FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025

COMPUTER SCIENCE FULL NOTE BOOK

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

FORM FIVE (5)

COVERING EVERY THING ABOUT THE SUBJECT SYLLABUS

A BETTER WAY OF LEARNING COMPUTER SCIENCE

WRITTEN AND EDITED BY

WRITTEN BY
MR. TAKU ARREY CLOVETTE (MR.T-K)

MASTERS IN SOFTWARE ENGINEERING.

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMPUTER ENGINEERING
HND IN SOFTWARE ENGINEERING.
UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN SOFTWARE ENGINEERING.
COMPUTER SCIENCE & ICT TEACHER

CONTACT: 671085471 (whatsapp&call) / 654541062

EMAIL: takuarrey9@gmail.com

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INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
It is an educational task designed to promote learning and transfer of knowledge. These activities are integral parts of
lessons are used by teachers to facilitate active learning, reinforce concepts, and assess students’ understanding.
Anonymous Questioning: questions come from learners.
Brainstorming: idea-generation process and exploration.
Case Study: learners are given a situation and asked to analyze it and present recommendations.
Critique: learners are asked to analyze the weaknesses and strengths of a process and make suggestions for
improvements
Demonstration: learners observe the performance of a task or procedure as conducted by an expert.
Discussion: exchange of ideas between facilitator and learners

OBJECTIVES
Identify the different parts of a lesson preparation sheet form.
Propose appropriate content for each field in the lesson preparation sheet form.
Evaluate the structure of a problem situation.
This book comprises of form five summarized notes and past questions; instructions or activities are outline on how
students can approach the tasks and engage in meaning learning experiences.

FOCUS
Problem solving: applying knowledge to solve problems. Engaging in exposes and defend exercises
Integration: combining different knowledge, skills and attitudes to solve problems.
ABOUT CHAPTERS AND LESSONS
This notebook focusses more on the class lessons which also indicates the chapters in accordance syllabus.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

MODULE I: INFORMATION SYSTEM AND DATA RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. .............................................. 5

CHAPTER 1: INFORMATION SYSTEM (ISS) .......................................................................................................... 5
Lesson 1: Introduction to information system (IS) ....................................................................................................... 5
Lesson 2: Types of Information System ........................................................................................................................... 8
Lesson 3 Original Database Management System (DBMS). .......................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2: MODELLING AND SIMULATING SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 12
5. What-if-analysis using spread sheet ....................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 3: IDENTIFYING MONITORING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS ............................................................. 13
3. Difference between monitoring and control system ........................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 4: SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC) .............................................................................. 14
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 14
3. Some popular SDLC Models .............................................................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER 5: OUTSOURCING AND DATA CAPTURE ............................................................................................ 16
CHAPTER 6: DATA RESOURCE MANAGEMENT................................................................................................... 18
MODULE II: TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY, PEOPLE AND COMPUTER SYSTEM ......................................... 20
CHAPTER 7: CAREER IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON PEOPLE AND
THE WORKPLACE HEALTH AND SAFETY WHEN USING TECHNOLOGY ...................................................... 20
Lesson 1: Careers in information technology ............................................................................................................. 20
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Lesson 2: Areas Of Application Of Computers .......................................................................................................... 21
Lesson 3: Ergonomics ................................................................................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER 8: DATABASES .......................................................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 9: PROJECT MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................... 31
7. Difference between PERT chart and Gantt chart ................................................................................................ 40
CHAPTER 10: OPERATIONS ON NUMBER SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 41
Lesson 1: Notions on number systems ....................................................................................................................... 41
LESSON 2: ANALYZING SIMPLE LOGIC CIRCUITS ......................................................................................... 44
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 44
MODULE III: SOFWARE DEVELOPMENT, PROJECTS .......................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 11: ALGORITHMS AND PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES ................................................................... 50
Lesson 1: Algorithms.................................................................................................................................................. 50
I. Algorithmic concepts .......................................................................................................................................... 50
II. Representing algorithms ................................................................................................................................. 51
Lesson 2: Programming .............................................................................................................................................. 58
6.Programming paradigms ......................................................................................................................................... 60
Lesson 3: Introduction to C Programming Language ................................................................................................. 61
CHAPTER12: WEB AUTORING.................................................................................................................................. 68
Lesson 1: Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)....................................................................................................... 68
X. HTML Links ........................................................................................................................................................... 72

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CHAPTER 13: DATA COMMUNICATION ............................................................................................................... 75

3. Communication media and devices .................................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 14: COMPUTER NETWORK AND THE INTERNET .............................................................................. 79
Lesson 1: Computer Network ..................................................................................................................................... 79
LESSON 2: THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW).............................................................. 91
CHAPTER 15: CLASSIFYING COMPUTERS ............................................................................................................ 91
3.Base on purpose....................................................................................................................................................... 92
CHAPTER 16: COMPUTER ETHICS AND LEGISLATION ...................................................................................... 92
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 92
CHAPTER 17: COMPUTER CRIME AND MEASURES TO COMBAT THEM ....................................................... 95
CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF COMPUTERS ................................................................ 98
IMPACTS OF SOCIAL NETWORKS .................................................................................................................... 100
TYPES OF COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS ....................................................................................................... 100
PRACTICAL: WORD PROCESSING, SPREADSHEET, POWERPOINT PRESENTATION, and PUBLISHER .. 101

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MODULE I: INFORMATION SYSTEM AND DATA RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT.
CHAPTER 1: INFORMATION SYSTEM (ISS)
Lesson 1: Introduction to information system (IS)
Definition:
An information system is a set of integrated elements or components that collect manipulate and disseminate
information and provide a feedback mechanism to meet an objective. The minimal information system consists of
people, procedures and data. People follow processes to manipulate data to produce information.
CBIS (computer base information system) uses computer technology as the main component of the IS of the
organization e.g. computerized library management system, computerized hospital management, computerized school
management system, computerized reservation systems for: flights, hotels, and football matches, Employee and pay
roll processing system.
1.Components of an information system
Its component includes:
➢ Data and Information: data is the set of raw facts and figures representing events, objects, images,
numbers, sound, etc. Information is data that has been processed into a form that is useful or has meaning.
➢ Hardware: This is physical technology that works with the information. Hardware can be as small as a
smartphone that can fits in a pocket or as large as supercomputer that fills a building.
➢ Software: The hardware needs to know what to do, and that is the role of Software.
➢ Networks allow diverse computers to distribute resources. Connection can be through wires or wireless.
➢ Databases and data warehouses: A database is any collection of data organized for storage, accessibility,
and retrieval whereas Data warehouse is a collection of data single or multiple sources within an
organization for reporting and analysis. (Database is designed to record data whereas the data warehouse
is designed to analyze data).
➢ Procedures are the commands for combining the components above to process information and produce
the preferred output.
➢ People (users): People operate the computer hardware, create and use the computer software.

Advantages of CBISs:
➢ Many people can access information at the same time through a network.
➢ Large filling cabinet is replaced by the computer’s large storage capacity.
➢ Save time, resources and money by processing information automatically,
➢ Facilitate communication and resource sharing to multiple users over a network.
➢ Provide fast and accurate information to support decision making.
➢ Improve productivity.
➢ Reduces duplication of information.

Disadvantages of CBISs:
➢ Security is needed to protect data/information.
➢ To use the system, the user has to be trained.
➢ Computers hold personal information which may be misused.
➢ Expensive to develop.
➢ If system crashes, all data/information can be lost.

2.Information system in the organization

An IS is an organized combination of people, hardware, software, communication networks and the data resources
in an organization.

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An organization is a social unit of people that is structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective
goals.
a. Characteristics of an Organization
➢ It has a well-defined authority.
➢ It has a co-operative relationship.
➢ It has specific objectives.
➢ Division of activities and functions.
➢ It has a distinct identity.
➢ It employs some form of leadership.
b. Functions of an Organization
A good organization has to fulfill some functions which are:
➢ It must enable the management to maximize the outputs through provision of an efficient man-machine
system.
➢ It must ensure smooth and effective network of communication and information.
➢ It must offer interesting and meaningful jobs to all individuals working in the organizations.
➢ It must create, maintain and develop its own image or individuality.

A typical organization would have six functional areas;

1. Accounting
2. Marketing
3. Human resource
4. Production
5. Research
6. Information Technology (I.T).

c. Level of management in an organization

There exist three levels of management typically found in an organization (see figure 1):
➢ Strategic Management (Top-level): it provides the organization with overall direction and guidance,
setting goals and developing long term plants for the organization.
➢ Tactical Management (Middle-level): responsible for developing the goals, objectives and strategies
based on the orientations outlined by strategic management.
➢ Operational Management (Lower-Level): They manage the day to day operations and implementations
of the plans and strategies. Developed by tactical management.

