setting-up of representative
governments in the provinces.  It also recommended the retention of separate communal
electorates until the communal tensions had died down.  The Simon Commission led to the
Government of India Act 1935 which acted as the basis for many parts of the current Indian
Constitution.  The first provincial elections were held in 1937 and it saw Congress governments
being set up in almost all the provinces.  The arrival of the Commission gave an impetus to the
Indian independence movement by galvanizing leaders and masses.

Swaraj Party : The Swaraj Party or the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party was formed on 1 January
1923 by C R Das and Motilal Nehru. The formation of the Swaraj Party came after various significant
events like the withdrawal of non-cooperation movement, the government of India act 1919 and
1923 elections.  After the Chauri Chaura incident, Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation
Movement in 1922.  This was met with a lot of disagreements among leaders of the Congress Party.
 While some wanted to continue non-cooperation, others wanted to end the legislature boycott
and contest elections. The former were called no-changers and such leaders included Rajendra
Prasad, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, C Rajagopalachari, etc.  The others who wanted to enter the
legislative council and obstruct the British government from within were called the pro-changers.
These leaders included C R Das, Motilal Nehru, Srinivasa Iyengar, etc.  In 1922, in the Gaya session
of the Congress, C R Das (who was presiding over the session) moved a proposal to enter the
legislatures but it was defeated. Das and other leaders broke away from the Congress and formed
the Swaraj Party.

Significance of Swaraj Party :  Gandhiji and both the pro-changers and the no-changers realised the
importance of putting up a united front in order to get reforms from the government.  So, it was
decided that the Swarajists would contest elections as a separate ‘group’ within the Congress Party.
 The Swaraj Party won 42 out of 104 seats to the Central Legislature in 1923.  The party’s
programme was to obstruct the government. They wanted to create deadlocks on every measure. 
They boycotted all official functions and receptions held by the government.  They voiced their
grievances and aspirations in the Legislative Assembly.

Swaraj Party and its Achievements :  Swarajist Vithalbhai Patel became speaker of the Central
Legislative Assembly in 1925.  They outvoted the government many times even in matters related
to budgetary grants.  They were able to defeat the Public Safety Bill in 1928.  They exposed the
weaknesses of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.  They gave fiery speeches in the Assembly on self-
rule and civil liberties.

Bardoli Satyagraha : The Bardoli Satyagraha, 1928 was a movement in the independence struggle led
by Sardar Vallabhai Patel for the farmers of Bardoli against the unjust raising of taxes.

 The Bardoli Taluk in modern-day Gujarat was hit by floods and famines in 1925, which adversely
affected crop yield. This affected the farmers financially.  Ignoring the plight of the farmers, the
Bombay Presidency increased the tax rates by 22%.  Despite petitions and appeals from civic groups
and farmers to review this unjust hike in tax rates in lieu of the grave situation, the government
decided to go ahead with tax collection.  In 1927, the local Congress Party published a report to
show that the farmers could not carry the burden of the enhanced assessment. But the authorities
did not budge.  In January 1928, farmers in Bardoli invited Vallabhai Patel to launch the protest
movement wherein all of them resolved not to pay taxes.  They also assured Gandhiji of their
commitment to non-violence.  Patel agreed to take on the leadership role only after getting
assurances from the farmers of their resolve to the movement. He informed them of the possible
consequences of their move such as confiscation of land and property and imprisonment.  Patel got
in touch with the government and apprised it of the situation. He got the reply that the government
was unwilling to make any concessions.  Gandhiji also lend support to the movement through his
writings in ‘Young India’ magazine

The Movement :  Patel was an exemplary commander of his non-violent ‘army’ in Bardoli.  He
divided the taluk into camps and organised hundreds of men and women under the camps.  The
volunteers came from Hindu, Muslim and Parsi communities also.  From the camps, volunteers
issued news bulletins, campaigns and also made speeches educating the masses about the need to
be disciplined and prepared for austerity.  Door-to-door campaigning was also done.  A large
number of women took active part in the movement. It was these women who gave Patel the
moniker ‘Sardar’.  Peasants were asked to take oaths in the name of god that they would not pay
the taxes.  Those who paid taxes or were supportive of the British were socially boycotted.  They
also worked for the betterment of the Kaliparaj caste (farmers who worked as landless labourers). 
They refused non-essential goods to government offices in the area.  They resisted eviction and
confiscation (jabti) in unique ways. They had informers in the government offices who would give
prior information as to if and when a jabti notice was going to be carried out. The whole village
would then move to another place and the officers would be faced with an empty village when they
arrived to confiscate the property.  K M Munshi and Lalji Naranji resigned from the Bombay
Legislative Council.

Effects  Fearing things could go out of hand, the government set up the Maxwell-Broomfield
commission to look into the matter.  The revenue was reduced to 6.03%.  The peasants were
returned their confiscated land.  Patel emerged as a national leader after the success of the Bardoli
Satyagraha. He showed his remarkable organising skills

Criticism  The movement was focused on the conditions of the rich and middle-class farmers and
largely neglected the poor farmers.  It did not raise the problem of Hali Pratha (a kind of bonded
labour system).  It is said that the movement was an experiment on Satyagraha as a method of
freedom struggle. The basic problems of the peasants were not addressed.

Vaikom Satyagraha : Vaikom Satyagraha was a movement in Travancore (modern-day Kerala) for
temple entry of the depressed classes. It took place near the Shiva Temple at Vaikom, Kottayam
district, Kerala during 1924-25. Vaikom was at that time a part of the princely state of Travancore.

 In the Kakinada meet of the Congress Party in 1923, T K Madhavan presented a report citing the
discrimination that the depressed castes’ people were facing in Kerala. It was after this session that
movements against untouchabiity need to be promoted.In Kerala, a committee was formed
comprising people of different castes to fight untouchability.  In February 1924, they decided to
launch a ‘Keralaparyatanam’ in order to get temple entry and also the right to use public roads for
every Hindu irrespective of caste or creed.

 The movement began on 30th March 1924.  At the Vaikom Mahadeva Temple,there was a board
which denied the entry of lower caste people( avarnas).  The Satyagrahis made batches of three
and entered the temple. They were resisted and arrested by the police.  Gandhiji, Chatampi
Swamikal and Sree Narayana Guru supported the movement. On 1st October 1924, a group of
savarnas (forward castes) marched in a procession and submitted a petition to the Regent Maharani
Sethu Lakshmi Bai of Travancore with approximately 25000 signatures for allowing entry to the
temple for everyone.

