Maryland Institute of Technology and Management Operating System [CEP504]

MODULE 01

Highway Network Planning

Transportation:- Transportation refers to the application of scientific and technological principles to the
planning, design, operation, and management of systems for the safe, efficient, and sustainable movement of
people and goods.

Differents modes of transportation

India has a diverse and extensive transportation network that supports the movement of people and goods
across its vast geography. The major modes of transportation in India are:

1. Road Transport

 Description: The most widely used mode in India.

 Types:
o Private vehicles (cars, two-wheelers)
o Public transport (buses, auto-rickshaws, taxis)
o Freight carriers (trucks, vans)
 Key Features:
o National and State Highways
o Rural roads under PMGSY

2. Rail Transport

 Description: Operated by Indian Railways, one of the world’s largest rail networks.
 Types:
o Passenger trains (local, express, superfast)
o Freight trains
o Metro trains in urban areas (Delhi Metro, Mumbai Metro, etc.)
 Key Features:
o Cost-effective for long-distance travel and bulk goods

3. Air Transport

 Description: Fastest mode of transport, used for both domestic and international travel.
 Types:
o Commercial airlines (IndiGo, Air India, SpiceJet, etc.)
o Cargo airlines
 Key Features:
o Major international airports: Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad
o Regional connectivity boosted by UDAN scheme

4. Water Transport

 Description: Includes both inland and maritime transport.

 Types:
o Inland Waterways (rivers, canals)
o Coastal shipping
o Major ports (Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, etc.)

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 Key Features:
o Economical for heavy and bulk goods
o National Waterways developed for inland transport.

Role of Highway Transportation

1. Economic Development

 Facilitates Trade: Highways connect production centers with markets, ports, and other distribution
points.
 Supports Industry and Commerce: Efficient road transport helps reduce logistics costs and
improves supply chain reliability.
 Boosts Tourism: Good road networks make tourist destinations more accessible.

2. Connectivity and Accessibility

 Urban–Rural Link: Highways connect rural areas with urban centers, enhancing access to jobs,
education, healthcare, and other services.
 National Integration: By linking various regions, highways contribute to a sense of unity and
national cohesion.

3. Freight and Logistics

 Efficient Goods Transport: Highways handle a significant share of freight transport, especially
over short to medium distances.
 Intermodal Linkages: Serve as connectors between other modes of transport (airports, seaports,
railways).

5. Employment Generation

 Construction and Maintenance: Creates jobs in infrastructure development and ongoing upkeep.
 Ancillary Services: Supports businesses like fuel stations, motels, restaurants, and vehicle repair
services.

6. Defense and Security

 Military Mobility: Strategic roads allow for the rapid movement of defense personnel and
equipment.
 Surveillance and Patrolling: Highways help in maintaining law and order across regions.

7. Urban Development

 Guides Growth: The layout of highways often determines the direction of urban expansion.
 Real Estate Value: Proximity to highways generally increases property value.

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Maryland Institute of Technology and Management Operating System [CEP504]

Classification of Network pattern

The classification of highway network patterns refers to the different ways in which roads are laid out to connect
cities, towns, and regions. These patterns affect traffic flow, connectivity, accessibility, and planning efficiency.

Here are the main types of highway network patterns:

1. Grid Pattern

 Structure: Roads are laid out in a rectangular grid with streets running at right angles.
 Common In: Flat, urban areas.
 Advantages:
o Easy navigation and expansion.
o Multiple alternate routes.
 Disadvantages:
o Can cause congestion at intersection

2. Radial or Star Pattern

 Structure: Highways radiate outward from a central point (like spokes of a wheel).
 Common In: Cities with a central business district (CBD).
 Advantages:
o Direct routes from center to periphery.
 Disadvantages:
o Congestion at the center.
o Peripheral connections are weaker.

3. Ring (Circular) Pattern

 Structure: Highways form a circle around a central area, often connected by radial roads.
 Common In: Large cities (ring roads or bypasses).
 Advantages:
o Reduces congestion in city centers.
o Facilitates bypassing of through traffic.
 Disadvantages:
o Can be costly and land-intensive.

4. Radial and Ring (Combined) Pattern

 Structure: A combination of radial roads and ring roads.

 Common In: Planned cities and metropolitan areas.
 Advantages:
o Balances direct access and traffic distribution.
 Disadvantages:
o Complex planning and maintenance.

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Planning survey and preparation of plans

A planning survey in highway engineering is a set of investigations and data collection activities carried out
to guide the design, location, and construction of roads and highways. The primary aim is to gather
relevant information for developing a cost-effective and efficient highway network.

Objective of planning survey

 Estimate future traffic demand.

 Determine the best route alignment.
 Assess economic feasibility.
 Identify social and environmental impacts.
 Support budgeting and policy decisions.

Steps in Highway Planning Survey Process

1. Define Objectives: Identify the scope and purpose of the proposed highway.
2. Preliminary Reconnaissance: Rough assessment of possible routes and regions.
3. Data Collection: Use field studies, aerial surveys, satellite imagery, and GIS tools.
4. Data Analysis: Evaluate collected information to determine the most feasible route.
5. Preparation of Plan: Propose alignments, design standards, and phasing of construction.
6. Reporting and Approval: Submit findings for governmental and public review.

Types of Data Collected in Planning Surveys

Survey Type Purpose
Study current and projected traffic volumes, vehicle types, peak hours,
1. Traffic Survey
etc.
2. Origin–Destination Survey (O–D
Understand travel patterns and trip purposes.
Survey)
3. Road Inventory Survey Record existing road conditions, widths, materials, drainage, signs, etc.
4. Topographical Survey Gather physical features like elevation, terrain, natural obstacles.
5. Soil and Subgrade Survey Analyze soil type and bearing capacity for pavement design.
6. Economic Survey Estimate cost-benefit, land value, and economic activities.
7. Environmental Survey Evaluate ecological impact, pollution, and mitigation needs.
8. Socio-economic Survey Understand impact on population, settlements, livelihoods.
Master Plan in Highway Engineering
A Master Plan for highways is a comprehensive, long-term blueprint that outlines the development,
expansion, and modernization of a highway network within a specific region or country. It integrates
technical, economic, social, and environmental aspects to guide systematic road infrastructure development.

Objectives of a Highway Master Plan

 Provide long-term planning for national, regional, and local road networks.
 Ensure balanced and integrated development of highways.
 Improve connectivity between key cities, towns, ports, and economic zones.
 Plan for future traffic growth and technological advancements.
 Optimize resource allocation and investment priorities.

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Steps in Preparing a Highway Master Plan

1. Data Collection & Surveys

o Traffic, topography, economy, land use, and environmental data.
2. Analysis of Existing Network
o Condition assessment, capacity, safety, and congestion points.
3. Forecasting Future Needs
o Population growth, vehicle ownership trends, trade flow, etc.
4. Developing Strategic Alternatives
o Multiple route options, new corridors, widening plans.
5. Evaluation and Selection
o Cost-benefit analysis, environmental impact, social equity.
6. Drafting the Master Plan
o Including maps, designs, policy recommendations, and timelines.
7. Public Consultation and Finalization
o Gather input from stakeholders before approval and adoption.