Figure 1: Management Levels in an organization

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d. Information in an organization
It can be internal, external, objective or subjective. These are also called attributes of information in an
organization.
➢ Internal information: it will describe specific operational aspects of the organization.
➢ External information: it describes the environment surrounding an organization.
➢ Objective information: it describes something that is known.
➢ Subjective information: it attempts to describe something that is currently not known.

e. Information’s flow within management in an organization

Information flow with the different management levels of organization is typically; vertical, upward, downward
and horizontal.
➢ Downward flow of information consists of strategies, goals and directives.
➢ Upward flow describes the current state of an organization based on its daily transaction.
➢ Horizontal flow refers to the information that passes among various dependents at a given managerial level.

In operational level, information flow is primarily vertical upward, from the supervisors to middle management or
tactical management level.
In middle management, information flow is vertically upward to top management and downward to operational level,
horizontal across different unit managers.
In top management, information flow is vertically downward as strategies tactical management, upward to reach external
partners and horizontal amongst members of top management.

Strategic level
Strategic
Tactical level
Strategic
Operational level
Strategic

Figure 2: Information flow pyramid

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Lesson 2: Types of Information System

Introduction
In any given organization, information system can be classified. The most common classification is the four level
model based on the people who use the systems (see figure below).

Figure 3: Four level pyramid type of IS

1.Transaction Processing System (TPS)

Transaction Processing Systems are usually operated directly by shop floor workers or front line staff, which
provides the key data required to support the management of operations. This data is usually obtained through the
automated or semi-automated tracking of low-level activities and basic transactions.
Some examples of TPS: payroll systems, order processing systems, reservation systems, stock control systems,
systems for payments and funds transfers.
Characteristics of TPS
• Produce information for other systems.
• Used by operational personnel + supervisory levels.
• Efficiency oriented.

2. Management Information Systems (MIS)

Management Information Systems are used by middle managers to help ensure the smooth running of the
organization in the short to medium term. The highly structured information provided by these systems allows managers
to evaluate an organization's performance by comparing current with previous outputs.
Some examples of MIS: sales management systems, inventory control systems, Budgeting systems, Management
Reporting Systems (MRS), Personnel (HRM) systems.
Characteristics of MIS
• Support relatively structured decisions.
• Used by lower and middle managerial levels.
• Deals with the past and present rather than the future.

1. Decision Support Systems (DSS)

A Decision Support System can be seen as knowledge based system used by senior managers which facilitates the
creation of knowledge and allow its integration into the organization. These systems are often used to analyze existing
structured information and allow managers to project the potential effects of their decisions into the future.
Some examples of DSS: Logistics systems, Financial Planning systems
Characteristics of DSS
• Support all- structured or semi-structured decisions.
• Have analytical and/or modeling capacity.
• Used by more senior managerial levels.
• Are concerned with predicting the future.

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4. Executive Information Systems

Executive Information Systems are strategic-level information systems that are found at the top of the Pyramid. They
help executives and senior managers analyze the environment in which the organization operates, to identify long-term
trends, and to plan appropriate courses of action. The information in such systems is often weakly STRUCTURED and
comes from both internal and external sources.

Characteristics of EIS:
• Are concerned with ease of use.
• Are concerned with predicting the future.
• Are effectiveness oriented.
• Are highly flexible.
• Support unstructured decisions.
• Use internal and external data sources.
• Used only at the most senior management levels.

Examples of Information System Design

1. Library Management System

Objective: To maintain records of books, borrowers, and transactions efficiently.

Design Components:

o Database: Stores information about books (book title, author, ISBN), borrowers (name, ID), and
borrowing transactions (book borrowed, return date).
o User Interface: Interfaces for librarians and users to search for books, manage borrowing, and view
available resources.
o Modules:
▪ Borrowing and returning books.
▪ Adding new books to the system.
▪ Searching and managing user accounts.

Diagram:

Figure 4 ER diagram

2. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) System

Objective: Manage customer information and interactions to improve service and retention.

Design Components:

• Database: Stores customer data, interactions, sales records, and feedback.

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• User Interface: Provides interfaces for sales reps, customer service agents, and managers to view and update
customer information.
• Modules:
o Customer records management.
o Interaction tracking (e.g., emails, phone calls).
o Sales pipeline management.
o Reporting and analytics for customer insights.

Diagram:

Figure 5 Customer ER Diagram

Lesson 3 Original Database Management System (DBMS).

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software system that enables users to define, create, maintain, and
control access to a database. It acts as an intermediary between the database and its users or application programs,
ensuring that data is organized, stored, and retrieved efficiently.

Key Components of a DBMS

1. Database: A collection of organized data stored in tables.
2. DBMS Software: The software that provides the interface for users to interact with the database.
3. Data: The raw facts and figures stored in the database.
4. Query Processor: Allows users to execute queries (requests for information from the database).
5. Database Engine: The core service for accessing and managing the data.
6. Data Schema: The logical structure of the database.
7. Data Integrity: Ensures that the data stored in the database is accurate and consistent.

DBMS Example: Library Management System

For simplicity, let's use the Library Management System as an example to demonstrate how a DBMS is applied. A
DBMS for a library might store and manage information about books, borrowers, and transactions.

1. Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) for Library DBMS

An ER Diagram represents the data structure in a DBMS by showing the entities and their relationships.

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Explanation of the Diagram:

• USER: Represents the library members who interact with the system.
• BOOK: Represents the books in the library, each with attributes like Title, Author, and ISBN.
• BORROWER: Represents the individuals who borrow books from the library.
• TRANSACTION: Represents the borrowing and returning activities, linking both books and borrowers.

In this diagram:

• A USER initiates a TRANSACTION.

• A BOOK is involved in a TRANSACTION.
• A BORROWER borrows the book in the TRANSACTION.

2.Relational Model Diagram for DBMS

In a relational database, data is stored in tables (relations) with rows and columns. Let’s map the ER Diagram into a
Relational Model using tables.

Tables in a Library DBMS:

1. User Table

2. Book Table

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3. Borrower Table

4. Transaction Table

In a Relational DBMS, each table is related through primary keys (e.g., UserID, BookID, BorrowerID), which are
unique identifiers, and foreign keys (e.g., BorrowerID, BookID) in the Transaction table that establish
relationships between tables.

CHAPTER 2: MODELLING AND SIMULATING SYSTEMS

Introduction
A system is a set of hardware and software operating in a computer. Generally, there is many types of systems
among which we have modeling systems and simulation systems.
1.Modelling Systems
System modeling is the process of using models to conceptualize and construct systems in business and
IT development. We analyze and simulate a model to answer questions.
A model is a precise representation of how a system works. It can also abstract representation of an object or set of
objects having common characteristics.
3. Simulation systems
A simulation system is a system that imitates the real system in order to find out what happens under different
situations and condition. It involves the creation of models of a situation (problem or possible solution) and then tests
to see how the models behave. Simulations are usually performed to avoid the expense or danger of making mistakes in
the real system and have developed to represent systems such as traffic, training pilots, etc.
3. Advantages of modelling and simulation
• Can be saver and cheaper than the real world.
• Able to test a product or system works before building it.
• Can use it to find unexpected problems.
• Able to explore ‘what if …’ questions.
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• Can speed things up or slow them down to see the changes over long or short periods of time.

4. Disadvantages of modelling and simulation

• Mistakes may be made in the programming or rules of the simulation or model.
• The cost of the simulation model can be high.
• The cost of running several different simulations may be high.
• Time may be needed to make sense of the results.
• People’s reactions to the model or simulation might not be realistic or reliable.

5. What-if-analysis using spread sheet (Case study of MS Excel)

What-if-analysis is the process of changing the values in cells to see how those changes will affect the outcome of the
formulas on the worksheet.
By using what if analysis tools in excel, you can use several different set of values in one or more formulas to explore
all the various results. For example, you can do what-if-analysis to build two budgets that each assumes a certain level
of revenue. Or you can specify a result that you want a formula to produce, and then determine what sets of values
will produce that result.
Three kinds of What-if-analysis tools come with Excel: Scenarios, Goal Seek, and Data Tables. Scenarios and Data
tables take sets of inputs values and determine possible results. A Data Table works with only one or two variables,
but it can accept many different values for those variables. A scenario can have multiple variables, but it can only
accommodate up to 32 values. Goal seek works differently from Scenarios and Data Tables in that it takes a result and
determines possible input values that produce that result.

CHAPTER 3: IDENTIFYING MONITORING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. Monitoring systems
Monitoring systems seek to observe and record data about an environment through sensors. It checks new data against
stored values and if new data is outside acceptable range, a new warning message is sent but the system does nothing
further to effect the change, e. g. recording temperature of a greenhouse.
Some examples of monitoring systems include:
• Heart Rate monitoring systems
• They are commonly used both in hospitals and by individuals who want to track their health. The system
usually gives visual output on the display and often data is logged in persistent file storage for future analysis.
• Monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system.
• Checking the temperature levels in a car engine.
• Monitoring pollution levels in a river.