Effects & Significance  On 23rd November 1925, all the gates of the temple were opened to Hindus
except the eastern gate .In 1928, backward castes got the right to walk on public roads leading to all
temples in Travancore.  This was the first time that an organized movement was being conducted
on such a massive scale for the basic rights of the untouchables and other backward castes in Kerala.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact :  The Second Round Table Conference was to be held in 1931 in London.  In
1930, the Salt Satyagraha was conducted and India and Gandhi received worldwide attention. The
British government in India was criticised for its unjust treatment of Indians.  Gandhi and many
other leaders were imprisoned along with thousands of Indians.  Lord Irwin wanted the issue to
come to an end.  So, Gandhi was released from prison in January 1931.  The then Congress
President Sardar Vallabhai Patel authorised Gandhi to hold talks with Lord Irwin.  Accordingly,
Gandhi met Irwin and held negotiations. It was for the first time that the two were meeting as
‘equals’.

Features of Gandhi-Irwin Pact  The Indian National Congress (INC) agreed to take part in the Round
Table Conference.  The INC would stop the civil disobedience movement.  Withdrawal of all
ordinances that curbed the activities of the Congress.  Withdrawal of all prosecutions except those
involving violent crimes.  Release of those who were arrested for taking part in the civil
disobedience movement.  Removal of the salt tax.

Result of Gandhi Irwin Pact  The INC participated in the Second Round Table Conference which was
held in 1931 during September – December.  The government agreed to withdraw all ordinances. 
It agreed to release all political prisoners to save those involved in violence.  It agreed to allow
peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.  It agreed to revoke the ban on the INC.  It
agreed to restore the confiscated properties of the Satyagrahis.  It agreed to permit the collection
of salt by people near the sea coasts.  It agreed to forego fines not yet collected.  It agreed to the
lenient treatment of all government servants who had resigned from service in the wake of the civil
disobedience movement. Gandhi – Irwin Pact – Demands of Gandhi not agreed to by Irwin:  A
public inquiry into police excesses during its suppression of the movement.  Commuting the death
sentences of Bhagat Singh and his associates to life sentences.

First Round Table Conference 1930 : The Round Table Conferences were a series of three
conferences conducted by the Labour Party-led British government to deliberate upon and bring
about constitutional reforms in British India during 1930 – 32. There were three such conferences.
The First Round Table Conference was held between November 1930 and January 1931 at London.

 There were increasing demands of granting dominion status to India among a certain section of the
British polity.  In India, the freedom movement was in full swing with its demand for swaraj or self-
rule spearheaded by the charismatic Gandhi.  The conferences were based on the recommendation
of Muhammad Ali Jinnah to Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India and James Ramsay MacDonald, the
then British Prime Minister, and the Simon Commission report.  It was for the first time that the
Indians and the British were meeting as ‘equals’. The first conference started on November 12th,
1930.

 The Indian National Congress decided not to participate in the conference. Many of the INC leaders
were imprisoned due to their involvement in the civil disobedience movement.

Issues discussed in the First Round Table Conference  Federal structure  Provincial constitution 
Provinces of Sindh and NWFP  Minorities  Defence services  Franchise  Executive responsibility to
the legislature  Dr B R Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the ‘untouchables’.  Tej
Bahadur Sapru moved the idea of an All-India Federation. This was supported by the Muslim League.
The princely states also supported this on the condition that their internal sovereignty is maintained.

: Second and Third Round Table Conferences :

Second Round Table Conference (September 1931- December 1931) The Second Round Table
Conference was held in London from 7 September 1931 to 1 December 1931 with the participation
of Gandhi and the Indian National Congress.

Outcome – Second Round Table Conference : The session started on 7 September 1931. The major
difference between the first and the second conference was that the INC was participating in the
second one. This was one of the results of the GandhiIrwin Pact. Another difference was that unlike
the previous time, British PM Macdonald was heading not a Labour government, but a National
government. The Labour Party had been toppled two weeks before in Britain. The British decided to
grant a communal award for representing minorities in India by providing for separate electorates
for minority communities. Gandhi was against this. In this conference, Gandhi and Ambedkar
differed on the issue of separate electorates for the untouchables. Gandhi was against treating
untouchables as separate from the Hindu community. This issue was resolved through the Poona
Pact 1932. The second round table conference was deemed a failure because of the many
disagreements among the participants. While the INC claimed to speak for the whole of the country,
other participants and leaders of other parties contested this claim.

The third Round Table Conference took place between 17 November 1932 and 24 December 1932.

Outcome : Not much was achieved in this conference also.The recommendations of this conference
were published in a White Paper in 1933 and later discussed in the British Parliament. The
recommendations were analysed and the Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on its basis.

: Government of India Act 1935 : 1. There was a growing demand for constitutional reforms in India
by Indian leaders. 2. India’s support to Britain in the First World War also aided in British
acknowledgement of the need for the inclusion of more Indians in the administration of their own
country. 3. The Act was based on:  Simon Commission Report  The recommendations of the Round
Table Conferences  The White Paper published by the British government in 1933 (based on the
Third Round Table Conference)  Report of the Joint Select Committees

Creation of an All India Federation 1. This federation was to consist of British India and the princely
states. 2. The provinces in British India would have to join the federation but this was not
compulsory for the princely states. 3. This federation never materialised because of the lack of
support from the required number of princely states.

How Government of India Act 1935 divided powers? 1. This Act divided powers between the centre
and the provinces. 2. There were three lists which gave the subjects under each government. 
Federal List (Centre)  Provincial List (Provinces)  Concurrent List (Both) 3. The Viceroy was vested
with residual powers.

Provincial autonomy 1. The Act gave more autonomy to the provinces. 2. Diarchy was abolished at
the provincial levels. 3. The Governor was the head of the executive. 4. There was a Council of
Ministers to advise him. The ministers were responsible to the provincial legislatures who controlled
them. The legislature could also remove the ministers. 5. However, the governors still retained
special reserve powers. 6. The British authorities could still suspend a provincial government.

Diarchy at the centre 1. The subjects under the Federal List were divided into two: Reserved and
Transferred. 2. The reserved subjects were controlled by the Governor-General who administered
them with the help of three counsellors appointed by him. They were not responsible to the
legislature. These subjects included defence, ecclesiastical affairs (church-related), external affairs,
press, police, taxation, justice, power resources and tribal affairs. 3. The transferred subjects were
administered by the Governor-General with his Council of Ministers (not more than 10). The Council
had to act in confidence with the legislature. The subjects in this list included local government,
forests, education, health, etc. 4. However, the Governor-General had ‘special powers’ to interfere
in the transferred subjects also.