20-Year Road Plans in India (Nagpur, Bombay, Lucknow Plans)

India has implemented three major 20-year road development plans since independence to guide
systematic growth of the road network. These are:

1. First 20-Year Road Plan (Nagpur Plan: 1943–1963)

 Proposed road length: 532,000 km

 Classified roads into:
o National highways
o Provincial highways
o District roads
o Village roads
 Road density target: 16 km per 100 sq. km of area.
 Considered factors: Agricultural and industrial development, and strategic military movement.

2. Second 20-Year Road Plan (Bombay Plan: 1961–1981)

 Total road length target: 10 lakh km (1 million km)

 Road density target: 32 km per 100 sq. km
 Rural roads received more focus to connect villages with nearby markets and towns.
 Emphasis on construction standards, road surfacing, and maintenance.

3. Third 20-Year Road Plan (Lucknow Plan: 1981–2001)

 target: Based on population and vehicle growth projections.

 Emphasis on:
o Widening and strengthening existing roads.
o Reducing transport costs.
o Enhancing road safety and maintenance.
 Priority for rural connectivity and energy-efficient transport.

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Salient Features of a Highway Network

A highway network refers to the interconnected system of roads designed for the efficient movement of
vehicles and goods across regions. The quality of this network significantly affects a country's economic,
social, and strategic development.

1. Hierarchical Structure

 Classified into different types based on function and capacity:

o Expressways – High-speed, controlled access roads.
o National Highways (NH) – Connect major cities and states.
o State Highways (SH) – Link state capitals and district HQs.
o Major District Roads (MDR) – Connect towns with SH/NH.
o Rural or Village Roads (VR) – Access to villages and farms.

2. Connectivity and Coverage

 Ensures nationwide integration, linking:

o Urban and rural areas
o Industrial and agricultural zones
o Ports, airports, and railway hubs

3. Standardization

 Based on IRC (Indian Roads Congress) guidelines in India.

 Uniform standards for:
o Road width
o Pavement type
o Signage and markings
o Load-bearing capacity

Determination of Road Length in a Highway Network

The determination of road length is a crucial step in highway planning to ensure adequate infrastructure
for current and future transport needs. It involves calculating the total road length required for a region or
country based on various factors like area, population, and connectivity needs.

Methods of Determining Road Length

1. Formula Used in Nagpur Plan (1943–1963)
The Nagpur Road Plan used a formula-based approach for calculating road requirements:
🧮 Formula:
Total Road Length (km) = (A / 8) + (B / 32) + N + 1.6C + 8E
Where:

 A = Agricultural area (sq. km)

 B = Non-agricultural area (sq. km)
 N = Number of towns/villages with population over 2,000
 C = Number of towns/villages with population between 500–2,000
 E = Number of towns/villages with population below 500

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2. Road Density Approach

 Road density is a common metric:

Road Length (km) per 100 sq.km of area

 Target values vary by region and development level:

o Developed countries: >100 km/100 sq.km
o Rural India (Bombay Plan target): 32 km/100 sq.km

3.Population-Based Norms

 Road requirement is also projected based on population:

e.g., 3.3 km of road per 1,000 people (indicative, varies by policy)

Introduction to Highway Economics

Highway economics is a branch of transportation economics that deals with the economic evaluation,
planning, and decision-making related to the construction, operation, and maintenance of highways. It
focuses on analyzing costs, benefits, efficiency, and the impact of road infrastructure on society and the
economy.

Objective of Highway Economics

 Are economically viable

 Maximize social and economic benefits
 Utilize resources efficiently
 Minimize transportation costs and time

Key Concepts in Highway Economics

1. Cost Analysis

 Capital Costs: Land acquisition, construction, bridges, interchanges, etc.

 Operating Costs: Maintenance, lighting, toll collection, etc.
 User Costs: Vehicle operation, fuel, time delay, accidents.

2. Benefit Analysis

 Reduced travel time

 Fuel savings
 Lower vehicle maintenance
 Increased safety
 Economic growth in connected areas

3. Economic Evaluation Techniques

 Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)

 Net Present Value (NPV)

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 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

 Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)
 Payback Period

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MODULE 2

Principles of Highway Alignment

Highway alignment refers to the positioning of the centreline of a highway on the ground. It involves both
horizontal alignment (the layout of the road in the horizontal plane) and vertical alignment (the profile in the
vertical plane). Good alignment is essential for safety, economy, ease of construction, and user comfort.
Here are the main principles of highway alignment.

1. Economy
 The alignment should be cost-effective in terms of construction, maintenance, and operation.
 It should minimize earthwork, land acquisition, and the need for structures like bridges or tunnels.

2. Safety
 The route should be selected to minimize accident risks.
 It should provide adequate sight distances, avoid sharp curves, and minimize steep gradients.

3. Minimum Curves
 The alignment should have long straight sections and avoid frequent or sharp horizontal and vertical
curves.
 Gentle curves improve comfort, safety, and speed.

4. Short and Direct Route

 The alignment should be the shortest practical route between two points.
 A direct route reduces travel time and fuel consumption.

5. Comfort
 The alignment should provide a smooth ride with gradual curves and grades.
 It should consider driver fatigue, especially over long distances.

6. Accessibility
 It should connect key population centers, industrial areas, and important locations like ports, airports,
etc.
 Good alignment ensures easy accessibility to nearby towns and cities.

7. Drainage Considerations
 The alignment should follow ridgelines or elevated ground when possible to facilitate natural
drainage.
 Avoid routes through flood-prone or marshy areas.

8. Geometric Design Standards

 Alignment must comply with road design standards for the class of road (e.g., expressways,
highways, local roads).
 Includes considerations for lane width, shoulders, curvature, and super-elevation.

Requirements of Highway Alignment

Highway alignment must fulfill several engineering, environmental, economic, and safety-related
requirements to ensure that the road is functional, durable, cost-effective, and safe for users. These
requirements guide the selection and design of the most suitable path for a highway.
1. Good Connectivity
 Should connect important towns, cities, markets, industrial hubs, and tourist places efficiently.

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 Should provide easy access to nearby areas and reduce travel time.

2. Shortest and Most Economical Route

 The alignment should be as short and direct as possible while avoiding difficult terrain or expensive
structures.
 Helps in reducing initial construction cost, fuel consumption, and vehicle operating costs.

4. Favorable Geometric Design

o Adequate sight distance
o Smooth curves (horizontal and vertical)
o Safe gradients
o Proper lane and shoulder widths

9. Future Expansion Possibilities

o Likely growth in traffic volume
o Potential for widening
o Space for service roads, utilities, etc.

Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

Highway alignment is influenced by several natural, economic, social, and technical factors. These factors
must be carefully studied during the planning and design stages to ensure a safe, economical, and sustainable
road.
1. Topography
 One of the most important factors.
 In plains, alignment can be straight and direct.
 In hilly or mountainous areas, alignment must follow contours, avoid steep slopes, and minimize
cuts/tunnels.

