Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

MODULE 5
Geo-tools and techniques for Civil Engineering applications
Remote sensing
Remote sensing is a science and art of acquiring information about an object, area or
phenomena of the earth’s surface without coming into direct physical contact

Elements of Remote Sensing:

i. Energy Source or Illumination (A)

ii. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
iii. Interaction with the Object (C)
iv. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)
v. Transmission, Reception and Processing (E)
vi. Interpretation and Analysis (F)
vii. Application (G)

i. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - The first requirement for remote sensing is to
have an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the
target of interest.

ii. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - As the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes
through. This interactionmay take place a second time as the energy travels from the
target to the sensor.

iii. Interaction with the Target (C) - Once the energy makes its way to the target
through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

both the target and the radiation.

iv. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - After the energy has been scattered by,
or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the
target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
v. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - The energy recorded by the sensor
has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station
where the data are processed.

vi. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - The processed image is interpreted, visually
and/ordigitally or electronically, to extract information about the target, which was
illuminated.

vii. Application (G) - The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved
when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about
the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in
solving a particular problem.
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING DATA:
a. Site investigations and regional planning: Generally site investigation requires
topographicand geologic consideration. For instance, for dam site investigation
information on topography is required, and geological consideration comes in
finding different soil and rock types. Slopes like river banks, terrace faces and
valley wall has the consideration slopes leading down to and up from water
crossing. The high spatial resolution satellite data with capability of stereo vision
can make easy in finding the depth perception and also helps for the regional
planning of large commercial airports, harbors, and industrial towns.
b. Terrain mapping and analysis: By generating the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) in
RS data,terrain information can be acquired. DTMs make easy to investigate the
number of alternative horizontal and vertical alignments of canals, roads,
pipelines, or corridors for any applications. The knowledge of material including
the terrain is very important, for proper planning, location, construction, and
maintenance of engineering facilities in engineering constructions of dam.
c. Town planning and development: Growth of urbanization in India has provided
increase to problems of housing, sanitation, power, water supply, and

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

environmental pollution. Efficient mapping and cyclic monitoring of town land

use is therefore essential for proper planning, management and policy making
with the help of RS for the development and management of urban settlements
can be prepared.

d. Transportations network analysis: With the help of high spatial resolution data,
road mapping and rail network is well accomplished. Even this make easy to
deciding optimal routingfor transport of construction materials. And moreover
village roads also can be identified in certain cases.

e. Landslide Studies: The most commonly recurring hazards in the mountain areas
are landslides, and causing huge loss of life, property and even death every year.
This parameter thatcontributes either directly or indirectly includes litho logy and
structure, landform, slope, aspect, relief, vegetation cover, climatic and human
activities. By using RS, information on these aspectscan be gathered and included
for preparing a landside hazard zone map.

f. Water Resources Engineering: By analyzing multidate RS data, it would be

possible to monitor the effects of dam construction. Remotely sensed data of pre
and post dam construction can reveal the forest and other land at different water
levels. This would also help in preliminary investigation of finding suitable areas
for human resettlement. To study the feasibility of inter basin transfer of surplus
flood flows, RS data can be cost effective. Also, reservoir sites to store the surplus
flows in these basins could be identified. Such projects of large dimensions
require considerations of land use / land cover, soil and geological mapping,
terrain evaluation, construction material inventory etc.

RESOLUTION

Resolution is a term used to describe the number of dots or pixels used to display an
image. High resolution implies more pixels are used to create the image resulting in clear
image, low resolution will be having fewer pixels to create the image resulting in less
clear image.
SPATIAL RESOLUTION:
 It is a measure of the smallest angular or linear separation between two objects that can
be resolved by the sensor. The greater the sensor’s resolution, the greater the data

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

volume and smaller the area covered. In fact, the area coverage and resolution are inter‐
dependent data these factors determine the scale of the imagery.
 Spatial resolution describes how much detail in a photographic image is visible to the
human eye. The ability to resolve or separate, small details of the earth surface features.
 Spatial resolution is a complex concept which can, for the purpose of remote sensing of
Polar Regions, be defined as the smallest object that can be detected and distinguished
from a point.
 The factors effecting spatial resolution; Atmosphere, smoke, low light, blurred sensor
system.
SPECTRAL RESOLUTION:

 It refers to the dimension and number of specific wavelength intervals in the

electromagnetic spectrum to which a sensor is sensitive. In the other words sensitivity
of a sensor to respond to a specific spectral wave energy.
 Narrow bandwidths in certain regions of the electromagnetic spectrum allow the
discrimination of various features more easily.
 These waves include not only visible light but also non visible waves of electromagnetic
radiation energy. Spectral resolution depends on Number of spectral bands, width of
each band.
 Based on the number of spectral band absorbing by sensor there are four types of
spectral resolution.
Panchromatic-1 band
Colour-3 band
Multispectral-4+ bands
Hyper spectral-hundreds of bands

TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
It refers to how often a given sensor obtains imagery of a particular area. Ideally, the
sensor obtains data repetitively to capture unique discriminating characteristics of the
phenomena of interest.

RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION:
 It is the capability to differentiate the spectral reflectance/ remittance from various
targets. This depends on the number of quantization levels within the spectral band. In
other words, the number of bits of digital data in the spectral band will decide the
Sensitivity of the sensor.
 It is the smallest difference in exposure that can be detected in a given film analysis. It
is also the ability of a given sensing system to discriminate between density levels. In
general, the radiometric resolution is inversely proportional to contrast.
 Contrast film is able to resolve smaller differences in exposure. Low
contrast films have greater radiometric range while highest contrast films have smaller
exposure range and lower radiometric range.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

Sensors
Sensor as an input device which provides an output (signal) with respect to a specific
physical quantity (input).
Fundamental sensor types
There are several broad categories of basic sensor system. Types such as
1. Passive and active sensors
2. Imaging and non-imaging sensors

1. Passive v/s Active sensors

 Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or
surrounding areas.
 Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive
sensors.
 Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-
coupled devices, and radiometers.

Active sensor

 Active sensors are the ones which uses the electromagnetic radiations as a source. It is
a manmade source.
 Active Remote sensors create their own electromagnetic energy that is transmitted
from the sensor towards the terrain, interacts with the terrain producing a backscatter
of energy and is recorded by the remote sensor’s receiver.
 Examples are RADAR and LASER
2. Imaging versus Non-imaging (Scanning sensors)
Data from imaging sensors can be processed to produce an image of an area within which
smaller parts of the sensors. Whole view are resolved visually.
Non imaging sensors usually are hand held devices that register only a single response value
with no fine resolution
Imaging and non imaging data provides an opportunity to look at spatial relationships,
objects shapes and to estimates physical size based on the data spatial resolution and
sampling.

Satellite
An object orbiting around the sun, earth or any other colossal body is known as a satellite.
There are two major types of categorization when it comes down to satellites, one is natural
and the other is man-made.
Some examples of natural satellites are planets, moons, and comets. Jupiter
has 67 natural satellites. The earth has one permanent natural satellite, the moon we know,
which causes the tides in the sea. Sometimes other objects (like asteroids) can enter into
temporary orbits of the earth and become a natural satellite for a span.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

Types of Satellites:

Geostationary Satellite:
These satellites are placed into orbit at a distance of around 35,800 km from the earth’s
surface. They rotate in the same direction as the earth and one revolution of such satellites
is the same as one day on earth (roughly 24 hours). This means that, as seen from earth,
these satellites will appear to be at the same spot throughout. Hence, the name
“geostationary” satellites. These satellites are used as communication satellites and for
weather-based applications.

Polar Satellite:
Polar satellites revolve around the earth in a north-south direction around the earth as
opposed to east-west like the geostationary satellites. They are very useful in applications
where the field vision of the entire earth is required in a single day. Since the entire earth
moves below them, this can be done easily. They are used in weather applications where
predicting weather and climate-based disasters can be done in a short time. They are also
used as relay stations.

EMR (Electromagnetic radiation)

Electromagnetic radiation can be defined as a form of energy that is produced by the
movement of electrically charged particles travelling through a matter or vacuum or by
oscillating magnetic and electric disturbances. The magnetic and the electric fields come at
90° to each other, and the combined waves move perpendicular to both electric and
magnetic oscillating fields occurring during the disturbance.

Types of EMR

Visible Light
The light that we can see with our own eyes is known as the visible spectrum, and varies
from person to person, depending on the sensitivity of a person's eyes. The visible spectrum
is in the range of 380nm to 750nm, although the Harvard University website states that the
astronomical range for visible light is 300nm to 1,000nm.