Bicameral legislature 1. A bicameral federal legislature would be established. 2. The two houses
were the Federal Assembly (lower house) and the Council of States (upper house). 3. The federal
assembly had a term of five years. 4. Both houses had representatives from the princely states also.
The representatives of the princely states were to be nominated by the rulers and not elected. The
representatives of British India were to be elected. Some were to be nominated by the Governor-
General. 5. There were to be separate electorates for the minority communities, women and the
depressed classes. 6. Bicameral legislatures were introduced in some provinces also like Bengal,
Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Assam and the United Provinces.
Federal court 1. A federal court was established at Delhi for the resolution of disputes between
provinces and also between the centre and the provinces. 2. It was to have 1 Chief Justice and not
more than 6 judges. Indian Council 1. The Indian Council was abolished. 2. The Secretary of State for
India would instead have a team of advisors

Franchise 1. This Act introduced direct elections in India for the first time. 2. About 10% of the whole
population acquired voting rights.

Reorganisation 1. Sindh was carved out of Bombay Presidency. 2. Bihar and Orissa were split. 3.
Burma was severed off from India. 4. Aden was also separated from India and made into a Crown
colony.

Other points 1. The British Parliament retained its supremacy over the Indian legislatures both
provincial and federal. 2. A Federal Railway Authority was set up to control Indian railways. 3. The
Reserve Bank of India was established as per this Act. 4. The Act also provided for the establishment
of federal, provincial and joint Public Service Commissions. 5. The Act was a milestone in the
development of a responsible constitutional government in India. 6. The Government of India Act
1935 was replaced by the Constitution of India after independence. 7. The Indian leaders were not
enthusiastic about the Act since despite granting provincial autonomy the governors and the viceroy
had considerable ‘special powers’. 8. Separate communal electorates were a measure through which
the British wanted to ensure the Congress Party could never rule on its own. It was also a way to
keep the people divided.

Poona Pact – 1932 : The Poona Pact is an agreement between M K Gandhi and B R Ambedkar signed
in the Yerwada Central Jail, Poona on September 24 th, 1932 on behalf of the depressed class for the
reservation of the electoral seats in the Legislature of the British Government.

 Dr Ambedkar was in favour of a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes and this was laid
down by him in the First Round Table Conference. He was representing the Depressed Classes in the
conference.  Gandhi was against this idea and when PM Macdonald decided to grant communal
awards to minorities and the Depressed Classes, he undertook a fast whilst in jail in Poona.  Due to
public pressure to end the fast unto death, Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi made the Poona Pact which
laid down reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in the provincial legislatures for which elections
would be through joint electorates.  Gandhi was against this idea because he did not want to view
the untouchables as being outside the folds of Hinduism.  Certain seats for the provincial
legislatures would be reserved for the Depressed Classes. The number of seats was based on the
total strength of the Provincial Councils. The number of seats reserved for the provinces were 30 for
Madras, 8 for Punjab, 15 for Bombay with Sindh, 20 for the Central Provinces, 18 for Bihar and
Orissa, 30 for Bengal, 7 for Assam and 20 for the United Provinces. So, in total there were 148
reserved seats.  For each of these seats, the members of the Depressed Classes who could vote
would form an electoral college. This Electoral College would elect a panel of four candidates who
belong to the Depressed Classes. These candidates would be elected on the basis of a single vote.
Four candidates getting the highest number of votes would be elected.  Then these four candidates
would stand in the election for the assembly along with the general candidates where the general
electorate would vote. The members of the Depressed Classes hence got a ‘double vote’ since they
could vote under the general electorate also.  Even in the Central Legislature, the same principle of
joint electorate and reserved seats was to be followed.  In the Central Legislature, 19% of the seats
would be reserved for the Depressed Classes.  This system would continue for ten years unless a
mutual agreement consents to terminate it earlier.  Fair representation of the Depressed Classes
would be ensured by all means.  Nobody would be discriminated against on the basis of caste on
matters regarding election to the local bodies or in public services appointments.  A certain sum of
money from the educational grant would be allotted for the education of the Depressed Classes in
all provinces.

Cripps Mission : The Cripps Mission was sent by the British government to India in March 1942 to
obtain Indian cooperation for the British war efforts in the 2nd World War. It was headed by Sir
Richard Stafford Cripps, a labour minister in Winston Churchill’s coalition government in Britain.

Cripps Mission - Background  Japan was advancing outside the eastern borders of India and the fall
of Burma was a jolt to the British in the war. The threat of a Japanese invasion on India was looming
and Indian support was essential for Britain’s war efforts.  When the 2nd World War broke out in
1939, the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared India a party to the war as part of the British Empire. This
was done without consultation with Indians and this led to massive protests from the Congress
Party. The party leaders, who were heading 7 provincial governments resigned from their posts. The
Muslim League celebrated it as ‘Deliverance Day’.  Britain was facing pressure from the US and
other allied leaders over its own imperial policies in India and also to secure Indian cooperation for
the Allied war effort. This also led the British government to send Cripps to India.

The Purpose of Cripps Mission Following the World War-II, the Cripps Mission had several reasons to
come to India. The reasons are given below: 1. Britain suffered many losses in Southeast Asia and
Japan's threat to invade India seemed real for them. Hence, Britain wanted India's support. 2. Britain
was pressurised by the allies (USA, USSR & China) to seek India's cooperation. 3. Indian nationalists
had agreed to support the Allied as they hoped for immediate transfer of substantial power and
complete independence after the war.

Proposals of Cripps Mission  Setting up of an Indian dominion. This dominion would have the
freedom to remain with the British Commonwealth or to secede from it. It would also be at liberty to
take part in international organisations.  A Constituent Assembly would be formed to frame a new
constitution for the country. This Assembly would have members elected by the provincial
assemblies and also nominated by the princes.  Any province unwilling to join the Indian dominion
could form a separate union and have a separate constitution.  The transfer of power and the rights
of minorities would be safeguarded by negotiations between the Constituent Assembly and the
British government.  In the meantime, until this new constitution came into force, India’s Defence
would be controlled by the British and the powers of the Governor-General would remain unaltered.

Significance of Cripps Mission  For the first time, the British government acknowledged India’s right
to be a dominion.  Indians could frame their own Constitution.  The proposal of giving freedom to
the provinces to be a separate union turned out to be a model for the country’s partition in 1947. 
The right to cede from the Commonwealth indicated full sovereignty at a later stage.  In the interim
period, Indians were guaranteed a good share in the administration.