2. Control systems
A control system is a set of hardware and software that’s used to regulate the operation of a system such that if new
data is outside acceptable range the output from the system affects the next set of inputs. Control systems seek to
actively maintain or change the state of a system through the use of actuators. There are two basic types of control
systems:
➢ Dedicated control systems: They are basic systems that carry out a pre-programmed set of instructions.
For example, traffic light system where the lights change at fixed time intervals.
➢ Computer-controlled systems: These systems use a computer to control the output device and this
computer can be connected to a sensor making the system more flexible.
Some examples of control systems include:
➢ Turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight.
➢ Regulating the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system.
➢ Changing the traffic light at a road junction.
➢ Operating anti-lock brakes on a car when necessary.
➢ Regulating the environment in a greenhouse.

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Other type of control system is the Numeric Control System (NC) which refers to the automation of machine tools
that are operated by programmed commands encoded on a storage medium as opposed to manually controlled via
hand wheels or levers or mechanically automated.

3. Difference between monitoring and control system

Monitoring system Control system
seek to observe and record data about an seek to actively maintain or change the state of a
environment through sensors system through the use of actuators
Warning sent (screen, alarm) if new data is outside Signals sent to control valves, motor, if new data
acceptable range is outside acceptable range

CHAPTER 4: SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

Introduction
A system can be defined as an organized body of interrelated parts to achieve an objective. System development
involves the use of various methodologies, models, tools and techniques to build and implement an IS.

1. System development methodologies, models, tools and techniques

System development methodologies: it provides guidelines to follow for completing every activity in the SDLC
including specific models, tools, techniques and SDLC.
Models: A model is a representation of some important aspect of the real world. Examples of models used to develop
a system include; flow chart, data flow diagram (DFD), entity-relationship diagram (ERD) and case diagrams. Models
used to manage the development process include: PERT chart, Gantt chart.
Logical models: it shows what the system is required to do without committing to any one technology.
Physical models: it shows how the system will actually be implemented.
Tools are software that helps create models or other components required in a project. Examples of tools that help
a system analyst and designers are: Project management application, Drawing/graphics application, Word processor/text
editor, IDE, DBMS, Computer-Aided System Engineering (CASE tools).
Techniques: Techniques are a collection of guidelines that help the analyst to complete a system development
activity or task. Examples are Project management techniques, User interviewing techniques, structured analysis and
design techniques, Software testing techniques…

2. System development Life cycle

It is a structured step-by-step approach use to develop and implement a new system.
It can be represented in a number of phases typically six which are: Planning, analysis, design, development,
implementation, support and maintenance.
a. Planning phase
It is the initial phase of the SDLC process that sets out to discover, identify and define the scope of the project to
decide the course of action and specifically address the issues that are going to be solved by the new system. This phase
includes problem definition, feasibility studies, project plan...
Some activities in this phase are:
➢ Define clearly in unambiguous terms the problem/opportunity.
➢ Carry out an assessment of initial feasibility of the project and.
➢ Prepare a system development project plan.
b. Analysis phase
During this phase, there is investigation on how the current system works (if it exists) and the identification of
weaknesses and the opportunities to improve. Modeling techniques like data flow diagrams can also be use and
interviews, questionnaires, observation and inspection of documents currently in used can be used. Activities in this
phase are:
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➢ Creating a logical model of the new system and specifying the objectives for the new system;
➢ Specifying the input, processing and output of the new system;
➢ Preparing a plan for implementing the new system;
➢ Specifying the performance criteria of the new system.
c. Design phase
The system design phase involves generating several alternatives technical solutions for the new logical model.
Activities in this phase are:
➢ selecting the best technical alternative;
➢ developing detailed software specifications and again reviewing the project plan;
➢ creating detailed physical model.

d. Development phase
The goal of the system development is to actually create the new system which involves a number of tasks including
acquiring and installing new hardware, writing software, testing software and reviewing project plans. Most of the
efforts deployed in SDLC are devoted to this phase.
➢ Writing software requires that programmers use the software specifications and a programming language or tool
to actually create the working software.
➢ Testing software will employ testing techniques such as: integration testing, acceptance testing and beta testing.
• Integration testing is to test to see if everyone in the organization is able to use the part of the software
developed for the functioning of the IS.
• Acceptance testing is a formal documented process in which users use the new system, verify that it
works correctly under operational conditions and note any errors that needs to be fixed.
• Beta testing is a form of testing involving a limited audience of external users.
e. Implementation
The system implementation phase involves training users, converting existing information to the new system,
converting users, carrying out acceptance testing, and reviewing the project plan.
The project team installs the new software on the new hardware, trains all users on how to use the software, and
goes through a process of acceptance testing.
Conversion: This is the act of moving from the old way of doing things to the new system. Four conversion methods
in common include;
➢ Parallel conversion: Both the old and new systems are allowed to run until it’s sure the new system works
correctly. Though it delays final handover, it is the safest as it allows for gradual change over. It is expensive in
terms of time, money and resources.
➢ Plunge conversion (direct): Here, the old system is unplugged and the new system is used exclusively. It
carries relatively a high risk. However, it may be the option for a system commissioned from scratch or where
resources are limited.
➢ Pilot conversion: Only a selected group of users are targeted to convert to the new system before converting
everyone.
➢ Piecemeal: Here, only a porting of the new system is allowed to run and when it works correctly, the remaining
system is then converted.
f. Support and maintenance
During system support:
➢ The organization provides a formal mechanism for the periodic review of the system.
➢ The users of the system may suggest changes that need to be made.
➢ The organization must evaluate the changes and determine which to undertake.
3. Some popular SDLC Models
There is no one single SDLC model. They are divided into main groups, each with its features and weaknesses.
➢ Waterfall model: It is a breakdown of activities into linear sequential phases, where each phase depends on the
deliverables of the previous one and corresponds to a specialization of task.

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➢ Iterative model: It is a particular implementation of SDLC that focuses on an initial simplified implementation
and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system is implemented and ready to be
deployed
➢ V-shape model: It represents a development process that may be considered as an extension of the waterfall
model. Instead of moving down in a linear way, the process steps are bent upwards to form a typical V shape.
➢ Prototyping: It is a model in which a prototype is built, tested and then reworked as necessary until an
acceptable outcome is achieve from which the complete system or product can be developed.

CHAPTER 5: OUTSOURCING AND DATA CAPTURE

1.Outsourcing
Outsourcing is the process of by which an organization hands over parts of the system development steps or
activities to another organization. These may include the design, development, implementation, and support steps of the
SDLC. However, the source organization is still responsible for investigation, analysis, and some few steps.
The process of outsourcing:
➢ Problem definition and feasibility: This must be performed by the source organization no matter who will
develop the proposed system. Possible reasons that can make a system to be outsourced include:
• The IT specialists may not have enough time or resources to build a system.
• The organization may not possess the expertise to develop a given system.
• It may be cheaper to buy pre-written software than to develop from scratch.
➢ System analysis: The report generated during systems analysis is used as the foundation for the outsourcing
document. Thus, the systems analysis step must be carried out for any proposed system and a request for
proposal sent out to possible outsourcing organizations.
➢ Evaluate Request for Proposal (RFP) returns and select a vendor: Several potential outsourcing vendors
are examined and a selection is made based on the RFP received.
➢ Contract: Once an outsourcing vendor is selected, a legal documentation that binds both organizations is
prepared and signed by each party. This document states exactly what work is to be carried out, how and when
payments will be made, the project time frame, and how the outsourcing organization can get out of the contract
if the outsourcing vendor fails to deliver.
➢ Test and accept the solution: When the system is complete by the outsourcing vendor, a complete test of the
system is carried out, users are train, old information is converted to the new system, and users are converted to
the new system. If something fails to work as intended during the testing, the system is rejected and the
outsourcing vendor is called upon to correct the problem(s).
➢ System support: Once the system is installed and in use, the IT specialist is expected to provide for the many
support tasks such as performing a periodic review of the system, providing a formal mechanism through which
users can request changes, and evaluating their worth.
The relationship with the outsourcing vendor may be reassessed since they also provide support and maintenance
activities as part of the overall cost of the system.

2.Data capture
Data capture refers to the process of getting data into a format that can be processed by a computer. Paper-based
data capture and computerized data entry are data techniques used to get data in the format for processing.
In paper-based data capture, people fill forms with information such as their personal details for example; name,
address, telephone number, date of birth, etc.
In computerized data entry, answers from questions are typed directly into the computer and stored in the appropriate
database.
While manual data capture techniques usually use forms, automated data capture method uses automated data
capture devices such as: Barcode reader, Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Optical
Character Recognition (OCR), Sensors, etc.