2. Geological and Soil Conditions

 Areas with unstable soil (like black cotton soil or marshes) are avoided.
 The presence of hard rock, landslide zones, or fault lines impacts alignment.
 Bearing capacity of soil influences embankment design and pavement structure.

3. Economic Considerations
 Cost of land acquisition, construction, and maintenance affects the choice of alignment.
 Avoid expensive structures (e.g., bridges, tunnels) where alternatives exist.
 Minimize earthwork and relocation costs.

4. Traffic Requirements
 Future traffic volume, vehicle type, and speed expectations must be considered.
 Roads carrying heavy or high-speed traffic need:
o Gentle curves
o Wider lanes
o Smoother gradients

Engineering Survey for Highway Alignment

1. Map Study
 Topographic maps (usually 1:50,000 scale) are used to:

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o Understand general terrain features.

o Identify rivers, hills, forests, villages, roads, and railways.
o Suggest possible alternative routes.
 Helps in preliminary planning before field visits.

2. Reconnaissance Survey
 A rough field inspection of the area.
 Purpose:
o Examine terrain, soil type, drainage, existing infrastructure.
o Note obstacles like rivers, hills, buildings.
o Mark tentative routes.
 Tools: GPS, binoculars, compass, altimeter.

3. Preliminary Survey
 A more detailed study of the shortlisted alignments from reconnaissance.
 Tasks include:
o Taking topographic cross-sections and longitudinal profiles.
o Estimating earthwork, drainage, and structural requirements.
o Soil testing and hydrological observations.
o Comparing alternative alignments on technical and economic grounds.
 Outcome: Selection of final alignment.

4. Final Location Survey

 Exact alignment is marked on the ground (called centerline).
 Activities include:
o Placing pegs and reference pillars.
o Detailed survey for levels, curves, gradients.
o Preparing plans, profiles, and cross-sections.
o Collecting data for detailed design and construction.

Importance of Geometric Design of Highways

Geometric design refers to the physical dimensions and layout of road elements such as alignment, cross-
section, sight distance, gradients, curves, and intersections. It plays a vital role in ensuring safety, efficiency,
and comfort for road users.

1. Safety of Road Users

 Proper geometric design reduces accident risks.
 Adequate sight distance, lane width, shoulders, and curves help drivers react in time.
 Safe intersections and pedestrian facilities minimize conflicts.

2. Efficiency and Traffic Flow

 Ensures smooth and uninterrupted movement of vehicles.
 Good design supports higher speeds with fewer delays.
 Properly designed interchanges, turning lanes, and merges reduce congestion.

3. User Comfort
 Gradual curves and gentle gradients improve ride comfort.
 Proper super-elevation, camber, and transition curves make driving smoother and less tiring.

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4. Cost-Effectiveness
 Optimized design minimizes:
o Earthwork (cutting/filling)
o Structure costs (bridges, culverts)
o Maintenance needs
 Reduces vehicle operating costs (fuel, wear and tear).

5. Accommodation of Future Traffic

 Geometric design accounts for future growth in traffic volume.
 Allows for widening, addition of lanes, and other improvements as needed.

7. Standards and Uniformity

 Follows national or international road design standards (e.g., IRC, AASHTO).
 Ensures consistency across different highway projects, which helps users understand and predict
road behavior.

Design Controls and Criteria for Geometric Design of Roads

Geometric design of roads is governed by specific design controls and criteria to ensure that the road is
safe, efficient, economical, and comfortable for all types of users. These are set based on traffic
characteristics, terrain, environmental factors, and design standards.

1. Design Speed
 Definition: The maximum safe speed that vehicles can maintain on a road under favorable
conditions.
 Importance: All geometric elements like sight distance, curve radius, super-elevation, and
gradients are based on design speed.
 Varies with terrain and road classification (e.g., 100 km/h for expressways, 50 km/h for urban
roads).

2. Traffic Volume and Composition

 Influences:
o Lane width
o Shoulder width
o Number of lanes
o Intersection design
 Design should accommodate present and projected future traffic, including heavy vehicles,
pedestrians, and cyclists.

3. Terrain Classification
 Based on cross slope of land:
o Plain (0–10%)
o Rolling (10–25%)
o Hilly (25–60%)

5. Vehicle Characteristics
 Size, weight, acceleration, braking, and turning radius of:
o Passenger cars
o Buses
o Trucks
o Two-wheelers

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Maryland Institute of Technology and Management Operating System [CEP504]

Cross-Section Elements of Geometric Design of Roads

The cross-section of a road refers to the transverse view of the roadway and includes various structural and
functional components. Proper design of these elements ensures safety, comfort, drainage, and durability
of the road.

1. Carriageway (Pavement Width)

 Portion of the road used by moving vehicles.
 Width depends on:
o Number and type of lanes
o Design speed
o Traffic volume
 Standard lane width:
o 3.5 m per lane (IRC standard)
o Narrower in village/low-volume roads

2. Shoulders
 Portion of the road adjacent to the carriageway.
 Provides:
o Space for emergencies or breakdowns
o Support to pavement edge
o Pedestrian use in rural areas
 Width: Typically 2.5 m (may be paved or unpaved)

3. Kerbs
 Raised edges between carriageway and footpath or median.
 Functions:
o Control traffic
o Protect pedestrians
o Provide structural support

4. Side Slopes
 Slopes of embankment or cutting.
 Ensures stability of the road structure.
 Typical slope:
o Embankment: 2:1
o Cutting: 1:1 or flatter

5. Camber (Cross Slope)

 Transverse slope provided to drain off rainwater.
 Slopes from the centerline to the edge.
 Values:
o 2–3% for bituminous roads
o 3–4% for gravel or earthen roads

6. Medians (Dividers)
 Separate opposing traffic on multi-lane roads.
 Improve safety by preventing head-on collisions.
 May include barriers, landscaping, or lighting poles.
 Width: Varies from 1.2 m to 5 m or more

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7. Footpaths (Sidewalks)
 Provided in urban roads for pedestrian movement.
 Usually 1.5 to 2.5 m wide depending on foot traffic.

8. Right of Way (ROW)

 Total land width acquired for the road.
 Includes carriageway, shoulders, side drains, footpaths, and space for future expansion.
 Varies with type of road and terrain.

9. Road Margins
 Areas beyond the shoulders (within ROW).
 Used for utilities, tree plantation, signs, etc.

Sight Distance in Highway Engineering

Sight distance is the length of roadway visible to the driver ahead at any given time. It is a critical
component of geometric design as it directly affects road safety. Adequate sight distance allows a driver
to perceive an object on the road, react, and stop or overtake safely.

1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

 Definition: The minimum distance required for a driver to stop the vehicle after seeing an obstacle,
without colliding.

Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely
without collision with any other obstruction.