Why did the Cripps Mission Fail?  The proposals were seen as too radical by the British and as too
conservative by the INC who wanted complete independence.  The Mission was rejected by the
INC, the Muslim League and other Indian groups.  The Hindu Mahasabha and the Liberals were
against the right of states to secede.  The Sikhs objected because they thought any partition would
leave Punjab in the hands of Pakistan.  The Depressed Classes objected because they were
apprehensive about their status in a country ‘dominated by upper-caste Hindus.’  It is also believed
that the mission failed because of a clear lack of support for it by the Viceroy Linlithgow, British PM
Winston Churchill and the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery. After the failure of the mission,
Cripps returned to England, and the Congress-led by Gandhi started their new campaign, the Quit
India Movement in August 1942.

Indian National Congress Rejected the Mission INC rejected the Cripps Mission for the following
reasons: 1. The INC was against the provinces’ right to separately form unions as this was damaging
to national unity. 2. They were also against the Governor-General’s power being retained as against
him being only a constitutional head. 3. They also protested the lack of share in defence. 4. There
was no concrete plan for the immediate transfer of power.

Muslim League Rejected the Cripps Mission Muslim League rejected the Cripps Mission for the
following reasons: 1. They did not like the idea of a single union of India. 2. They protested against
the method for the Constituent Assembly’s creation and also against the procedure to decide on the
provinces’ accession to the Indian union

Subhas Chandra Bose :  Born in Cuttack, then in Bengal Province into an affluent family. Educated in
Calcutta acquiring a degree in philosophy. Selected for the Indian Civil Services (ICS) but refused to
take up service since he did not want to serve the British government.  Bose joined the Indian
National Congress (INC) in 1921. He also started a newspaper called ‘Swaraj’.  He was the President
of the All India Youth Congress and also the Secretary of the Bengal State Congress. In 1924, he
became the CEO of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation. In 1930, he became the Mayor of Calcutta. 
Bose authored the book ‘The Indian Struggle’ which covers the Indian independence movement
from 1920 to 1942. The book was banned by the British government.  He coined the term ‘Jai Hind’.
His charisma and powerful personality inspired many people into the freedom struggle and
continues to inspire Indians. He was called Netaji.

Subhash Chandra Bose’s Role in Indian Independence Struggle :  Bose was sent to prison in
Mandalay for nationalist activities in 1925. He was released in 1927 and became the INC’s general
secretary.  He worked with Jawaharlal Nehru and the two became the Congress Party’s young
leaders gaining popularity among the people.  He advocated complete Swaraj and was in favour of
the use of force to gain it.  He had differences with Gandhi and he wasn’t keen on non-violence as a
tool for independence.  Bose stood for and was elected the party’s president in 1939 but was
forced to resign due to differences with Gandhi’s supporters.  Bose’s ideology tilted towards
socialism and leftist authoritarianism. He formed the All India Forward Bloc in 1939 as a faction
within the Congress.  At the start of the Second World War, Bose protested against the government
for not consulting Indians before dragging them into the war. He was arrested when he organised
protests in Calcutta for the removal of the monument memorialising the Black Hole of Calcutta.  He
was released after a few days but was kept under surveillance. He then made his escape from the
country in 1941 to Germany via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. He had previously travelled to
Europe and met with Indian students and European political leaders.  In Germany, he met with the
Nazi leaders and hoped to stage an armed struggle against the British to gain independence. He
hoped to befriend the Axis powers since they were against his ‘enemy’ the British.  He founded the
Indian Legion out of about 4500 Indian soldiers who were in the British army and had been taken
prisoners by the Germans from North Africa.  In 1943, he left Germany for Japan disillusioned with
German support for Azad Hind.  Bose’s arrival in Japan revived the Indian National Army (Azad Hind
Fauj) which had been formed earlier with Japanese help.  Azad Hind or the Provisional Government
of Free India was established as a government-in-exile with Bose as the head. Its headquarters was
in Singapore. The INA was its military.  Bose motivated the troops with his fiery speeches. His
famous quote is, “Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom!”  The INA supported the Japanese
army in its invasion of northeast India and also took control of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
However, they were forced to retreat by the British forces.

Death of Subhash Chandra Bose :  Bose died of third-degree burns which he suffered in a plane
crash in Taiwan on 18 August 1945.  However, many in India refused to believe that he had died. 
Many enquiry committees were tasked with finding out what happened on that day.  The Figgess
Report (1946) and the Shah Nawaz Committee (1956) concluded that Bose died in the plane crash in
Taiwan.  The Khosla Commission (1970) also concurred with the previous reports.  But the
Mukherjee Commission (2005) said that Bose’s death could not be proved. This report was rejected
by the government.

Dr. BR Ambedkar :  Popularly known as Baba Saheb. He was the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constituent Assembly and is called the ‘Father of the Indian Constitution’.  He
was a jurist and an economist. Born into a caste that was considered untouchable, he faced many
injustices and discrimination in society. He was born in Mhow in the Central Provinces (modern-day
Madhya Pradesh) to a Marathi family with roots in Ambadawe town of Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.  He
was a brilliant student and had doctoral degrees in economics from the Columbia University and the
London School of Economics.  Ambedkar was against the caste-based discriminations in society and
advocated the Dalits to organise and demand their rights.  He promoted the education of Dalits and
made representations to the government in various capacities in this regard. He was part of the
Bombay Presidency Committee that worked with the Simon Commission in 1925.  He established
the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha to promote education and socio-economic improvements among the
Dalits. He started magazines like Mooknayak, Equality Janta and Bahishkrit Bharat.  In 1927, he
launched active agitation against untouchability. He organised and agitated for the right of Dalits to
enter temples and to draw water from public water resources. He condemned Hindu scriptures that
he thought propagated caste discrimination.  He advocated separate electorates for the ‘Depressed
Classes’, the term with which Dalits were called at that time. He was in disagreement with Mahatma
Gandhi at that time since Gandhi was against any sort of reservation in the electorates. When the
British government announced the ‘Communal Award’ in 1932, Gandhi went on a fast in Yerwada
Jail. An agreement was signed between Gandhi and Ambedkar in the jail whereby it was agreed to
give reserved seats to the depressed classes within the general electorate. This was called the Poona
Pact.  Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party (later transformed into the Scheduled
Castes Federation) in 1936 and contested in 1937 from Bombay to the Central Legislative Assembly.
He also contested from Bombay (north-central) after independence in the country’s first general
elections. But he lost both times.  He also worked as Minister of Labour in the Viceroy’s Executive
Council. After independence, Ambedkar became the first Law Minister in 1947 under the Congress-
led government. Later he resigned due to differences with Jawaharlal Nehru on the Hindu Code Bill.
 He was appointed to the Rajya Sabha in 1952 and remained a member till his death.  He
advocated a free economy with a stable Rupee. He also mooted birth control for economic
development. He also emphasised equal rights for women.  A few months before he died, he
converted to Buddhism in a public ceremony in Nagpur and with him lakhs of Dalits converted to
Buddhism.  He authored several books and essays. Some of them are: The Annihilation of Caste,
Pakistan or the Partition of India, The Buddha and his Dhamma, The Evolution of Provincial Finance
in British India, Administration and Finance of the East India Company, etc.  Ambedkar considered
the Right to Constitutional Remedy as the soul of the constitution.  Ambedkar died of ill health in
1956 at Delhi. He was cremated according to Buddhist rites in Dadar and a memorial is constructed
there. The place is called Chaitya Bhoomi. His death anniversary is observed as Mahaparinirvan Din.
His birth anniversary is celebrated as Ambedkar Jayanti or Bhim Jayanti on 14 April every year.
Quit India Movement : Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan also known as August Kranti Maidan is the
place where the quit India movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi. He along with other
leaders gathered here on August 8 and 9, 1942. The outcome of the movement was that Congress
was declared an unlawful association and its offices all over the country were raided. The leaders
were arrested and there rose a chaotic moment with this incident.