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a. Types of data capture errors

➢ Transcription errors: Transcription errors occur due to misreading or mistyping data. This can be caused
by bad hand writing or confusing characters for example, the number 5 with the letter S or the number 0
and the letter O.
➢ Transposition errors: This occurs when two digits or letters are swapped around. If you are to end up with
say ‘ot’ instead of ‘to’ or 5124 instead of 5214. It is estimated that about 70% of all errors are transposition
errors.
b. Data control
It refers to the mechanisms that are implemented to ensure an accurate and reliable data capture. Verification and
validation are typical methods used to check for accuracy in data.
➢ Verification: This involves checking that what is on the source document or what is intended is exactly the
same as what has been entered into the computer. Techniques used for verification are double entry and
proof reading.
• Double entry: With manual data entry, two people enter the same data and the data is accepted for
further processing only when the two entries are identical. This is cost ineffective since two people are
to be paid for doing the same job.
• Proof reading: This involves carefully checking data that has been entered against what was in the
original document.
➢ Validation: This has to do with detecting any data that is inaccurate, incomplete or unreasonable. Validation
can be done by software and it can be se to reject any data that does not conform to set rules. Validation can
be done using some or all of the following types of checks.

Check Types Description

Character Character checks make sure that the right types of characters have been entered.
Types check Type checks are used to check that the correct type of data has been entered in a field.
E.g. number instead of text and vice versa.

Check digits A digit check is usually placed at the end of an original number. E.g. bank account
number.

Range check Checks if a number lies within a specific range. E.g. >=60.

Length check Some item of information is always of a certain length containing a specified number of
characters. E.g. the registration number of a public service worker in Cameroon always
have eight characters like 955437-P.

Parity check A parity check is used to make sure that data has not been corrupted during transmission.
Even number, even parity. Odd number, odd parity.

Presence When entering data I nto a database the completion of some fields may be optional. E.g.
check certain fields like telephone number may be optional. There are certain fields which must
contain data and the system may come to a halt if left blank.

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CHAPTER 6: DATA RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Today‘s organizations cannot survive or succeed without quality data about their internal operations and external
environment. Organizations typically make use of databases (both internal and external) to store data related to their
operations.
Data resource management is an activity that applies information systems technologies to the task of managing an
organization’s data resources to meet the information needs of their business stakeholders.
1. What is data?
Data are pieces of information or fact related to the object being considered. For example, examples of data relating to
an individual would be the person’s name, age, height, weight, ethnicity, hair, colour, and birthday. Data is not limited
to the facts themselves, as pictures, images, and files are also considered data.
Each data is associated with an attribute that tells a computer system how to interpret its value. This attribute is called
a data type. Understanding data types ensures that data is collected in the preferred format and that the value of each
property is as expected. The following are the common Data types:
Data type Description Example
Integer It is used to store numbers without a fractional component. -245; 0; 520
Floating point It is used to store numbers that may have a fractional component. -32.345; 234.002
Character It is used to store a single letter, digit, punctuation mark, symbol or blank ‘A’; ‘7’; ‘?’; ‘ ’
space
String It used to store a sequence of characters or text “Hello john”
Boolean It is used to stored data with only two possible values. True or false; 1 or
0; yes or no.
Date It is used to store date generally a date in the YYYY-MM-DD format 2021-10-03
Time To store a time generally in the hh:mm:ss format. 09:30:20
Date time Stores values containing both date and time together in the YYYY-MM- 2021-10-23
DD hh:mm:ss format. 11:20:55

2. What is a database?
A database refers to a collection of logically related information organized so that it can be easily accessible,
managed, and updated. Databases are generally accessed electronically from a computer system and are usually
controlled by a database management system. (DBMS). The database administrator (DBA) is the individual
responsible for managing the databases, including database security, access control, backup, and disaster recovery.
a. Types of database in an organization
➢ Operational: store detailed data needed to support the business processes and operations of a company.
➢ Distributed: databases that are replicated and distributed in whole or in part to network servers at a variety of
sites.
➢ External: refer to databases external to an organization and generally accessed over the internet and owned by
other organizations.
➢ Internal: typically include operational databases and data warehouse
Data warehouses contain data collected from several sources, and the data contained within are generally not used for
routine activities. Instead, data warehouse are usually used for business intelligence purposes.

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b. Components of a Database
The five major components of a database are:
➢ Hardware: refers to physical, electronic devices such as computers and hard disks
➢ Software: refer to set programs used to manage and control the database and includes the database software,
operating system, network software.
➢ Data: refer to raw facts and information that need to be organized and processed to make it more meaningful.
➢ Procedures: refer to instruction used in the DBMS and encompass everything from instructions to setup and
install, login and logout.
➢ Database Access Language: It is a language used to write commands to access, update and delete data stored
in a database.

3. Data Organization Terms and Concepts

Some few key terms that are useful to help one understand data more, particularly the relation between data and
databases are:
➢ Bit: Smallest unit of data; binary digit (0, 1).
➢ Byte: Group of 8 bits that represents a single character.
➢ Character: single alphabetic, numeric or other symbol.
➢ Field: group of words or related characters and numbers.
➢ Record: collection of related fields
➢ Table: collection of related records with a unique table name
➢ File: group of related records.
➢ Database: integrated collection of logically related data elements. (file, tables)

Figure 6: Data hierarchy

Remark:
In Traditional file processing, data were organized, stored, and processed in independent files of data records.
Some problems of traditional file processing are:
➢ Data Redundancy: duplicate data requires an update to be made to all files storing that data.
➢ Lack of Data Integration: data stored in separate files require special programs for output making ad hoc
reporting difficult.
➢ Data Dependence: programs must include information about how the data is stored so a change in storage
format requires a change in programs.

Note: Data mining refers to the process of analyzing massive volumes of data from different angles in order to identity
relationships between data and transforms them into actionable information.

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MODULE II: TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY, PEOPLE AND COMPUTER

SYSTEM

CHAPTER 7: CAREER IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, IMPACT OF

COMPUTERS ON PEOPLE AND THE WORKPLACE HEALTH AND
SAFETY WHEN USING TECHNOLOGY
Lesson 1: Careers in information technology
Competences:
Introduction
The invention and evolution of the computer resulted in millions of new types of computer related jobs. From those
who enter data into the computer to those who maintain the largest computer systems, there continue to be a
worldwide demand for workers who are trained to play a role in the development and use of Information Technology.
A wide variety of career opportunities are available in computing and mainly being categorized under two heads:
Hardware and Software.

1. Careers related to computer hardware

➢ Computer Engineers: These are professionals who apply the theories and principles of science and
mathematics to design hardware, software, networks, and processes which can be used to solve technical
problems.
➢ Network Engineer: The main responsibility of a network engineer is to design and implement computer
network. They focus on the design and planning rather than on the day-to-day support.
➢ Computer repair technician: This is a professional who is skilled in assembling, repairing, and
maintaining computers, printers, and other peripheral equipment’s. Otherwise called computer repairers
they also help in the installation of software.
➢ Hardware Engineer: Engineers that configure hardware of computers, improve layout and design of
devices for increase efficiency.

2. Careers related to computer software

➢ Software Engineers: also called software developers, they analyze users’ needs and design, create, and
modify general computer applications software or specialized utility programmers.
Those involved with the systems software may research, design, and test operating system software,
compilers, network distribution software.
➢ Computer Scientist: These are professionals who typically work on the theoretical side of computer
systems. The primary goal of computer scientists is to develop or validate models, often mathematical, to
describe the property of computer-based systems with an overall objective of discovering designs that yield
useful benefits (faster, smaller. Cheaper, more precise, etc.).
➢ Computer Programmers: They create code for software applications and operating systems. After a
software developer designs a computer program, the programmer writes code that converts that design into
a set of instructions a computer can follow. They test the program to look for errors and then rewrite it until
it is error-free.
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➢ Database Administrator: These are scientist responsible for the development of an organizations database
making sure all the data is accurate, available and secure. They design, install, update, modify, maintain,
and repair computer databases.
➢ IT Consultant: These are those who undertake strategic or operational missions, they help a client in
implementation; they help develop or roll out a prototype or software to respond to a specific need.
➢ Web developer: A web developer is a programmer who is specialized in the development of web
applications and network applications that are run over HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) from a web
server to a web browser. They are found working in large corporations and government agencies, small and
medium size companies or alone as freelancers.
➢ Mobile Application Developer: They main responsibility is to develop and create apps for iOS and
Android systems, etc.
➢ System Analyst: Design IT solutions and existing systems to improve business efficiency and productivity.
➢ Cloud Architect: It is an IT specialist who develops a company’s computing strategy. This strategy
incorporates cloud application plans, cloud application design as well as cloud management and monitoring.
➢ Information specialist: They are responsible for analyzing and managing a company’s information
databases, such as filing, record-keeping, or stocktaking. They specialize in streamlining company
processes, disseminating information to personnel, clients, and shareholders, as well as preparing annual
data summary reports for management review.