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There is a term called safe stopping distance and is one of the important measures in traffic engineering.
It is the distance a vehicle travels from the point at which a situation is first perceived to the time the
deceleration is complete. Drivers must have adequate time if they are to suddenly respond to a situation.
Thus in highway design, sight distance atleast equal to the safe stopping distance should be provided. The
stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking distance. Lag distance is the distance the
vehicle traveled during the reaction time t and is given by vt, where v is the velocity in m∕sec2. Braking
distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation. For a level road this is obtained by
equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the vehicle. If F is the maximum
frictional force developed and the braking distance is l, then work done against friction in stopping the
vehicle is Fl = fWl where W is the total weight of the vehicle. The kinetic energy at the design speed is

Therefore, the SSD = lag distance + braking distance and given by:

. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

OSD is the minimum distance required for a vehicle to safely overtake another vehicle on a two-lane
road without causing a collision with oncoming traffic.

Factors affecting OSD:

 Speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles

 Reaction time of the driver
 Acceleration capability of the overtaking vehicle
 Distance between vehicles during and after overtaking
 Opposing traffic speed

Sight Distance at Intersections

Sight distance at intersections is the minimum visibility distance needed for a driver at an intersection
to see cross traffic and make safe decisions (e.g. enter, stop, or cross).

Types of Intersection Sight Distance:

1. Approach Sight Distance: To see the intersection and vehicles approaching from other directions.
2. Departure Sight Distance: To ensure a driver can safely leave the intersection after stopping.
3. Crossing Sight Distance: To cross another road without conflict with oncoming traffic.

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Design of Horizontal Alignment in Highways

Horizontal alignment refers to the path of the road in plan view (top-down view) that is, how it curves
left or right when viewed from above. It includes straight sections (tangents) and curved sections
(horizontal curves) to ensure smooth, safe movement for vehicles.

Key Components of Horizontal Alignment:

1. Tangents (Straight sections)

o Connect curves and provide clear sight distance.
o Ideally long enough to ensure overtaking and smooth transitions.
2. Horizontal Curves
o Connect two tangents at a turning point.
o Circular curves are commonly used.
3. Transition Curves (Spirals)
o Gradually introduce curvature from tangent to circular curve.
o Provide smooth and safe vehicle entry/exit into the curve.
o Commonly used types: Clothoid (spiral) curves.
4. Superelevation (e)
o The tilting of the road surface on curves to counteract centrifugal force.
o Measured in % or as a ratio (e.g., 6% or 1 in 16.7).

Analysis of superelevation

Let us say Design speed = V m/s Radius = R (meter)

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Various forces acting on the vehicle:

Where e = rate of superelevation in % f = lateral friction factor = 0.15 V = velocity of vehicle in m/s g =
acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 R = radius of circular curve in meters.

Horizontal Transition Curves

Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to circularcurve
gradually and has a radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to the desired
radius of the circular curve at the other end (curve point)
Thus, the functions of transition curve in the horizontal alignment are given below:

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 To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and safety
 To enable gradual introduction of the designed super elevation and extra widening of
pavement at the start of the circular curve.
 To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road

Type of transition curve

Different types of transition curves are
a) Spiral or Clothoid
b) Cubic Parabola
c) Lemniscates

Length of transition curve

The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of thefollowing
three criteria
1) Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration
2) Rate of Change of Super Elevation
3) An Empirical Formula Given by IRC

Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration

At the tangent point, radius is infinity and hence centrifugal acceleration (v2 /R) is zero,as the radius is
infinity. At the end of the transition, the radius R has minimum value Rm. Hencethe rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration is distributed over a length Ls. Let the length of transition curve be Ls m. If
‘t’ is the time taken in seconds to traverse this transition length at uniform design speed of v m/sec, t
= Ls/v. The maximum centrifugal acceleration of v2/R is introduced in time t through the transition
length Ls and hence the rate of centrifugal acceleration C is given by
If the design speed is given in kmph

C - rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m/sec3

Ls – length of transition curve

R – radius of the circular curve, m
Design of Vertical Alignment in Highways
Vertical alignment refers to the profile (side view) of the highway — it controls the rises (grades) and
falls (slopes) along the route. It is a critical element of road geometry to ensure smooth driving, proper
drainage, fuel efficiency, and safety.
Components of Vertical Alignment:

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1. Gradient (Grade)
o The slope of the road along its length.
o Expressed in percentage (%), e.g., 3% means a 3-meter rise over 100 meters.
o Types:
 Ruling Gradient – desirable, used under normal conditions.
 Limiting Gradient – used when terrain or cost restricts ruling gradient.
 Exceptional Gradient – used for short lengths in difficult terrain.
 Minimum Gradient – ensures drainage (e.g., 0.5–1%).
 Vertical Curves
 Smooth transitions between two different grades.
 Types:
o Summit Curve (convex): upward turning, e.g., valley to hill.
o Sag Curve (concave): downward turning, e.g., hill to valley.
 Length of Vertical Curve
 Ensures comfort and safety by limiting sudden changes in slope.
 Depends on sight distance, gradient difference, and design speed.

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Design of vertical curve

What Is a Vertical Curve?

A vertical curve is used to provide a smooth transition between two different roadway grades (slopes) —
either a crest (hill) or sag (valley).

 Crest Curve: When the curve connects an ascending grade to a descending grade (convex).
 Sag Curve: When the curve connects a descending grade to an ascending grade (concave).

Summit curves are designed based on a single criterion. This criterion is nothing but the sight distance
required at each section of the highway. If you recall from the valley curve design criteria there were
two, i.e., sight distance and comfort criteria. But why is the comfort criterion not used here?

Summit Curve Formula

The length of a summit curve depends on the following parameters.
a) Deviation angle, N = |(±n1) - (±n2)|
b) Stopping sight distance (SSD)
c) Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
d) Height of an obstacle from the road surface (h) ( i.e., 15 cm as per IRC)
e) Height of the eye level of the driver from the road surface (H) (i.e., 1.2m as per

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MODULE 3
Traffic Engineering Principles
In traffic engineering, understanding the traffic characteristics is essential for planning, designing, and
operating efficient and safe transportation systems. These characteristics are typically categorized into three
broad groups:

1. Road User Characteristics

These relate to how drivers, pedestrians, and cyclists behave and respond to road environments. Important
factors include:
A. Physical Characteristics

 Vision (e.g. visual acuity, peripheral vision)

 Hearing
 Reaction time (typically 1.5 to 2.5 seconds)
 Motor skills (coordination, agility)

B. Mental Characteristics

 Perception and interpretation of signs/signals

 Decision-making ability
 Risk perception

C. Psychological Factors

 Aggressiveness
 Patience
 Alertness
 Fatigue or intoxication

2. Vehicular Characteristics
These influence traffic flow, road design, and capacity.
A. Static Characteristics

 Vehicle dimensions (length, width, height)

 Weight (important for pavement and bridge design)

B. Dynamic Characteristics

 Acceleration and deceleration capabilities

 Braking distance
 Turning radius
 Gradeability (ability to climb slopes)

C. Vehicle Types

 Passenger cars
 Buses
 Trucks (light/heavy)
 Two-wheelers
 Non-motorized vehicles (carts, cycles, etc.)
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3. Traffic Flow Characteristics

These are the core variables used in traffic analysis and design:
A. Traffic Volume (q)

 Number of vehicles passing a point per unit time (veh/hr)

B. Speed (v)

 Spot Speed: Speed of a vehicle at a specific point

 Average Speed:
o Time Mean Speed (arithmetic mean)
o Space Mean Speed (harmonic mean)

C. Density (k)

 Number of vehicles per unit length of road (veh/km)

D. Headway and Gap

 Headway: Time between two successive vehicles (sec)

 Gap: Space between vehicles (m)

E. Occupancy

 Percentage of time a point on the road is occupied by vehicles

Components of a Traffic Stream

Traffic streams are generally analyzed under three primary components:
1. Speed (v)

 Definition: The rate at which a vehicle travels over a section of road.