 Also known as the India August Movement or August Kranti.  It was officially launched by the
Indian National Congress (INC) led by Mahatma Gandhi on 9 August 1942.  The movement gave the
slogans ‘Quit India’ or ‘Bharat Chodo’. Gandhi gave the slogan to the people – ‘Do or die’.  In line
with the Congress ideology, it was supposed to be a peaceful non-violent movement aimed at urging
the British to grant India independence.  The Quit India Resolution was passed by the Congress
Working Committee on 8 August 1942 in Bombay. Gandhi was named the movement’s leader.  The
resolution stated the provisions of the movement as: 1. An immediate end to British rule over India.
2. Declaration of the commitment of free India to defend itself against all kinds of imperialism and
fascism. 3. Formation of a provisional government of India after British withdrawal. 4. Sanctioning a
civil disobedience movement against British rule.  Gandhi’s instructions to various sections of the
public: 1. Government servants: do not resign your job but proclaim loyalty to the INC. 2. Soldiers: be
with the army but refrain from firing on compatriots. 3. Peasants: pay the agreed-upon rent if the
landlords/Zamindars are anti-government; if they are pro-government, do not pay the rent. 4.
Students: can leave studies if they are confident enough. 5. Princes: support the people and accept
the sovereignty of them. 6. People of the princely states: support the ruler only if he is anti-
government; declare themselves as part of the Indian nation.

Why was it launched?:  The Second World War had started in 1939 and Japan, which was part of
the Axis Powers that were opposed to the British in the war were gaining onto the north-eastern
frontiers of India.  The British had abandoned their territories in South-East Asia and had left their
population in the lurch. This act did not garner much faith among the Indian population who had
doubts about the British ability to defend India against Axis aggression.  Gandhi also believed that if
the British left India, Japan would not have enough reason to invade India.  Apart from hearing
news about British setbacks in the war, the war-time difficulties such as high prices of essential
commodities fostered resentment against the British government.  The failure of the Cripps Mission
to guarantee any kind of a constitutional remedy to India’s problems also led to the INC calling for a
mass civil disobedience movement.

 The chief areas of the movement were UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, Midnapore, and Karnataka. The
movement lasted till 1944.

Significance/what it achieved?  Despite heavy-handed suppression by the government, the people

were unfazed and continued their struggle.  Even though the government said that independence
could be granted only after the end of the war, the movement drove home the point that India could
not be governed without the support of the Indians.  The movement placed the demand for
complete independence at the top agenda of the freedom movement.  Public morale and anti-
British sentiment were enhanced.

Nehru Report - Recommendations & Responses : The Nehru Report had the primary motive of
assigning Dominion status to India within the British Commonwealth. The major components of the
Nehru Report are: 1. Bill of Rights 2. Assigning Equal rights to men and women as citizens 3.
Formation of a federal form of government with residuary powers in the hands of Centre 4. Proposal
for the creation of Supreme Court
 When the Simon Commission came to India in 1928, it was vehemently opposed by Indians
especially the Congress Party for the lack of a single Indian in the Commission.  So, the Secretary of
State for India, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indian leaders to draft a constitution for India,
implicitly implying that Indians were not capable of finding a common path and drafting a
constitution.  The political leaders accepted this challenge and an All Party Conference was held and
a committee appointed with the task of drafting a constitution.  This committee was headed by
Motilal Nehru with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Secretary. Other members were Ali Imam, Tej Bahadur
Sapru, Mangal Singh, M S Aney, Subhas Chandra Bose, Shuaib Qureshi and G R Pradhan.  The draft
constitution prepared by the committee was called the Nehru Committee Report or Nehru Report.
The report was submitted at the Lucknow session of the all-party conference on August 28, 1928. 
This was the first major attempt by Indians to draft a constitution for themselves.

Recommendations of the report  Dominion status for India (like Canada, Australia, etc.) within the
British Commonwealth. (This point was a bone of contention with the younger set of leaders
including Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose who favoured complete independence.) 
Nineteen fundamental rights including the right to vote for men and women above 21 years of age,
unless disqualified.  Equal rights for men and women as citizens.  No state religion.  No separate
electorates for any community. It did provide for reservation of minority seats. It provided for
reservation for seats for Muslims at the centre and in provinces where they were in a minority and
not in Bengal and Punjab. Similarly, it provided for reservation for non-Muslims in the NWFP.  A
federal form of government with residual powers with the centre. There would be a bicameral
legislature at the centre. The ministry would be responsible to the legislature.  Governor-General to
be the constitutional head of India. He would be appointed by the British monarch.  A proposal for
the creation of a Supreme Court.  The provinces would be created along linguistic lines.  The
language of the country would be Indian, written either in Devanagari (Sanskrit/Hindi), Telugu,
Tamil, Kannada, Bengali, Marathi or Gujarati in character. English usage to be permitted.

 The issue of communal representation was controversial. In December 1927, many Muslim leaders
met Motilal Nehru at Delhi and suggested a few proposals. These were accepted by Congress at its
Madras session. These ‘Delhi Proposals’ were: 1. 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central
Legislature. 2. Representation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their populations. 3.
Formation of three new provinces with a Muslim majority – Sindh, Baluchistan and North-West
Frontier Province (NWFP).