Lesson 2: Areas Of Application Of Computers

Introduction
It is a binding fact that are computers are very productive, efficient and make our personal and professional lives more
rewarding. These 'magical' machines can do just about anything imaginable; moreover they really excel in certain
areas

1. Areas of application of computer

a. Education
Computer is a very effective tools which is used for teaching and learning, result processing, student data processing,
question preparation, handouts and note preparation, etc. and also online education. Many universities provide online
education through internet. The learning materials are packed in CD-ROM with interactive multimedia. The CAL
(Computer aided Learning), CAI (Computer Aided instruction), multiple choice paper, result processing are done
through internet.

b. Communication industry.
The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and reception of messages
very fast and efficient.
➢ They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
➢ For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a computer network.

c. Transport industry.
Computers are used in:
➢ Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
➢ Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
➢ Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
➢ To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar equipment.
➢ Making reservations (booking purposes).
➢ Storing flight information.
d. Library services
Computers can be used in a library:
➢ To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other library
materials.
➢ To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
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➢ Employment: The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many people.

e. Domestic and Entertainment systems.

Computers are used at homes:
➢ For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
➢ For storing personal information.
➢ For calculating and keeping home budgets.
➢ In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc
f. Multimedia applications.
➢ Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
➢ The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide shows & digital
video clips.
➢ Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.
➢ In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound & digital video clips,
which make games more realistic
g. Defense
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also employs computerized
control systems.
Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
➢ Missile Control
➢ Military Communication
➢ Military Operation and Planning
➢ Smart Weapons.

h. Government Institutions.
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
➢ Budgets;
➢ Sales tax department;
➢ Income tax department;
➢ Male/Female ratio;
➢ Computerization of voters lists;
➢ Computerization of driving licensing system;
➢ E-citizen online services;
➢ Weather forecasting.

i. Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are being used in hospitals
to:
➢ Keep the record of patients and medicines.
➢ Scanning and diagnosing different diseases.
➢ To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).
➢ To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labor, thus reducing the
transportation of patients & professionals.
➢ Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
➢ Lab-diagnostic System: All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
➢ Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

j. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:
➢ To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called Automated Teller
Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit & withdrawal services.
➢ For processing of Cheques.

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➢ For preparation of Payrolls.

➢ For better record keeping and processing of documents.
➢ To provide electronic money transfer facilities.
k. Research.
Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
• Scientists to analyze their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.
• Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
Lesson 3: Ergonomics
Introduction
Ergonomics is the science that studies how workers interact with their work environment. Proper ergonomics means
designing objects in the workplace that provides a correct match between the human body, work-related tasks, and
work tools such as chairs to provide safety and comfort for the worker. Ergonomics is alternatively called Human
Engineering. Ergonomic principles helps reduce stress and eliminate many potential injuries and disorders associated
with the overuse of muscles, bad posture, and repeated tasks.

1. Computer health hazards

Once on the computer, the user should be able to identify certain signs and know what to do immediately to avoid a
health problem.
The signs of these problems can occur in the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders, neck or back and can include the
following:
➢ Numbness, burning or tingling of the fingers
➢ Soreness, aching or tenderness
➢ Pain or swelling
➢ Tightness or stiffness
➢ Weakness or coldness

Symptoms may be felt during typing, when using a mouse, or at other times when no work with the hands is being
performed especially at night when these symptoms might awaken you.
The main risks associated with using the computer include the following;
➢ Musculoskeletal Problems: These are general problems that range from general aches and pain to more
serious problems like upper limb disorders, back and neck pain and discomfort, tension, stress and
headaches.
➢ Repetitive stress injury (RSI), which occurs when muscle groups are forced through repetitive actions
often with high-impact loads or tens of thousands of repetitions under low-impact loads (working at a
computer keyboard)
➢ Computer vision syndrome (CVS) refers to any eyestrain condition related to display screen use in
desktop computers, laptops, e-readers, smartphones, and handheld video games.
Symptoms include headaches, blurred vision, and dry and irritated eyes.

➢ Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), in which pressure on the median nerve through the wrist’s bony
structure, called a carpel tunnel, produces pain.
Symptoms include numbness, shooting pain, inability to grasp objects, and tingling.

Problems and Possible Remedies for Visual Display Unit (VDU) Users
The VDU or the screen is known to be the main equipment that creates a lot of health problems to its users. Below are
some problems and their possible remedies.

Problems Possible Remedies

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1. Eyestrain caused by glare and -Avoid setting up your VDU in a brightly lit area where light reflects on the
reflection from the screen. screen.
- Do not look directly at windows or bright lights.
- Use an anti-glare screen filter.
2. Stress caused by boredom and - Vary your activity.
slow computer response time.

3. Posture Fatigue. - Use adjustable chairs.

- Adopt a comfortable and relaxed keying position.
4. Screen Flicker. - Do regular servicing to correct errors.

5.Unsatisfactory working - Ensure that there is adequate space.

environment - Make provision for the circulation of fresh air because the electric equipment
- Space. may dry air.
-Ventilation, Light and Heat. - Use a sound proof.
- Noise.

2. Safety Precautions
The following are guides to be respected when using your computer:
➢ Set up or connect your equipment according to the instructions provided by the supplier or manufacturer.
For example, always be sure that the computer is switched off and disconnected from the main electrical
supply once you have stopped working on.
➢ Make sure that your working room has sufficient light.
➢ Fit in your devices and CD-ROMs correctly because that which is wrongly fitted may vibrate and get
destroyed.
➢ It is important to look away from the screen from time to time and focus your eyes on a distant object to
avoid eye strain.
➢ Before you start working, do the following;
• Adjust the position of the screen, the keyboard, the mouse and the documents you are working with
so as to sit comfortably.
• Keep your upper body as relaxed as possible and don’t over stretch your wrists and fingers. As a
general guide, your forearm should be roughly horizontal and your elbows level with the keyboard
or the mouse.
• If your feet don’t reach the floor when you are sitting in a good position, try to use a foot rest.
• Use a document holder when typing from a manuscript.
➢ Make alternating work tasks. That means that after a short while on the computer leave it and do other
things.
➢ Regularly stretch up to relax your body.
➢ Avoid gripping your mouse too tightly (hold your mouse lightly and click gently).
➢ Be familiar with keyboard short cuts for applications you regularly use to avoid over using the mouse.
➢ Your chair should:
• Support the back,
• Allow chair height to be adjusted from a sitting position,
• Be 18 to 30 inches away from the screen when you are seated.
➢ Your table or desk should:
• Provide sufficient leg room and preferably be height adjustable,
• Have enough room to support the computer equipment and space for documents,
• Be at least 900mm deep,
• Have rounded corners and edges.
➢ To avoid eyestrain take the following precautions;
• Exercise your eyes periodically focusing on objects at different distances,
• Blink regularly,
• Position the monitor to avoid glare,
• Keep your monitor clean,
• Service, repair or replace monitor that flicker.

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Note: To ensure about electrical safety, do not be tempted to add too many extension cables to your existing electrical
sockets.

CHAPTER 8: DATABASES
Introduction
Organizations work on vast amount of data and information on daily bases thus, there is need for data and information
to be organized logically. These data may not make meaning if not organized into an appropriate structure. A database
is application software for such a task and is one of the core/main parts of most/all applications/software in use today.
A database is a structured collection of data in a computer system which allows for arranging, modifying, and
extracting information easily in different logical orders. It is a tool that stores data, and lets you create, read, update,
and delete the data in some manner. The management of these data can be computerized or not.
A computerized database is a database that stores and manages its data by the use of application software called
database management system (DBMS) in the computer.
A non-computerized computer is a database that files are grouped in folders or envelops and stored in drawers or
filing cabinets. Both types of database have advantages and disadvantages. An advantage for one is probably a
disadvantage to the others.

Note: Data are raw facts that have no meaning. It needs treatment (processing) to become useful (information).

Figure 7: Data, Information,

and Knowledge
1. The structure of a Database
Within the database, the data are organized into storage containers called
tables. Tables are made up of columns and rows. In a table, columns represent individual fields and rows represent
records of data. The following are the basic database terms.
Serial No Registration No Surname FirstName Sex Class
1 123 Shey Ndim Female Form 4
2 456 Eliza Joy Female Form 4
3 789 Didier MC Male Form 5
4 012 Cecil Pride Female Form 5
Table 1 structure of database

This table is made up of six fields (columns) i.e. serial number, registration number, surname, first name, sex and
class and four records (rows).
1. A table is the database object that contains the basic data or information to be stored about an entity of the
database. For example, the registration of students in a school form a database called student table which is a
database entity.
2. A field or (attribute) represents one related column of a table and is the smallest logical structure of storage
in a database. It holds one piece of information about an entity or a subject represented by the table. For
example, in the above table we have the following fields; registration no, surname, firstname, sex, and class.
3. A record or tuple is a collection of multiple related fields that can be treated as a unit or a record is a row of
the table for a database which contains a collection of attributes related to an entity (such as student or a
person) of the database. For example, information from the field’s registration no, surname, firstname, sex,
and class for a particular student form a record.