Radio Waves
Radio waves have a much greater wavelength than visible light. Radio waves are the ones
we create to transmit radio and television signals through the atmosphere.0:
5412:50
Ultra Violet Light
Ultra Violet light, or UV light, is the light that causes sunburn on human skin. In our solar
system, most of the UV light that reaches Earth is created by the hot gas of the sun. The
Earth's atmosphere absorbs most of the UV light that reaches it, in a layer of the upper
atmosphere known as the ozone.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

Infrared
Infrared light has a wavelength that is longer than that of standard red light, and although
considered part of the red color spectrum, infrared wavelengths are still much shorter than,
for example, radio waves.

X-rays
It takes a high output of energy to create X-rays. X-rays occur in the 0.01 to 10nm range. X-
rays used to create photographs of bones in the human body are created at wavelengths
of about 0.012nm, which is near the shortest limit of the X-ray spectrum. X-rays at this
wavelength will not penetrate through bone, but will penetrate human tissue.

Gamma Rays
Gamma rays need extremely high sources of energy to create them. According to the
Harvard University website, gas at a temperature of a billion degrees is needed, so that
solar flares and lightning strikes can be sources of gamma radiation. Nuclear explosions also
generate gamma rays, and gamma rays have wavelengths of less than 0.01nm. Gamma rays
can penetrate human tissue, and even bones, and are extremely harmful to humans.

GIS (GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM)

A Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for
capturing,managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced
information.

COMPONENTS OF GIS:
Based on the functionality of a GIS, there are in general five components of GIS
namely hardware, software, data, people and methods. Some author/Books mention
just four of them, assuming methods as a part of software part. These five
components need to be in balance if the system is to be function satisfactorily.
1. HARDWARE
Any device (a computer, a smartphone, a tablet, a laptop, a monitor, a printer, a
scanner, etc.) that stores large GIS datasets, GIS software, and applications can be
referred to as the hardware. Typically, these are GIS workstations with powerful
processing capacity, huge monitors, high-speed connectivity, and ample disk space
for data storage.
2. SOFTWARE
Any program, software package, application, or solution (free or commercial) that

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

enables a GIS user to perform essential GIS functions is called the software
component. GIS programs, database management systems, and graphical user
interface (GUI) apps enable users to manipulate, store, query, and analyses spatial
and non-spatial data and information.

GIS software consists of four basic technical modules. These basic modules are;
I. Data input and verification
II. Data storage and database management
III. Data transformation and data manipulation.
IV. Data output and presentation

3. DATA
Any spatial or non-spatial information stored digitally in computers or servers can be
referred to as GIS data. Such data is gathered using data collection technologies such
as geospatial remote sensors and stored in a digital format for GIS users. While this
process can be done in-house, some organizations prefer liaising with third-party
commercial data providers or vendors for their data needs. A GIS solution helps users
make sense of the data collected, and then organize it, analyze it, and use data
visualization tools to present it in the form of a map, a graph, or other informative
graphics.

4. PEOPLE
Anyone who uses a GIS falls under this category. This refers to the GIS professionals using
dedicated GIS solutions or the general public accessing a digital map. It is the
professionals who keep innovating and pushing the limits of what is possible in the GIS
landscape in order to serve their businesses and general users better. GIS is used in
almost every major industry and generates employment opportunities for a wide range
of professionals, including data analysts, analytics professionals, and technical specialists
who design and monitor GIS.

5. METHOD OR PROCEDURE

An integral part of the GIS framework is the various techniques used to turn data into
digestible and actionable information for easy interpretation. This may include
algorithms, statistics, formulas, and models that are predefined and unique to each

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

business.
APPLICATIONS OF GIS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING:
a. GIS can be used in irrigation and canal development.
b. GIS tool can be used to digitalization of maps on various scale.
c. An engineering geologist can evaluate slope stability condition through
GIS.
d. GIS gives the solution for management of natural resources, forestry and
wildlife.
e. GIS tool can also be used to study geologic features, analysis of soil and
beds, asses’ seismic information etc.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite
system(GNSS) that provides reliable location and time information in all weather and
at all times and anywhere on or near the Earth when and where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United
States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver.
GPS was created and realized by the U.S. Department of Defence (USDOD) and was
originally run with 24 satellites. It was established in 1973 to overcome the limitations
of previousnavigation systems. The GPS program provides critical capabilities to
military, civil and commercial users around the world. In addition, GPS is the
backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system.