 At the all-party conference held in Calcutta in 1928 to discuss the report, Jinnah made three
amendments to the report: 1. 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature. 2.
Reservation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their populations until adult suffrage
was established. 3. Residual powers to be vested with the provinces and not the centre.  Since
these demands of Jinnah were not met, he gave the ‘Fourteen Points’ in March 1929, which served
as the basis of all future agenda of the League.

C R Formula or Rajaji Formula (1944) :

Background  During the Second World War, the British government, under the viceroyalty of Lord
Linlithgow had said that any move towards an Indian statehood would be possible only if the Indian
National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League resolve their differences.  The League was
increasingly demanding a separate nation of Pakistan for the Muslims whereas the INC was against
the partitioning of the country.  To break this deadlock between the two major political parties in
India, C Rajagopalachari, INC member who was close to Mahatma Gandhi, proposed a set of plans
called the C R Formula or Rajaji Formula.  This was the first acknowledgement by a Congressman
about the inevitability of the partition of the country and a tacit acceptance of Pakistan

Proposals  The Muslim League would join hands with the INC to demand independence from the
British.  Both parties would cooperate and form a provisional government at the centre.  After the
war, a commission would be entrusted with the task of demarcating those areas with an absolute
majority of Muslims and a plebiscite to be held in those areas where all the inhabitants (Muslims and
non-Muslims) would vote on the basis of adult suffrage whether to form a separate sovereign nation
or not.  In case of partition, joint agreements to be made for the safeguarding of defence,
communications and commerce.  The above terms to come to fruition only if Britain transfers full
powers to India.

Reaction  In 1944, Gandhi and M. A. Jinnah held talks on the basis of the Rajaji Formula.  The talks
were a failure as Jinnah had objections to the proposal.  Jinnah’s objections: i. He wanted the INC to
accept the Two-Nation Theory. ii. He did not want the entire population of the Muslim majority
areas to vote on the plebiscite, but only the Muslim population in those areas. iii. He was also
against the idea of a common centre. Also, Jinnah wanted separate dominions be created before the
English left India.  The Sikhs also looked upon the formula unfavourably because the formula meant
a division of Punjab and although the Sikhs were a big chunk of the population, there were not in a
majority in any of the district.  V D Savarkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee of the Hindu
Mahasabha and Srinivas Sastri of the National Liberal Federation were also against the C R Formula.
 The INC, which was hitherto opposed to the partition of the country were willing to give some
concessions in order to get the League on board for talks for independence, but the League was
more interested in Pakistan than freedom.

The August Offer : Background  During the Second World War, the Indian National Congress (INC)
leaders were upset with the British government for having pulled India into a war without the
consent of Indians. Lord Linlithgow had declared India to be at war with Germany without
consultation.  France had fallen to the Axis Powers and the Allies were suffering many reverses in
the war. There was also a change of government in Britain and Winston Churchill became the British
Prime Minister in 1940.  The British government were keen to get Indian support for the war.
Britain herself was in danger of being occupied by the Nazis and in this light, the INC softened its
stand. It said that support for the war would be provided if power was transferred to an interim
government in India.  Then, the Viceroy Linlithgow made a set of proposals called the ‘August offer’.
For the first time, the right of Indians to frame their own constitution was acknowledged.

The terms of the August Offer  A representative Indian body would be framed after the war to
frame a constitution for India. Dominion status was the objective for India.  The Viceroy’s Executive
Council would be expanded right away to include for the first time more Indians than whites.
However, defence, finance and home portfolios were to remain with the British.  An advisory war
council was to be established.  An assurance was given to the minorities that no transfer of power
would take place “to any system of government whose authority is directly denied by large and
powerful elements in Indian national life.” The Viceroy also stated that there would be no revision of
the Government of India Act. He also said that before any real constitutional reform could be done,
the differences between the INC and the Muslim League would have to be resolved.

Response of the Indian leaders  The INC rejected this offer at its meeting at Wardha in August 1940.
It demanded complete freedom from colonial rule. Jawaharlal Nehru remarked that the dominion
status concept was as dead as a doornail.  The League also rejected the offer saying that nothing
short of partitioning the country would be acceptable to them.  After this, Mahatma Gandhi
initiated the Individual Satyagraha to affirm the right to free speech. He avoided a mass satyagraha
because he did not want violence.  The first three satyagrahis were Vinoba Bhave, Nehru and
Brahma Datt. All three were jailed.  The satyagrahis also started a march towards Delhi which was
called the ‘Delhi Chalo Movement’.  The movement failed to pick up steam and was aborted in
December 1940.  After the failure of the August Offer, the British government sent the Cripps
Mission to India in a bid to garner Indian support for the war.

Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference : The Wavell Plan was first presented at the Shimla Conference
in 1945. It was named after Viceroy of India, Lord Wavell. The Shimla Conference was convened in
order to agree on the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, which provided for separate
representations on communal lines. Both the plan and the conference failed on account of the
Muslim League and the Indian National Congress not coming to an agreement.

Background of the Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference The Second World War had caused many
socio-economic problems in the British Empire, especially when it came to maintaining their
overseas colonies. Thus the British Government saw it fit to grant India the freedom it had been
demanding for so long. In addition, the Quit India Movement and an increase in revolutionary
activity only made the British position in India tenuous at best. Lord Wavell, who became the Viceroy
in 1943, was charged with presenting a formula for the future government of India that would be
acceptable to both the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, allowing for a
smooth transition of power. Lord Wavell was considered an apt person for this task as he had been
the head of the Indian Army and thus had a better understanding of the Indian situation.

What did the Wavell Plan Propose? In May 1945 Wavell visited London and discussed his ideas with
the British Government. These London talks resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of action
which was officially made public simultaneously on 14 June 1945 by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of
State for India. The Wavell Plan proposed the following:  The Viceroy’s Executive Council was to
have all Indian members except the Viceroy himself and the Commander-in-Chief.  The council was
to have a ‘balanced representation’ of all Indians including ‘caste-Hindus’, Muslims, Depressed
Classes, Sikhs, etc. Muslims were given 6 out of 14 members which accounted for more than their
share of the population (25%).  The Viceroy/Governor-General would still have the power of veto
but its use would be minimal.  The foreign affairs portfolio would be transferred from the Governor-
General to an Indian member. The defence would be handled by a British general until the full
transfer of power was made.  A conference would be convened by the Viceroy to get a list of all the
members recommended to the Council from all parties concerned. In case a joint list was not agreed
upon, separate lists would be taken from the parties. This was to be the Shimla Conference.  If this
plan worked, similar councils would be formed in all provinces comprising of local leaders.