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4. A query is the database tool that allows to retrieve information from one or more tables based on a set of
search conditions you define using the table fields. Queries are covered in more details later.
5. Forms are Access tools that users can create to make data entry in database tables easier. Entering data
directly into a table can be difficult if there is a lot of information to enter. Like an Excel spreadsheet, an
Access table is essentially a screen filled with blank rows where a user enters records. Forms, however,
provide users with an easy-to-read interface where they can enter table data.
6. Reports: It is an effective tool that gives you way to analyse and present data using a specific layout. The
text can be formatted in an Access report, just like it can be in Word documents.
7. Key field or Primary Key: it is a field or a collection of fields in a database whose value can be used to
distinguish one record from another. E.g. in the table above, registration no. can be used as the key field.
8. Foreign Key: a foreign key is a column or group of columns in a relational database table that provides link
between data in two tables. It acts as a cross-reference between tables because it references the primary key of
another table thereby establishing a link between them.
NOTE: a primary key is always distinguish from the other key by a (*) on it or is underlined.
9. Entity: it is a single data item; persons, things, places or events (a table’s name).

NB: Typical data is logically organized as follows; characters, fields, records, files and database.
• Characters are the most basic logical data elements.
• File is a collection of related records. E.g. a table can be referred to as a file.

2. Advantages and disadvantages of database

❖ Advantages of database:
1. There is less data inconsistency since each data item is stored in fewer locations.
2. It enables querying and faster searches.
3. Data is independent of application.
4. It is easier to maintain the confidentiality of the information.
5. Disadvantages of database:
6. It requires trained personnel to design, implement, maintain and work on.
7. A total system failure can have a severe negative impact on the establishment.

3. Database Applications
Databases are widely use because it forms an essential part of almost all organizations/software’s/enterprises today.
Here are some representative applications: Banking, Universities/schools, Business, Manufacturing, organizations,
enterprises, government, hospitals, Facebook, Google, Twitter, etc.

4. Data Type for database

A data type determines the type of data that can be stored in a column of field of a table in the database. Although
many data types are available, the followings are the most commonly used data types:
Data type Description Size
Text Alphanumeric data, letters, numbers, symbols Up to 255 characters
and specials characters
Memo Alphanumeric data, support rich-text formatting Store up to 2G, display up to
(bold, italic, bullets lists...) 65 535 characters
Number Positive or negative values that can be used in Up to 16 bytes of data
arithmetic calculations
Data/Time Date and time information 8 bytes
Currency Monetary values, not rounding during 8 bytes
calculation.
Auto number Automatically generate by the computer when a Up to 16 bytes
new record is added
Yes/No Boolean values (true or false) 1 bit
data 1=true 0=false
Table 2 Available Data type for database in MS Access

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Remark:
A database file that consists of a single data table is called a flat-file database. Flat-file databases are useful for
certain single user or small group situations, especially for maintaining lists such as address list or inventories. Data
that is stored, managed, and manipulated in a spreadsheet is similar to a flat-file database.

Disadvantages of flat file database

1. Redundant data: that is repeated information in the table.
2. Errors on input: typographical errors occur each time is entered.
3. Problems with updating data
4. Problems with modifying data

5. Database models
A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database. It fundamentally
determines in which manner data can be stored, organized and manipulate. The most popular example of database
model is the relational model which uses a table-based format. Other examples of database models include: flat file
model, hierarchical model, object-oriented model, network model, Entity-relation model and multi-dimensional
model.

A. Entity Relationship Model (ER):

An entity relationship model is a diagrammatic representation of the relationship that exists between entities.
An entity is a “thing” or “object” in the real world that is distinguishable from all other objects. For example, each
person in an enterprise is an entity. An entity has a set of properties or attributes, and the value(s) for some set of
properties may uniquely identify an entity.
A relationship is an association among several entities. For example, we can define a relationship between the entity
students to the entity teacher in a secondary school. Each student has one teacher but each teacher has many students.
The ER diagram is used to represent database schema. The following are use in ER diagram:
➢ A rectangle represents an entity set.
➢ An ellipse represents an attribute.
➢ A diamond represents a relationship.
➢ Lines represent linking of attributes to entity sets and of entity sets to relationship sets.

i. Example of ER model:

Entity sets Attributes Relationship

Figure 8: ER diagram for entities student and class

In the ER diagram shown above the two entities are STUDENT and CLASS. Two simple attributes which are associated
with the STUDENT are Roll number and the name. The attributes associated with the entity CLASS are Subject Name
and Hall Number. The relationship between the two entities STUDENT and CLASS is Attends.
Exercise:

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Observe the above ER diagram and answer the following questions.

1. How many entities are on the diagram?
2. What are the attributes of each entity?
3. What is the relationship between them?
ii. Types of Relationship between entity
You share many relationships with members of your family. For instance, you and your mother are related. You have
only one mother, but she may have several children. You and your siblings are related. You may have many brothers
and sisters and, of course, they'll have many brothers and sisters as well. If you're married, both you and your spouse
have a spouse each other but only one at a time. Database relationships are very similar in that they're associations
between tables (entities of the DB).
Even though a relationship may involve more than two entities, the most commonly encountered relationships are
binary, involving exactly two entities. Generally, such binary relationships are of three types and called cardinality:
one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many.
a. One-to-one Relationship (1:1)
One-to-one is where one occurrence of an entity relates to only one occurrence in another entity, e.g. if a man only
marries one woman and a woman only marries one man, it is a one-to-one (1:1) relationship.
b. One-to-many Relationship (1:M)
A one-to-many relationship is where one occurrence in an entity relates to many occurrences in another entity. For
instance one manager manages many employees, but each -employee only has one manager, so it is a one-to many (1:
M) relationship.

The crowbar represents the (M) many occurrences.

c. Many-to-many Relationship (M:M)

In many-to-many relationship, one record in a table can be related to one or more records in a second table, and one
or more records in the second table can be related to one or more records in the first table. For example, one teacher
teaches many students and a student is taught by many teachers.

B. Relational Model
The relational model is a lower-level model. It uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships
among the data. Its conceptual simplicity has led to its widespread adoption; today a vast majority of database
products are based on the relational model. Designers often formulate database schema design by first modeling data
at a high level, using the E-R model, and then translating it into the relational model.
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The software used in a relational database is called a relational database management system (RDBMS). The
relational model is based on the mathematical concept of a relation, which is physically represented as a table.
Note: Referential integrity: It a property of a relational database that enforces valid relationships between tables
such that no foreign key can contain a value that does match a primary key in the corresponding linked table.
i. Terminology
There are different set of terms used to designate the tables, the columns and rows of the relational model. The
following table summarized it.

Relational terms relation tuple Attribute

Alternative 1 Table row Column
Alternative 2 File Record Field

➢ A relation is a table with columns and rows Figure 9: relational model

➢ An attribute is a named column of a relation
➢ A tuple is a row of a relation.

ii. Transforming the ER model to Relational model

To implement the database, it is necessary to use the relational model. There is a simple way of mapping from ER
model to the relational model. There is almost one-to-one correspondence between ER constructs and the relational ones.
Here,
➢ Entity name = Name of the relation or table.
➢ Attributes of ER diagram = Column name of the table.
Example: The E-R model in section A (i) is converted to a Relational model
Here we have two entities CUSTOMER and ORDER. The relationship between CUSTOMER and ORDER is one-
to-many and the relationship is Submit.
The tables can then be represented in the relational model as:
Customer (Customer-ID, Customer-name, Customer-Address)
Order (Order-ID, Order-Date)
And can read in a relational way as:
CUSTOMERSubmitsORDER (Order-ID, Order-Date, Customer ID, Customer-name, Customer-Address)
In the relation above, the primary key CUSTOMER ID in the CUSTOMER relation becomes a foreign key in the
ORDER relation.
Normalization of a database: It is a process in a relational design that breaks down data in to record groups in
accordance with a series of so-called normal forms for efficient processing by eliminating redundancy and improving
data integrity.

C. Other type of database models

➢ Hierarchical database model: Uses nodes to link and structure fields and records. Entries may have one node
with several child nodes in a one-to-many relationship.
➢ Object-Oriented Database (OOD): Data is organized using objects classes, entities, attributes and methods.
➢ Network Database: This is similar to hierarchical except that a child node may have more than one parent in a
many-to- many relationship.
➢ Multidimensional Database: Extend two dimensional relational tables to three or more dimensions (hyper
cube)
Remark: The description of the database includes the table structures and the rules that will be followed. The description
is called a scheme. The schemas are stored in a data structure called the data dictionary.

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Data dictionary is a collection of descriptive information about data and objects in a database i.e. a computerized-
base catalogue or directory containing metadata that is data about data. It contains a list of all tables in the database, the
number of records in each table, and the names and types of each field.
6. Database Management Systems (DBMS)
A DBMS is software that is used to create, modify, and extract information from a database. The main idea with a
DBMS is that all the data is kept centrally and only authorized users can have access to data through the DBMS.
A DBMS is a general-purpose software i.e. not application specific. A DBMS consists of:
➢ A part for collection of interrelated and persistent data. This part of DBMS is referred to as database (DB).
➢ A set of application programs used to access, update, and managing data. This part constitutes the
management system (MS).
A. Features of a DBMS
The features of a DBMS are as follows:
1. Queries: to extract data in the database using language like the Structured Query Language (SQL);
2. forms, reports; (see section 1 for definition)
3. Models define rules and standards for all data in the database
4. Data mining has to do with using software to search through data from many sources looking for
connections.