 Units: kilometers per hour (km/h) or meters per second (m/s)

Types of Speed:

 Spot speed: Instantaneous speed at a specific location

 Average speed:
o Time mean speed (simple average of speeds)
o Space mean speed (based on travel time across a segment)

2. Flow or Volume (q)

 Definition: Number of vehicles passing a point on a roadway per unit time.

 Units: vehicles per hour (veh/hr)

Related Concepts:

 Traffic volume: Total number of vehicles during a time period

 Peak hour volume: Volume during the busiest 1-hour period
 Vehicle classification: Flow separated by vehicle types (cars, trucks, bikes)

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3. Density (k)

 Definition: Number of vehicles occupying a unit length of roadway at a given instant.

 Units: vehicles per kilometer (veh/km)

Speed-Density Relationship

The relationship between speed and density is non-linear and inverse. It is typically modeled using the
fundamental diagram of traffic flow.

A. Greenshields’ Model (Linear)

 Assumes a linear relationship:

B. Other Models

 Greenberg Model (logarithmic)

 Underwood Model (exponential)
 Pipes-Munjal Model (nonlinear, empirical)

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Speed Density and Volume Relationship

Hourly Design Volume (HDV)

Hourly Design Volume (HDV) is a crucial concept in traffic engineering used in highway design,
intersection planning, and capacity analysis. It represents the estimated number of vehicles expected to use a
road or facility during the design hour.

 The traffic volume (vehicles/hour) expected during a specific design hour.

 It's used for designing roadways, intersections, and traffic control devices.
 30th highest hourly volume (30HV) of the year

Application of HDV

 Highway and road design (number of lanes, turning lanes)

 Signal timing and intersection control
 Capacity and Level of Service (LOS) analysis
 Traffic impact studies
 Roundabout sizing
 Urban vs. rural roadway classification

EPCU
EPCU (Equivalent Passenger Car Unit) is a numerical factor that represents the impact of a vehicle type on
traffic flow relative to a standard passenger car.

 A car has an EPCU = 1 (baseline)

 Other vehicle types are assigned EPCUs based on their size, speed, and influence on traffic, such as:
o Motorcycles: < 1
o Buses, trucks: > 1

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Use of EPCU
Traffic on roads is usually heterogeneous, meaning it includes various types of vehicles. Since larger or
slower vehicles affect traffic flow differently, EPCUs help to:

 Standardize traffic flow for analysis and design

 Convert mixed traffic into equivalent flow of passenger cars
 Design road capacity, lane widths, intersections, signals, etc.

Example EPCU Values

Vehicle Type EPCU (Highways)
Passenger Car 1.0
Motorcycle 0.3 – 0.5
Auto Rickshaw 1.0 – 1.2
1.5 – 2.0
Light Commercial

Level of Service (LOS) in Traffic Engineering

Level of Service (LOS) is a qualitative measure used in traffic engineering to describe the operating
conditions of a roadway or intersection. It reflects the quality of traffic flow from the perspective of drivers
and is based on factors like speed, travel time, comfort, freedom to maneuver, delays, and traffic
interruptions.

Key Points

 LOS is typically rated on a scale from A to F

 LOS A = best (free-flow traffic)
 LOS F = worst (heavily congested, stop-and-go)

Parking Studies and Road Safety in Traffic Engineering

Parking studies and road safety are two interconnected components of traffic engineering. Proper parking
management directly affects traffic flow, pedestrian safety, and crash rates, particularly in urban
environments.

Parking Studies

Parking studies involve the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data related to how parking facilities
are used. The goal is to optimize the availability, efficiency, and safety of parking spaces.

Key Objectives:

 Determine parking demand and supply

 Understand parking behavior (duration, turnover)
 Improve traffic flow and reduce congestion
 Plan for future parking needs
 Inform decisions on pricing, regulation, and infrastructure

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Road Safety

Road safety focuses on reducing the risk of crashes, injuries, and fatalities on the roadway by improving
road design, user behavior, vehicle safety, and traffic control systems.

Key Elements of Road Safety:

1. Crash Data Analysis

o Frequency, severity, and location of crashes
o Helps identify black spots (high-risk areas)
2. Road Safety Audits
o Independent review of new or existing road projects to identify potential safety issues
3. Traffic Calming Measures
o Speed bumps, chicanes, roundabouts, raised crosswalks
4. Geometric Design
o Proper lane width, shoulder width, sight distance, turning radii
5. Signage and Markings
o Visibility, consistency, reflectivity
6. Pedestrian and Cyclist Safety
o Crosswalks, sidewalks, bike lanes, pedestrian signals
7. Speed Management
o Enforcement, speed limits, traffic calming.

Types of Intersections and Their Design

1. At-grade Intersections
All roads meet at the same level (i.e., grade). These are the most common.

 Three-leg (T or Y-intersection)
o T-intersection: One road ends at another forming a "T"
o Y-intersection: Similar, but with an acute angle
 Four-leg (Cross-intersection): Two roads intersect forming a "+" or "X"
 Multi-leg Intersection: More than four roads converge (less common, more complex)

2. Grade-separated Intersections (Interchanges)

Roads cross at different levels (via bridges or tunnels) to avoid conflict points.

 Trumpet Interchange: Used where a major highway ends at another

 Cloverleaf Interchange: Allows left and right turns via loop ramps
 Diamond Interchange: Common for freeway-expressway junctions
 Stack Interchange: Multilevel, for high-capacity intersections
 Partial Cloverleaf (Parclo): Mix of loops and direct ramps

Design Considerations for Intersections

Good intersection design improves safety, reduces delay, and manages capacity.
Key Design Elements:

 Turning radii: Adequate space for vehicle turning paths (especially for trucks)
 Lane alignment: Proper channelization for smooth flow
 Pedestrian crossings: Marked and signalized where necessary

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 Traffic islands: Used to separate and guide traffic

 Traffic signals: Timed or sensor-based for efficiency
 Signage and pavement markings: Inform and guide users

Intersection Design Elements

1. Geometric Design
o Roadway alignment, number of lanes, corner radii.
o Turning paths for vehicles.
2. Control Design
o Traffic signals, stop signs, yield signs.
o Signal phasing and timing.
3. Channelization
o Use of islands, markings to guide movement.
4. Pedestrian and Cyclist Facilities
o Crosswalks, pedestrian islands, bike boxes, signal timing for pedestrians.
5. Sight Distance
o Ensures visibility for safe maneuvering.
6. Drainage and Grading
o Manages water flow and road slope.