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS
satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that
include the time the message was transmitted, satellite position at time of message
transmission. The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time
of each message and computes the distance to each satellite using the speed of light.
Each of these distances and satellites' locations define a sphere. The receiver is on the
surface of each of these spheres when the distances and the satellites' locations are
correct. These distances and satellites' locations are used to compute the location of
the receiver using the navigation equations. This location is then displayed, perhaps
with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

included. Many GPS units show derived information such as direction and speed,
calculated from position changes.
APPLICATIONS OF GPS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING:
3. GPS provides position information in latitude, longitude and altitude (3 dimensional)
4. GPS can also accurately provide speed and direction of travel, surveyors use GPS to
make maps and determine property boundaries.
5. GPS is used for aircraft tracking and navigation.
6. GPS also used for navigation in ships.
7. GPS is used to determine the position of moving or stationary object.
8. GPS is used to locate a vehicle, person or an animal on both water and land surfaces.
9. Defence people use it for fixing the target anywhere in the world and destroy it by
guiding the missile with the help of GPS.

APPLICATIONS OF GIS AND GPS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING:

GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses,
tracking, and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as
banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing
well synchronized hand-off switching. While originally a military project, GPS is
considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant military and civilian
applications.

1. It helps to implement corrective measures and maintenance during construction.

2. It helps in verification of design hypothesis and construction process.

3. It helps in regional planning and site investigation.

4. The hydrological and geomorphologic information along with geological

structures derivedfrom satellite data are very useful in locating groundwater
boreholes.

5. It helps in the development of national infrastructure and planning and they

provide solutionrelated to many environmental issues.
6. The image interpretation can be used in variety of ways to help monitor the quality
and quantity of water resources.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

7. It helps in exploring groundwater prospect zone.

8. Sediment pollution is often clearly depicted on aerial and space images.

9. It helps in preliminary investigation of impact assessment of dams and rehabilitation.

10. GIS provides a valuable tool in the process of planning and design of highways,
bridges etc.

11. Remote sensing plays a vital role in delineating potential areas of groundwater
occurrence for detailed exploration thus reducing the cost and time involved in
groundwater exploration.

12. GIS can be used in flood monitoring, wetland management, forest management,
landdegradation, watershed management.

13. GIS can be used in land use and land cover change analysis, urban mapping and
monitoring.

14. It can be used in locating underground pipes & cables, planning facility
maintenance, telecommunication network services, urban planning, regional
planning, and development of public facilities.

15. It can be used in locating houses and streets, car navigation, transportation
planning.

Advanced Instrumentation in Surveying

Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM):

 EDMIs were first introduced in 1950's by Geodimeter Inc. Early instruments were
large, heavy, complicated and expensive. Improvements in electronics have given
lighter, simpler, and less expensive instruments. EDM can be manufactured for use
with theodolites (both digital and optical) or as an independent unit. These can be
mounted on standard units or theodolites or can also be tribrach mounted.
 The electronic methods depend on the value of velocity of Electromagnetic
radiation (EMR), which itself is dependent upon measurement of distance and time.
Hence, there is no inherent improvement in absolute accuracy by these methods.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

The advantage is mainly functional - precise linear measurement can now be used
for longer base lines, field operations can be simplified and trilateration can replace
or augment triangulation.

Principle of EDM:
The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam from
one transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving
it back at the master station. The instrument measures slope distance between
transmitter and receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different
frequencies, and then measuring the phase difference at the master station between the
outgoing and the incoming signals. This establishes the following relationship for a
double distance (2D):

Where,
m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths contained within double
distance
Φ is the measured phase difference
λ is modulation wavelength, and
k is constant.
Classification on the basis of range
EDMs are also available as:
1. High range radio wave equipment for ranges up to 100 km.
2. Medium range microwave equipment with frequency modulation for ranges up
to 25 km.
3. Short range electro-optical equipment using amplitude modulated infra-red or
visible light for ranges up to 5 km.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

Total Station:
This is an electronic instrument. In this instrument, all the parameters required to be
observed during surveying can be obtained. The value of observation gets displayed in a
viewing panel. The precision of this type of instrument varies in the order of 0.1" to 10".
Total station surveying - defined as the use of electronic survey equipment used to
perform horizontal and vertical measurements in reference to a grid system. It is also a
form of an electronic theodolite combined with an electronic distance measuring device
(EDM).