The main objectives of DBMS:

1. Control of data redundancy: the database approach attempts to eliminate the redundancy by integrating
the files so that multiple copies of the same data are not stored.
2. Data consistency: If a data item is stored only once in the database, any update to its value has to be
performed only once and the new value is available immediately to all users.
3. Improved data integrity: Database integrity refers to the validity and consistency of stored data. Integrity
is usually expressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that the database is not permitted to
violate.
4. Improved security: Database security is the protection of the database from unauthorized users. The access
that an authorized user is allowed on the data may be restricted by the operation type (retrieval, insert, update,
delete).
5. Increased concurrency: In some file-based systems, if two or more users are allowed to access the same
file simultaneously, it is possible that the accesses will interfere with each other, resulting in loss of
information or even loss of integrity. Many DBMSs manage concurrent data-base access and ensure such
problems cannot occur.
6. Improved backup and recovery services: modern DBMSs provide facilities to minimize the amount of
processing that is lost following a failure.

Examples of DBMS are: Oracle, Postgres SQL, Sybase, MySQL, Microsoft Access, SQL, DB2, Open Office Base,
etc.

B. Database languages
A particular language that has emerged from the development of the relational model is the Structured Query
Language (SQL). Over the last few years, SQL has become the standard relational database language.
❖ Objectives of SQL
Ideally, a database language should allow a user to:
➢ Create the database and relation structures,
➢Perform basic data management tasks, such as the insertion, modification, and deletion of data from the
relations,
➢Perform both simple and complex queries.

❖ Data-Definition Language:
We specify a database schema by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called a Data-Definition
Language (DDL). DDL defines the database structure and controls access to the data.
❖ Data-Manipulation Language:

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A data-manipulation language (DML) is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data as organized by
the appropriate data model. Its functions are:
➢ The selection or retrieval of information stored in or from a table;
➢ The insertion of new information into a table;
➢ The deletion of information from a table;
➢ The updating or modification of information stored in a table;

EXERCISES
A database of students is to be set up with the following fields:
FamilyName, OtherName, StudentID, DateOfBirth, DateOfEntry, CurrentClass, CurrentSchoolYear, EmailAddress.
➢ Select a data type for each field.
➢ Which fields should be validated and which fields should be verified?
➢ Decide the validation rules for those fields which should be validated.
➢ Which field is best for the primary key?
➢ Choose a suitable format for the StudentID.
➢ Build a database with at least 10 records. Include all your validation checks.
➢ Run a query to print OtherNames, FamilyName, and EmailAddress in alphabetical order of family name.
➢ Run a query to print OtherNames, FamilyName, and EmailAddress in alphabetical order of family name.
➢ Run a query to select all the students of class four with their StudentID.

CHAPTER 9: PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Introduction
A typical project starts with someone having an idea and documenting the idea on paper. Projects usually go through a
number of phase’s i.e. well-defined beginning, intermediaries and an end. There are classified according to size and
duration whereby:
➢ Medium projects have a small size and small time frame.
➢ Small projects have duration of more than one month.
➢ Large projects have duration of more than one year.
The duration of a project is determined by its complexity. A project starts when at least one of its activities is ready to
start. A project is completed when all of its activities have been completed. A project should have some ‘deliverables’
for ease of monitoring.
Often program and project are used interchangeably, but nominally, a program is a larger concept than a project. A
Program is a set of related Projects. Example the space shuttle program consists of many flights which are each
separately managed projects. This chapter is focused on PROJECTS.

1. Definitions
A project is a planned process to achieve a specific objective through a well-defined set of activities, budget and time
frame.
Project Management (PM) is a combination of techniques, procedures, people, and systems focused on the
successful completion of a project. It is also a discipline that will support the planning, implementation, tracking, and
control of projects.
Project management program permits the user to identify tasks, task relationships, resources, and time requirements of
a project. The constraints of a PM are: Scope, Time and Budget. The forth constraint is Quality which is the core of
each and every project.

2. Characteristics and resources needed for a project

Characteristics of a project include:
➢ Well defined and achievable objectives or goals.
➢ A time frame for which to achieve its goals.

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➢ Resources (types: budget, people, and material & facilities) are efficiently allocated for activities in the
various project phases.
➢ Project is aimed at satisfying the customers.
➢ Created once and must be sustainable.

Types of resources needed for a project include:

➢ People
➢ Facilities
➢ Equipment
➢ Money
➢ Materials
Examples of projects are:
➢ Programming computer software or an App or web site.
➢ Setting a computer network.
➢ Creating an IS.
➢ Constructing a bridge, house, and road.
➢ Setting up a business, etc.
3. Concept and/or Notion of Project Planning
Project Planning involves understanding the fundamentals of a project:
➢ What business situation is being addressed?
➢ What do you need to do?
➢ What will you do?
➢ How will you do it?
➢ How will you know you did it?
➢ How well did you do?
4. Duties and Qualities of a Project Manager
A project manager is a qualified individual (or a firm) that directs, supervises, and co-ordinates a project from
beginning to end.
Some duties/activities of a project manager are the following:
➢ Define the project, set manageable tasks, obtain resources, and build a team and motivate the team to carry
out the work on time.
➢ Inform all stakeholders of progress on regular basis.
➢ Asses and monitor risks to the project and mitigate/reduce/diminish/lighten them.
➢ Be able to adapt to and manage changing conditions.
Qualities of project manager are:
➢ Strong leadership ability.
➢ Ability to develop people.
➢ Excellent communication skills.
➢ Contract management skills.
➢ Problem solving and time management skills.
➢ Creative and critical thinking.

A. A project team
It is a group of professionals committed to achieving common objectives, who work well together and who relate
directly and openly with one another to get things done i.e. action performed by a team towards a common goal. A
team consists of more than one person each of whom typically has different responsibilities and they success is the
responsibility of all the members.
Team working is the fuel that allows common people to attain uncommon results. Recent development in
management jargon outlines TEAM as TOGETHER EVERYONE ACHIVES MORE.
Characteristics of effective teams consist of members who have:
➢ A common purpose and clear goals;
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➢ The necessary skills and resources;

➢ A common approach to work;
➢ The willingness to share information;
➢ Trust and support in each other;
➢ The willingness to take responsibility for team actions.

❖ Benefits of teamwork
➢ Maximize strength of each member;
➢ Increase in productivity and product quality and also decrease in the cost of production;
➢ A balance work load as each member can help each other;
➢ Can blame your teammate if the project goes bad;
➢ Encouragement of skills, knowledge sharing and fast learning;
➢ Education of group members on tolerance and understanding.

❖ Disadvantages of teamwork
➢ Never gets enough credit when the project goes well;
➢ Not all members will have the same strengths and weaknesses;
➢ Tasks/work not undertaken on time by some members can let the team down;
➢ Conflicts in ideas can cause tensions and personality clashes can cause issues too;
➢ Opposing views can cause arguments.
B. Project Management Life Cycle (PMLC)
These are the sequence of steps or phases to be completed when implementing a project and are not a linear process.
In each phase are the project activities that are carried out.
a. Project conception and Initiation:
At this phase the idea is carefully examined to determine whether or not it benefits the organization and a decision
making then decides if the project is feasible. The project manager works with the business sponsor or the manager who
wants the project implemented and other stakeholders. The following are examined in this phase:
➢ Analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals.
➢ Stakeholder analysis including users and support from personnel for the project.
➢ Financial analysis of the cost and benefits including a budget.
➢ Project charter (contract) including cost, tasks, deliverable, and schedules.
b. Planning and design:
At this stage all project activities and plan charter may be put in writing outlining the work to be performed. It consists
of the following sub-stages:
➢ Determining how to plan.
➢ Estimate the resource requirements for the activities.
➢ Identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure
➢ Select the planning team
➢ Risk planning.
c. Execution and construction:
In this phase, the project manager knows how many resources and how much budget is needed to work the project.
The project manager then assigns those resources and allocates budget to various tasks and all the teams are informed
of responsibilities. It involves the following process:
➢ Coordinating people and resources.
➢ Integrating project activities.
➢ Performing the project activities in accordance with the project management plan.

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d. Monitoring and Controlling:

Project managers compare project status and progress to the actual plan and other necessary actions are taken to keep
the project on track. If the client disapproves or request a specific change, the team must then revert to the project
planning phase and adjust the scope to match the new required deliverables. Its activities include:
Measuring the ongoing project activities.
➢ Monitoring the project variables (e.g. cost, effort, scope) against the project management plan and the
project performance baseline (where we should be).
➢ Identifying corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (that is how can we get on track again).
Where we are Where we planned to be?
(Measurement) (Evaluation)

How can we get on track again?