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MODULE 4
PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND MIX DESIGN

Pavement -Pavement refers to the durable surface layer of a road, highway, runway, or other travel
path that provides a smooth, stable surface for vehicles or pedestrians. It is designed to support traffic loads
and resist environmental conditions (rain, heat, frost, etc.) over its lifespan.

TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
Pavements are broadly classified into two main types, with a third hybrid category:

1. Flexible Pavement
 Made with bituminous (asphalt) materials.
 Flexes under loads and transmits stresses to the subgrade gradually.
 Commonly used in highways, city roads, and parking lots.

1. Flexible Pavement
 Definition: Pavement that transmits wheel loads to the subgrade through grain-to-grain contact and
layer-wise deformation.
 Load Distribution: Load spreads in a cone-shaped manner through the layers.
 Structure (Typical Layers):
1. Surface Course – Asphalt concrete
2. Base Course – Granular or treated
3. Sub-base Course – Often granular
4. Subgrade – Natural soil compacted

2. Rigid Pavement
 Definition: Pavement that uses concrete slabs and distributes loads over a wide area due to slab
rigidity.
 Load Distribution: Through flexural strength of the concrete, not just thickness.
 Structure (Typical Layers):
1. Concrete Slab – Portland cement concrete
2. Base/Sub-base – Granular or stabilized layer
3. Subgrade

Advantages:

 Long service life (20–40 years)

 Low maintenance frequency

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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT – Layer-wise Functions

Flexible pavement distributes loads gradually from the surface to the subgrade, relying on the interlocking
and friction of granular layers.
1. Surface Course
 Material: Asphalt concrete
 Functions:
o Provides a smooth, skid-resistant riding surface
o Withstands traffic loads and environmental conditions
o Prevents water infiltration into lower layers
o Resists wear and deformation

2. Base Course
 Material: Crushed stone, gravel, or bitumen-treated aggregates
 Functions:
o Provides structural capacity and distributes traffic loads
o Offers drainage for water to prevent saturation
o Reduces stress on sub-base and subgrade

3. Sub-base Course
 Material: Granular material or stabilized soil
 Functions:
o Further load distribution
o Provides drainage and frost protection
o Prevents upward migration of fine particles from the subgrade (pumping)

4. Subgrade
 Material: Compacted natural soil
 Functions:
o Acts as the foundation of the pavement
o Supports all upper layers
o Must be stable and well-compacted to avoid differential settlement

RIGID PAVEMENT – Layer-wise Functions

Rigid pavement distributes loads over a wide area due to the high stiffness of concrete slabs.
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1. Concrete Slab (Surface Course)

 Material: Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
 Functions:
o Primary structural layer bearing traffic loads
o Resists bending and shearing
o Provides smooth, durable, and skid-resistant surface
o Transfers load through flexural action

2. Base/Sub-base Course
 Material: Granular material or stabilized base
 Functions:
o Provides uniform support for the concrete slab
o Improves drainage and prevents pumping
o Minimizes frost action and slab movement
o Helps prevent erosion and faulting

3. Subgrade

 Material: Compacted soil

 Functions:
o Supports the pavement structure
o Should be uniform and stable to avoid cracking or settlement

Materials used in pavements

Flexible Pavement Materials

Layer Common Materials Used
- Bituminous concrete (asphalt)
Surface Course - Polymer-modified bitumen (PMB)
- Stone matrix asphalt (SMA)

- Crushed stone (aggregates)

- Water-bound macadam (WBM)
Base Course
- Wet mix macadam (WMM)
- Bitumen-treated aggregates
- Granular sub-base (GSB)
Sub-base Course - Soil stabilized with lime, cement, or fly ash
- Quarry dust
- Compacted natural soil
Subgrade - Stabilized soil (lime/cement)
- Geo-textile layers (in poor soil areas)
Rigid Pavement Materials
Layer Common Materials Used
- Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
- Reinforced concrete (if needed)
Concrete Slab
- Fly ash or slag cement (partial replacement)
- Admixtures (plasticizers, retarders, etc.)
- Lean concrete
Base/Sub-base
- Dry lean concrete (DLC)

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- Granular base/sub-base
- Cement/lime stabilized soil
- Compacted soil
- Stabilized soil (chemical or mechanical)
Subgrade
- Geotextile for reinforcement or drainage

Basic soil properties relevant to pavement application

Gradation (Particle Size Distribution)
 Importance: Affects compaction, permeability, and stability.
 Well-graded soils (broad range of particle sizes) compact better and are more stable.
 Poorly graded soils (uniform particle sizes) may be less stable.
Atterberg Limits
 Tests: Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic Limit (PL), Plasticity Index (PI = LL - PL)
 Importance: Indicates plasticity and moisture sensitivity of fine-grained soils.
 High PI: High shrink/swell potential – problematic for pavements.
Moisture Content
 Importance: Affects compaction and load-bearing capacity.
 Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) is determined for maximum compaction.
Compaction Characteristics
 Proctor Test (Standard or Modified) determines:
o Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
o Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
 Well-compacted soils have higher strength and lower permeability.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 Importance: Measures the strength of subgrade soil for pavement design.
 Higher CBR = better load-bearing capacity.
 Used directly in pavement thickness design (especially flexible pavements).
Permeability
 Importance: Affects drainage under the pavement.
 Low permeability soils (clays) can retain water, leading to weakening and frost heave.
 Good drainage is essential to maintain long-term pavement performance.
Resilient Modulus (MR)
 Dynamic test measuring soil's ability to recover after loading.
 Used in mechanistic-empirical pavement design methods.
 Represents subgrade stiffness under repeated traffic loads.
Shear Strength
 Includes cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction (ϕ).
 Determines stability under loading and slope stability in embankments.
Different properties of Aggregates
1. Physical Properties
a. Shape of Particles
 Types: Angular, sub-angular, rounded, flaky, elongated.
 Importance: Angular particles provide better interlocking and strength.
 Flaky and elongated particles reduce stability and are undesirable.
b. Surface Texture
 Importance: Rough-textured particles improve bonding with bitumen or cement.
 Smooth particles may cause weak adhesion.
c. Specific Gravity
 Indicates the density of the aggregate material.
 Commonly used in mix design calculations.