Advantages of Total Station:

1. Relatively quick collection of information
2. Multiple surveys can be performed at one set-up location.
3. Easy to perform distance and horizontal measurements with simultaneous
calculation of project coordinates (Northings, Eastings, and Elevations).
4. Layout of construction site quickly and efficiently.
5. Digital design data from CAD programs can be uploaded to data collector.
6. Daily survey information can also be quickly downloaded into CAD which eliminates
data manipulation time required using conventional survey techniques.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

Disadvantages of Total Station:

1. Vertical elevation accuracy not as accurate as using conventional survey level and rod
technique.
2. Horizontal coordinates are calculated on a rectangular grid system. However, the real
world should be based on a spheroid and rectangular coordinates must be transformed
to geographic coordinates if projects are large scale.
3. Examples: highways, large buildings, etc.
4. As with any computer-based application “Garbage in equals Garbage out”. However,
in the case of inaccurate construction surveys “Garbage in equals lawsuits and
contractors claims for extras.”

Applications of Total Station

There are many other facilities available, the total station can be used for the following
purposes.
1. Detail Survey i.e, Data Collection
2. Height measurement (Remove elevation measurement- REM).
3. Control Survey (Traverse).
4. Fixing of missing pillars (or) Setting out (or) Stake out.
5. Area calculations, etc.
6. Remote distance measurement (RDM) or Missing line measurement (MLM).

Electronic Theodolite
Electronic theodolites function in a manner that is very similar to the optical theodolites
and the vernier transit. After the backsight has been set, they have zero-set buttons for
rapid instrument orientation. Horizontal angles can be turned right and left, and repeat

-angle averaging is available on a few models.

Applications of Total Station

1. To measure the horizontal angle and vertical angle between two points accurately up
to a precision of “1”[ one second].
2. To check the alignments of roads, railways track tunnel and bridges.
3. It is used in the prolongation of alignment of road, railways etc.
4. It is used for measurements of bearing and measurements of horizontal and vertical
distances and determination of the direction of true north.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

5. A telescope which can rotate or transit through 360° about a transverse horizontal axis.
6. The bearings for this horizontal or trunnion axis are mounted in two vertical pillars or
standards.
7. The standards are mounted on a horizontal upper plate.
8. The upper plate rotates through 360° about a vertical or alidade axis, the bearing for
the alidade axis is mounted in a lower horizontal plate.

Drone
The main applications of drone surveying are in:
1. Land surveying
2. Precise measurements
3. Land management and development
4. Volumetric measurements
5. Slope monitoring
6. Urban planning
1. Land Surveying/Cartography
Drone surveying generates high-resolution orthomosaic maps and 3D models of areas to
create accurate cadastral maps. It provides information on a site with low-
quality/outdated/no data available
2. Land Management and Development
The aerial images obtained from drones simplify topographic surveys for land
management and planning. It facilitates site scouting, allotment planning, design, and
the final construction of roads, buildings, and utilities. In addition, the data is used for
pre-construction engineering studies transferred to CAD or BIM software to work with
3D models.

3. Precise Measurements
The surveyors can perform highly-accurate distance and surface measurements using
the high-resolution orthomosaic photos from drone surveying.
4. Volumetric Measurements
The images obtained from drone surveying can be used in 3D mapping software, from
which volumetric measurements are obtained. The method is used primarily for
calculating stocks in mines and quarries for inventory or monitoring purposes.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI

 Earth Resources and Engineering (21CV34)

5.Slope Monitoring
The DTMs and DSMs generated by drone imagery and GIS analysis enable the extraction
of slope measurements. Moreover, in some site conditions, the orthomosaic maps are
generated at different times to detect changes in the earth’s movement and
measurement of velocity. This method, hence, helps in slope monitoring for landslide
mitigation and prevention, for example, predicting landslides, preventing potential
damage to roads, railways, bridges, etc.
6. Urban Planning
Drone surveys help urban planners collect up-to-date data of a complex urban area
quickly using less staff to study the existing social and environmental conditions of the
sites. This makes the planning stage of the development of an urban area easier.

Prof.B.L.Navalayi KLECET CHIKODI