What happened at the Shimla Conference? Lord Wavell invited 21 political leaders including
Mahatma Gandhi and M A Jinnah to Shimla, the summer capital of British India to discuss the Wavell
Plan on June 25th, 1945.  The conference was a failure because the League and the Congress could
not settle their differences.  Jinnah insisted that only League members could be the Muslim
representatives in the Council, and opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim members. This was
because Jinnah wanted the League to be the sole representative of Muslims in India. Congress would
never agree to this demand.  In the Wavell Plan, there were 6 Muslim representatives out of 14
members, which was more than the Muslim share of the population. Despite this, the League
wanted the power of veto to any constitutional proposal which it believed was not in its interest.
Congress opposed this unreasonable demand also.  Jinnah refused to give the names to the council
unless the government acknowledged that only the Muslim League was the exclusive representative
of Indian Muslims.  The Wavell Plan, thus, was dissolved with the failure of the conference. And
with it the last chance to avoid partition.  After this, the war ended and a new Labour government
was elected in Britain. This new government was intent on giving independence to India without
much delay and sent the Cabinet Mission with that purpose.

Cabinet Mission 1946 : Cabinet Mission was a high-powered mission sent in February 1946 to India
by the Atlee Government (British Prime Minister.) The mission had three British cabinet members –
Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, & and A.V. Alexander. The Cabinet Mission’s aim was to discuss
the transfer of power from British to Indian leadership.

Objectives of Cabinet Mission  To obtain an agreement with the Indian leaders as to the framing of
a constitution for India.  To formulate a constitution-making body (the Constituent Assembly of
India).  To establish an Executive Council with the support of the major Indian parties.

Why did the Cabinet Mission fail? :  The Congress Party wanted a strong centre with minimum
powers for the provinces.  The Muslim League wanted strong political safeguards for the Muslims
like parity in the legislatures.  Since both parties had many ideological differences and could not
find common ground, the mission came up with its own set of proposals in May 1946.  The
Dominion of India would be granted independence, without any partition.  The provinces would be
divided into three groups/sections: 1. Group A: Madras, Central Provinces, UP, Bihar, Bombay and
Orissa 2. Group B: Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan 3. Group C: Bengal and Assam  The
Muslim-majority provinces were grouped into two groups and the remaining Hindu-majority in one
of the groups.  The central government at Delhi would have powers over the defence, foreign
affairs, communications and currency. The rest of the powers would be vested with the provinces. 
A constituent assembly would be set up for writing a new constitution for the country. An interim
government would be established until a new government was formed on the basis of the
constitution written by the constituent assembly.  The Congress was not keen on the idea of the
groupings of provinces on the basis of Hindu-Muslim majority and vying for control at the centre. It
was also against the idea of a weak centre. The Muslim League did not want any changes to the
proposals.  Since the plan was not accepted, a new plan was proposed by the mission in June 1946.
This plan proposed the division of India into a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority India later
to be renamed Pakistan. A list of princely states was also made that could either join the union or
remain independent.  The Congress Party under Jawaharlal Nehru did not accept the second plan.
Instead, it agreed to be part of the constituent assembly.  The Viceroy invited 14 men to form the
interim government. There were 5 from the Congress, 5 from the League, 1 member each
representing the Sikh, Parsee, Indian Christian and scheduled caste communities.  Both the League
and the Congress were given the right to nominate 5 members to the Viceroy’s interim council. The
Congress nominated Zakir Hussain as one of the members to which the League objected saying only
it represented Indian Muslims and no other party. The Muslim League did not take part in it.  The
Congress leaders entered the viceroy’s interim council and thus Nehru headed the interim
government. The new government began the task of framing a constitution for the country. 
Congress-led governments were formed in most provinces including the NWFP. In Bengal and Sind,
the League formed the governments.  Jinnah and the League objected to the new central
government. He geared to agitate for Pakistan and urged Muslims to demand Pakistan by any
means. He called for ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16 August 1946.  This call led to widespread communal
rioting in the country with 5000 people being killed on the first day in Calcutta. Communal riots
spread to many other areas notably Noakhali and Bihar.  There was a call for the partitioning of the
country on account of the riots. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the first Congress leaders to
acknowledge the inevitability of the partition as a means to stop the brutal violence.
: Mountbatten Plan : Lord Mountbatten (India’s last viceroy) proposed a plan in May 1947 according
to which provinces were to be declared independent successor states with the power to choose
whether to join the constituent assembly or not.

Mountbatten Plan Background :  Lord Mountbatten came to India as the last Viceroy and was
assigned the task of a speedy transfer of power by the then British Prime Minister Clement Atlee. 
In May 1947, Mountbatten came up with a plan under which he proposed that the provinces be
declared independent successor states and then be allowed to choose whether to join the
constituent assembly or not. This plan was called the ‘Dickie Bird Plan’.  Jawaharlal Nehru, when
apprised of the plan, vehemently opposed it saying it would lead to balkanisation of the country.
Hence, this plan was also called Plan Balkan.  Then, the viceroy came up with another plan called
the June 3 Plan. This plan was the last plan for Indian independence. It is also called the
Mountbatten Plan.  The June 3 Plan included the principles of partition, autonomy, sovereignty to
both nations, right to make their own constitution.  Above all, the Princely States such as Jammu
and Kashmir were given a choice to either join India or Pakistan. The consequences of these choices
would affect the new nations for decades to come.  This plan was accepted by both the Congress
and the Muslim League. By then, the Congress had also accepted the inevitability of the partition. 
This plan was put into action by the Indian Independence Act 1947 which was passed in the British
Parliament and received the royal assent on 18 July 1947.

Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan :  British India was to be partitioned into two dominions – India
and Pakistan.  The constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly would not be applicable to the
Muslim-majority areas (as these would become Pakistan). The question of a separate constituent
assembly for the Muslim-majority areas would be decided by these provinces.  As per the plan, the
legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab met and voted for the partition. Accordingly, it was
decided to partition these two provinces along religious lines.  The legislative assembly of Sind
would decide whether to join the Indian constituent assembly or not. It decided to go with Pakistan.
 A referendum was to be held on NWFP (North-Western Frontier Province) to decide which
dominion to join. NWFP decided to join Pakistan while Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan boycotted and
rejected the referendum.  The date for the transfer of power was to be August 15, 1947.  To fix the
international boundaries between the two countries, the Boundary Commission was established
chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The commission was to demarcate Bengal and Punjab into the two new
countries.  The princely states were given the choice to either remain independent or accede to
India or Pakistan. The British suzerainty over these kingdoms was terminated.  The British monarch
would no longer use the title ‘Emperor of India’.  After the dominions were created, the British
Parliament could not enact any law in the territories of the new dominions.  Until the time the new
constitutions came into existence, the Governor-General would assent any law passed by the
constituent assemblies of the dominions in His Majesty’s name. The GovernorGeneral was made a
constitutional head. On the midnight of 14th and 15th August 1947, the dominions of Pakistan and
India respectively came into existence. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the first Governor-General
of independent India and M .A. Jinnah became the Governor-General of Pakistan.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan : Abdul Beber Ghaffar Khan, also known as Bacha Khan, was a Pashtun
independence activist who campaigned to end the rule of the British Raj in India. For his adherence
to pacifism and close association with Mahatma Gandhi, he earned the nickname “Frontier Gandhi”,
He founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”) movement in 1929. The success of the
movement earned him and his supporters a harsh crackdown from the British Raj, suffering some of
the worst repression of the Indian Independence Struggle. Initially, Bacha Khan's goal was to wok
towards the social upliftment of the Pashtuns as he had realised that they will remain backwards due
to the lack of education and centuries of blood feuds between various Pashtun families. In time, he
worked towards the formation of a united, independent, secular India. To achieve this end, he
founded the Khudai Khidmatgar ("Servants of God"), commonly known as the "Red Shirts" (Surkh
Pōsh), On June 21, 1947, in Bannu, a loya jirga (grand assembly in the Pashtun language) was held
consisting of Bacha Khan, the Khudai Khidmatgars, members of the Provincial Assembly, and other
tribal chiefs, just seven weeks before the partition. The Bannu Resolution was declared at this jirga.
The Banu Resolution stated that the Pashtuns should be given a choice to have an independent state
of Pashtunistan composing all Pashtun territories of British India, instead of being made to join
either India or Pakistan. However, the British Raj refused to comply with the demand of this
resolution. The Indian National Congress party refused last-ditch attempts to avoid partition, like the
Cabinet Mission plan and Gandhi's suggestion to offer the position of Prime Minister to Jinnah. As a
result, Bacha Khan and his followers felt a sense of betrayal by both Pakistan and India. Bacha Khan's
last words to Gandhi and his erstwhile allies in the Congress party were: "You have thrown us to the
wolves”.

Bacha Khan's political legacy is renowned amongst Pashtuns and those in the modern Republic of
India as a leader who propagated the message of brotherhood and living on the principles of non-
violence. Within Pakistan, however, the vast majority of society has questioned his true allegiance
due to his association with the All India Congress over the Muslim League as well as his opposition to
Jinnah. In particular, people have questioned where Bacha Khan's patriotism rests following his
insistence that he be buried in Afghanistan after his death and not Pakistan

Bhagat Singh : • As a child, he defied the British government by burning textbooks recommended by
it. • Initially, he supported Mahatma Gandhi and the Non-Cooperation Movement. • However, when
Gandhi withdrew the movement in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident, Bhagat Singh turned to
revolutionary nationalism. • He was particularly affected by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919)
and the violence against unarmed Akali protestors at Nankana Sahib (1921). • Inspired by leftist
writings he read widely, Singh was an atheist and against capitalism.

Although there have been many leaders from the revolutionary mould, Bhagat Singh’s name is
always first quoted when talking about revolutionary freedom fighters of India. • In 1926, he
founded the Naujawan Bharat Sabha. o This organisation aimed to encourage revolution against
British rule by rallying the peasants and workers. o Singh served as the organisation’s secretary. • In
1928, he established the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) along with Sukhdev,
Chandrashekhar Azad and others. • Lala Lajpat Rai died in 1928 as a result of injuries sustained in a
police lathi charge on the orders of a Superintendent of Police, James Scott. o Bhagat Singh and his
revolutionary friends decided to avenge the death of the dear leader. o However, in a case of
mistaken identity, they assassinated another police official J P Saunders. o This was part of the
Lahore Conspiracy Case. o After this incident, Singh fled from Lahore and made changes to his
appearance.

• Central Assembly Bombing Case : o Bhagat Singh was also involved in this case. o On 8th April
1929, Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly at Delhi, from the Visitors’
Gallery. o They also threw pamphlets and raised pro-revolutionary slogans. o Both the
revolutionaries courted arrest since they wanted to spread their message of revolution and anti-
imperialism, and needed a platform for it. o Nobody was hurt in the incident, and it was never their
intention to cause physical harm to anyone o Their stated aim was ‘to make the deaf hear’. o Bhagat
Singh was the mastermind behind the incident, and he was inspired by Auguste Vaillant, a French
anarchist, who was executed by France for a similar incident in Paris. o In the trial that ensued, both
Singh and Dutt were sentenced to transportation for life. o For more on the Central Assembly
Bombing Case, check This Day in History dated 8th April. • In the meanwhile, the murder case of J P
Saunders also came up and Singh was linked to that case as well.

Bhagat Singh Execution : Bhagat Singh was arrested and charged in the Saunders murder case, along
with Rajguru, Sukhdev and others. • This trial commenced in July 1929. • In the Lahore prison where
they were lodged, the young leaders started a hunger strike demanding better treatment as they
were supposed to be political prisoners. • They were met by many leaders including Jawaharlal
Nehru, who remarked pain on seeing their distress. • Bhagat Singh fasted for 116 days after which
he ended it at the request of his father and Congress leaders. • The trial, needless to say, was one-
sided and Singh, along with Rajguru and Sukhdev were sentenced to death. • The trial and the
subsequent sentence drew widespread condemnation from many quarters. • Many national leaders
requested for a reduced sentence, but to no avail. • The trio were ordered to be hanged on 24
March 1931 but the sentence was carried out a day earlier at the Lahore Jail. After the hanging, their
mortal remains were cremated in secret. • It is said that Singh cried ‘Down with British imperialism’
as he was hanged. • This execution evoked strong reactions from the Indian people, particularly
youngsters, and many were motivated to join the freedom struggle. • 23rd March is observed as
‘Martyrs’ Day’ or ‘Shaheed Diwas’ or ‘Sarvodaya Day’ in honour of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and
Sukhdev.

Bhagat Singh Quotes : • They may kill me but they cannot kill my ideas. They can crush my body, but
they will not be able to crush my spirit. • Bombs and pistols do not make a revolution. The sword of
revolution is sharpened on the whettingstone of ideas. • May the sun in his course visit no land more
free, more happy, more lovely, than this our own country. • But mere faith and blind faith is
dangerous: it dulls the brain and makes a man reactionary. • Revolution is an inalienable right of
mankind. Freedom is an imperishable birthright of all. Labour is the real sustainer of society.