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d. Water Absorption
 Indicates the porosity of the aggregate.
 High absorption may lead to poor durability and higher binder demand.
2. Mechanical Properties
a. Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
 Measures resistance to crushing under compression.
 Lower ACV indicates stronger aggregates.
b. Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
 Measures toughness or resistance to impact.
 Important for aggregates used in surface layers.
c. Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV)
 Measures resistance to wear and abrasion.
 Low LAAV is preferred for high-traffic roads.
4. Chemical Properties
a. Soundness
 Measures resistance to weathering, especially freeze-thaw or wet-dry cycles.
 Tested using sodium/magnesium sulfate soundness tests.
b. Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR)
 Some aggregates react with alkalis in cement, causing expansion and cracking in concrete.
 Important in rigid pavement design.
Blending of Aggregates

Blending of aggregates is the process of combining two or more types/sizes of aggregates in specific
proportions to achieve the desired gradation (particle size distribution), strength, workability, and
durability of the final mix.

Purpose of Aggregate Blending

1. Achieve Desired Gradation

o Ensure proper packing of particles for maximum density and strength.
2. Improve Workability
o Balanced mix for easy handling and compaction.
3. Optimize Strength and Stability
o Angular and well-graded aggregates enhance interlocking.
4. Control Voids and Air Content
o Essential for durability and performance.
5. Meet Specification Requirements
o Follow standards (like AASHTO, ASTM, MORTH, etc.).

Different test on bitumen

Penetration test
It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a
standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.. The penetrometer consists of a needle
assembly with a total weight of 100g and a device for releasing and locking in any position. The bitumen is
softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into containers at a depth at least 15 mm in
excess of the expected penetration. The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25 C. It may
be noted that penetration value is largely influenced by any inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature,
size of the needle, weight placed on the needle and the test temperature. A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the
penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard test conditions. In hot climates, a lower penetration
grade is preferred. The Figure 4.1 shows a schematic Penetration Test setup.

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Figure 1: Penetration Test Setup

Ductility test
Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or elongation. Ductility is
defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette of the material will be elongated
without breaking. Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square. The bitumen sample is
heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate. These samples with moulds are cooled in the air
and then in water bath at 27 C temperature. The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using a
hot knife. Then the mould with assembly containing sample is kept in water bath of the ductility machine for
about 90 minutes. The sides of the moulds are removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the
machine is operated. The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the ductility value which is
reported in cm. The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring temperature, test temperature,
rate of pulling etc. A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS. Figure 4.2 shows
ductility moulds to be filled with bitumen.

Figure 2: Ductility Test

Flash and fire point test
At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out volatiles. And these
volatiles catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this temperature for each
bitumen grade. BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen momentarily
catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions. The fire point is defined as the lowest
temperature under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.

Float test
Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by penetration test or viscosity test.
But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and Float test is used. The apparatus
consists of an aluminum float and a brass collar filled with bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould
is cooled to a temperature of 5 C and screwed in to float. The total test assembly is floated in the water bath
at 50 C and the time required for water to pass its way through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and is
expressed as the float value.

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Water content test

It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the bitumen when it is
heated above the boiling point of water. The water in a bitumen is determined by mixing known weight of
specimen in a pure petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling of the water. The weight of the
water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample. The allowable
maximum water content should not be more than 0.2% by weight.

Specific gravity test

In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In most cases bitumen is weighed, but
when used with aggregates, the bitumen is converted to volume using density values. The density of bitumen
is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in aromatic type mineral impurities cause an
increase in specific gravity.
The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of known content
to the mass of equal volume of water at 27 C. The specific gravity can be measured using either
pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state. The specific gravity of
bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

Softening point test

Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of softening under
the specifications of test. The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. A brass ring containing
test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball is
placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5 C per minute. Temperature
is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a specified distance below.
Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates.
Figure 4.3 shows Softening Point test setup.

Figure 3: Softening Point Test Setup

Gradation of Bitumen

The gradation of bitumen in pavement material refers to the classification or grading of bitumen based on its
properties, such as viscosity, penetration, or performance characteristics, to ensure it meets specific
requirements for road construction and maintenance

Types of Bitumen Grading Systems

 Penetration Grading:
o Measures the depth (in 0.1 mm) a standard needle penetrates a bitumen sample under specific
conditions (25°C, 100g load, 5 seconds).
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o Common grades: 40/50, 60/70, 80/100, 120/150.

o Lower penetration values indicate harder bitumen, suitable for warmer climates or heavy
traffic.
o Example: 60/70 means penetration between 60-70 units.
 Viscosity Grading:
o Measures bitumen’s resistance to flow at high temperatures (e.g., 60°C or 135°C).
o Common grades: VG-10, VG-20, VG-30, VG-40 (VG-30 is widely used in India for flexible
pavements).
o Higher VG numbers indicate more viscous (stiffer) bitumen, suitable for hotter climates or
heavy loads.

Importance of Bitumen Gradation in Pavements

 Durability: Proper grade ensures resistance to deformation (rutting) and cracking under traffic and
temperature variations.
 Climate Suitability: Different grades are chosen based on local climate (e.g., VG-40 for hot
climates, PG 58-28 for colder regions).
 Performance: Improves pavement life by matching bitumen properties to traffic loads and
environmental conditions.
 Workability: Affects mixing and compaction during construction.

Bituminous mix design using marshal stability method

he Marshall Stability Method is a widely used procedure for designing bituminous mixes (asphalt concrete)
for pavement construction. It determines the optimum bitumen content for a mix by evaluating its stability,
flow, and other properties under controlled laboratory conditions.

1. Overview of the Marshall Stability Method

 Purpose: To design a bituminous mix with optimal bitumen content that ensures stability, durability,
workability, and resistance to deformation (rutting) and cracking.
 Developed by: Bruce Marshall, later standardized by ASTM D6927 (Stability and Flow Test) and
AASHTO T 245.
 Application: Commonly used for designing hot mix asphalt (HMA) for flexible pavements,
especially for roads with moderate to heavy traffic.

3. Steps in Marshall Mix Design

The Marshall method involves preparing and testing cylindrical asphalt specimens to determine the optimum
bitumen content. The steps are:
Step 1: Selection of Materials

 Aggregates:
o Select aggregates meeting gradation requirements (e.g., as per ASTM D3515 or local
standards like IRC:111 for India).
o Common gradations: Dense-graded, open-graded, or gap-graded mixes.
o Ensure aggregates are clean, angular, and have good strength (e.g., Los Angeles abrasion
value <30%).
 Bitumen:
o Choose based on climate and traffic (e.g., VG-30 for moderate climates, VG-40 for hot
climates).
o Test bitumen for properties like penetration, viscosity, and softening point.
 Filler: Use materials like stone dust or hydrated lime to improve mix stability and reduce voids.
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Step 2: Aggregate Gradation

 Blend coarse and fine aggregates to achieve the desired gradation curve (e.g., as per IRC, MoRTH,
or Superpave specifications).
 Common gradation for dense-graded mixes (e.g., 19 mm nominal maximum aggregate size):
o Sieve sizes: 19 mm, 12.5 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 0.075 mm, etc.
o Ensure the gradation meets the specified envelope for the pavement type.

Step 3: Preparation of Test Specimens

 Bitumen Content: Prepare specimens with varying bitumen contents (e.g., 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 5.5%, 6%
by weight of mix).
 Mixing:
o Heat aggregates and bitumen to mixing temperature (e.g., 150–160°C for VG-30 bitumen).
o Mix thoroughly to ensure uniform coating of aggregates.
 Compaction:
o Use a Marshall compactor to compact the mix into cylindrical molds (101.6 mm diameter,
63.5 mm height).
o Apply 75 blows per side for heavy traffic, 50 blows for medium traffic, or 35 blows for light
traffic (as per ASTM D6926).
 Specimens: Prepare at least three specimens for each bitumen content.

Step 4: Testing of Specimens

 Conditioning: Soak specimens in a water bath at 60°C for 30–40 minutes (ASTM D6927).
 Marshall Stability and Flow Test:
o Place the specimen in the Marshall testing machine.
o Apply a compressive load at a rate of 50.8 mm/min until failure.
o Measure:
 Stability: Maximum load (kN) the specimen can withstand before failure.
 Flow: Deformation (in 0.25 mm units) at maximum load.
 Other Tests:
o Bulk Specific Gravity (Gmb): Measure density of compacted specimens (ASTM D2726).
o Air Voids (Va): Calculate percentage of air voids in the mix (ASTM D3203).
o Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA): Percentage of voids in the aggregate structure.
o Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB): Percentage of voids filled by bitumen.

Step 6: Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC)

 Select the bitumen content that satisfies the following criteria (e.g., as per MoRTH or AASHTO):
o Air Voids: 3–5% (typically 4% for dense-graded mixes).
o Stability: Maximum or meets minimum requirement (e.g., >9 kN for heavy traffic).
o Flow: Within 2–4 mm (or as per standards).
o VMA: Meets minimum requirements (e.g., 13–15% for 19 mm NMAS).
o VFB: Typically 65–75% for dense-graded mixes.
 The OBC is often the average bitumen content that balances these parameters, prioritizing air voids
and stability.

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MODULE 6

Pavement Construction and Maintenance

Flexible pavement is a type of road surface that consists of multiple layers designed to distribute traffic
loads to the underlying subgrade while maintaining structural integrity and flexibility. The construction of a
flexible pavement involves several layers, each with specific functions, materials, and construction methods.
Below is an overview of the typical layers of a flexible pavement, their purpose, and the construction
process, presented in a concise and structured manner.

Flexible pavements typically consist of the following layers, from top to bottom:

1. Surface Course (Wearing Course)

o Purpose: Provides a smooth, skid-resistant, and durable riding surface; protects underlying
layers from weather and traffic wear.
o Materials: Bituminous mixes (e.g., asphalt concrete, hot mix asphalt) or surface treatments
like chip seals.
o Construction:
 Clean and prepare the underlying layer (base course).
 Apply a tack coat (bitumen emulsion) to ensure bonding with the base course.
 Place the hot bituminous mix using a paver, ensuring uniform thickness (typically 25–
100 mm).
 Compact using rollers (static or vibratory) to achieve the desired density and
smoothness.
 Ensure proper surface texture for skid resistance and drainage.
2. Binder Course (Optional)
o Purpose: Provides additional structural support and acts as an intermediate layer between the
surface and base courses.
o Materials: Coarser bituminous mixes compared to the surface course.
o Construction:
 Apply a prime coat or tack coat on the base course for adhesion.
 Spread and compact the bituminous mix using a paver and rollers.
 Thickness varies (50–100 mm) based on traffic load and design requirements.
3. Base Course
o Purpose: Distributes loads from the surface to the sub-base; provides structural strength and
stability.
o Materials: Crushed stone, gravel, or reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP); sometimes
stabilized with cement or lime.
o Construction:
 Spread granular material in layers (typically 100–300 mm thick).
 Grade to the required slope and cross-section using a motor grader.
 Compact using vibratory rollers to achieve optimal density (95–98% of maximum dry
density).
 Check for uniformity and level using surveying equipment.
4. Sub-Base Course
o Purpose: Acts as a secondary load-distributing layer; improves drainage and prevents frost
action in cold climates.
o Materials: Granular materials (sand, gravel) or stabilized soils; less stringent quality than the
base course.
o Construction:
 Place material in layers (100–300 mm thick).

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 Compact using rollers to achieve specified density.

 Ensure proper drainage by maintaining cross-slope and camber.
 May include geotextiles to separate sub-base from subgrade and enhance stability.
5. Subgrade (Prepared Roadbed)
o Purpose: The foundation layer that supports the entire pavement structure; must be strong
and stable.
o Materials: Native soil or imported fill material, often stabilized with lime, cement, or
geosynthetics.
o Construction:
 Clear the site of vegetation, debris, and weak soils.
 Excavate or fill to achieve the desired elevation and slope.
 Compact the subgrade to a minimum of 95% of maximum dry density using rollers.
 Test for strength (e.g., California Bearing Ratio, CBR) to ensure it meets design
requirements (typically CBR ≥ 5–10% for flexible pavements).
 Stabilize if necessary to improve load-bearing capacity.


Layers of Flexible Pavement and MoRTH Specifications

Subgrade
o California Bearing Ratio (CBR): Minimum CBR of 8% for highways (as per IRC:37-2018)
or higher based on design traffic. For weaker soils (CBR < 8%), stabilization with lime,
cement, or geosynthetics is required.
o Thickness: Typically 500 mm (prepared and compacted), but varies based on site conditions.

Sub-Base Course
o Types:
 Granular Sub-Base (GSB): Close-graded or coarse-graded material with a minimum
CBR of 30% for high-traffic roads.
 Cement-Treated Sub-Base (CTSB): Granular material treated with cement or lime
(3–5% by weight) for improved strength (UCS ≥ 1.5–3 MPa).
o Thickness: 150–300 mm, depending on design traffic and subgrade CBR (IRC:37-2018,
Section 7).

Base Course
 Purpose: Provides structural strength to distribute traffic loads.

o Material:
 Unbound Base: Wet Mix Macadam (WMM), Water Bound Macadam (WBM), or
crushed aggregates (Table 400-2).
 Cement-Treated Base (CTB): Aggregates treated with cement (UCS ≥ 4.5–7 MPa).
 Bitumen-Treated Base: Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) treated with bitumen
emulsion or foamed bitumen (Section 407).
o Thickness: 150–250 mm for WMM/WBM, 100–200 mm for CTB, as per design (IRC:37-
2018, Section 8).

Binder Course (Optional)

o Material: Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) with viscosity-graded (VG) bitumen (e.g.,
VG-30 or VG-40).
o Thickness: 50–100 mm, depending on traffic load (IRC:37-2018, Section 9).

Surface Course (Wearing Course)

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 Purpose: Provides a smooth, durable, and skid-resistant surface; protects underlying layers.
 Bitumen: VG-30 or VG-40, or modified bitumen (e.g., PMB-40) for high
temperatures/traffic.
o Thickness: 25–50 mm for BC/SDBC, 40–50 mm for SMA.

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