(Correction)
Project maintenance is an ongoing process and it includes continuing support of end-users, correction of errors, and
updates of the software.
e. Completion and finish point:
Here the project manager and project sponsor pull together the project team and those who have an interest in the
outcome of the project (stakeholders) to analyze the final outcome of the project. An evaluation is done to highlight
project success and/or learn from the project. The finish point (closure) is the formal acceptance of the project. This
phase consists of the following sub-stages:
➢ Finalizing all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase.
➢ Completing and settling each contract and closing each contract applicable to the project or project phase.
➢ Formal acceptance of deliverables by customer

Initiating

Planning

Monitoring and
Executing
Controlling

Closing

❖ Major challenges in Project Management

➢ Unrealistic deadlines.
➢ Communication deficit.
➢ Scope change.
➢ Misunderstanding and/or Disagreement.
➢ Bad weather.
➢ Personality conflict.
➢ Resource competition.
➢ Failure to manage risk.
➢ Insufficient team skills.

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5. Project Management Tools

PM tool is a piece of technology that is used for visually communicating information (e.g. phases, tasks, resources) about a
project. This visualization tool enables project managers to direct and supervise the various tasks and schedules that are required
for completing the project. PERT chart and Gantt chart are the most popular project management tools today. They are both used
to schedule tasks, keep the project on schedule and ensure that the timeline is met in accordance with the original project plan.
a. PERT chart
The term PERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique.
A PERT chart is a project management tool used to schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks within a project. A PERT chart
represents a graphic illustration of a project as a network diagram or flow chart consisting of numbered nodes (either circles or
rectangles) representing events or milestones in the project linked by labeled vectors (directional lines) representing tasks in the
project.
Project managers can use PERT charts to:
➢ Set a realistic timetable for project completion.
➢ Make sure focus is maintained on the most critical tasks for the critical path – since the path leads to the minimum time
the project requires, any delays to these tasks will result in a delay to the overall project.
➢ Identify tasks that need to be shortened if the overall project time needs to be reduced.
➢ Identify tasks that can be carried out simultaneously.
➢ Identify slack time where certain tasks are not as time-critical to the overall deadline.
i. PERT Node
A PERT node is as follows and is use in drawing the PERT network diagram.

ii. PERT Terminologies

➢ PERT event: a point that marks the start or completion of one or more activities. Consumes no time and uses no
resources.
➢ Predecessor event: an event that immediately precedes some other event without any events intervening. An event
can have multiple predecessors’ events and can be the predecessor of multiple events.
➢ Successor event: an event that immediately follows some other event without ant other intervening events. An event
can have multiple successor events and can be the successor of multiple events.
Example: consider that you want to paint your room, the first thing you need to do is to remove the layer of old paint and after
that you can start painting. So we have activities as follows:
✓ Activity #1 is removing the old paint.
✓ Activity #2 is painting.
Since activity #2 can only start after activity #1 is done, we call activity #2 a successor and activity #1 a predecessor.
➢ PERT activity: the actual performance of a task which consumes time and requires resources such as labor, materials,
space, machinery. A PERT activity cannot be performed until the predecessor event has occurred.
➢ Task: this is any activity that consumes resources such as time and manpower.
➢ Super task: one or more activities that no subtask can begin until the super task has begun and the super task cannot
end until all the subtasks have ended.
Examples:
• An OS is a super task because for a computer to work, it must be loaded in the RAM first before subtasks like
Applications software’s can be able to start.
• In the construction industry, foundation and especially walls are the super tasks for it most start before other subtasks
like piping, wiring, plastering, and painting can be done.

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➢ Critical task: a task that must be completed on schedule for the project to finish on time.
➢ Path: a set of sequentially connected activities in a project.
➢ Critical path: a critical path is a series of tasks that must be completed on time for a project to finish on schedule.
Each task on a critical path is a critical task.
➢ Lag: describes a delay in the link between a predecessor and a successor task. It tells the logical relationship between
the start and or finish of one activity and the start and or finish of a following activity.
➢ Lag time: it is the amount of time delay between the completion of one task and the start of its successor task. A
negative value against a lag is known as a lead.
➢ Slack time: it is the amount of time an activity can be delayed from its early start without delaying the project finish
date. Also known as float time.
➢ Floating task: a task that can be performed earlier or later in the schedule without affecting the project duration.
➢ Lead: a lead is observed when a task that should theoretically wait for its predecessor to finish starts a little earlier.
➢ Lead time: it the time that a successor is allowed to start before its predecessor goes to completion.
➢ Duration (D): it is the number of days (or hours) it will take to complete a task.
➢ Early Finish date (EF): this is the earliest date that a task can be completed. The EF duration of the last task(s) is the
total duration of the project.
For any one task, EF = ES + Duration.
➢ Early Start date (ES): is the earliest date on which a given task can start.
➢ Effort: it is the number of labor units required to complete an activity or other project element.
➢ Free Float or Slack Time (FF) or (ST): the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the ES date
of any immediate successor activity. It can be calculated as follows:
FF = LS – ES or FF = LF - EF
➢ Late Finish date (LF): is the last date a task can be completed without delaying the project. Equals the EF of the last
task(s).
➢ Late Start date (LS): is the last date a task can be start without delaying the project. Calculated as follows: LS = LF
– Duration.
➢ Dependency: a dependency between two tasks says that these two tasks are linked. The most common kind of
dependency is finish-to-start. This means that task A must be finished before task B can start.
➢ Fast tracking: it is performing more critical activities in parallel.
➢ Risk: it is an event which has a probability of happening and whose effect may adversely impact the project.
➢ Forward pass: is a calculation performed on each task determining its early start date and early finish date.
➢ Backward pass: is a second calculation for each task on the project starting on the project finish date and working
backwards to the first task. It calculates the late finish date and late start date of each task.
➢ Total project duration: it is the length of time the whole project will take, all tasks start to finish as calculated by the
forward pass. It equals the length of the critical path.
➢ Project finish date: is the number of days a project will finish.
➢ Milestone: a significant event in the project usually the completion of a major component.

Example 1:
The following table shows the expected duration of each task. The task dependencies are shown.

Task Description Order Duration

A Produce software specification To be completed first 1 week
B Write test plans Start when A is complete 3 weeks
C Software design Start when A is complete 2 weeks

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D Software Code Start when B is complete 3 weeks

E Developer test Start when C is complete 3 weeks
F Software test Start when D and E are complete 4 weeks

a) Construct a PERT chart for the project.

b) Identify the critical path and hence the minimum time to completion.
c) Describe where there is slack time in the system.
d) Construct a Gantt chart for the software development project. Assume that the first task starts on 17th October 2015.
Example 2:
The following table shows the tasks, dependencies, and estimated times a project manager might input to a PERT chart for a
software development project (estimates are used for illustrative
purposes only), and the calculated Expected Times:
Task Task description Predecessor Optimistic Most Likely Pessimistic Expected
Identifier Task(s) Time(O) Time (M) Time (P) Time (TE)
A Establish project 4 5 12 6
B Establish customer A 2 3 4 3
requirements
C Produce software B 6 8 22 10
specification
documents
D Write test plans C 4 6 8 6
E Write code C 3 4 5 4
F Developer testing E 2 4 6 4
G System testing D, F 2 3 4 3
H Write manuals C 5 7 15 8

Figure 10: Network diagram

The network diagram is based on the tasks and their dependencies (predecessor tasks). Task A has no predecessor, and therefore
starts the project on the left. Task B has only task A as a predecessor, and is therefore the next task. The diagram shows that tasks

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D, E and H (writing test plans, code and manuals) all have task C (specification) as a predecessor, and can therefore be carried
out simultaneously.
Identify the critical path: The critical path is determined by using the estimated times to work out the earliest start (ES) and
finish (EF) times (forward pass), and latest start (LS) and finish (LF) times (backward pass), and identifying the tasks where ES
and LS are equal.
Step1: Forward pass.
This is done by working from left to right across the chart. The ES of task A is week 0, and the EF is 6 since this is the ES plus
the duration (estimated time). The earliest that task B can begin is week 6 (since task A must be complete) so its ES is 6, and EF
is 6 + 3 = 9. Note that task G has an ES of 27 because it is dependent on both task D and task F being complete first, and the
earliest that both tasks will be completed is week 27.

Figure 11: PERT chart representation

Step 2: Backward pass.

Working from right to left, the Latest Finish Time (LF) and Latest Start Time (LS) can be filled in.
The final time is 33 weeks, so the LF of task H must be 33. Because this task (H) has a duration of eight (8) weeks, it means it has
a LS of LF- D ➔ 33 – 8 = week 25.
Note that for some tasks, such as Task C, there are different possibilities. To calculate the LF of Task C we need to look at the
latest start times for Tasks D, E and H which are dependent on it. The latest time task C can finish (LF) must be 19 weeks
because Task E has to start at this point.

Step 3: Critical path and slack.

The critical path is identified by finding the nodes where ES = LS. These are nodes for which there is no ‘slack’ or spare time for
a task in the project. The slack is calculated as LF – EF or LS – ES, e.g. Task H has 6 weeks’ slack, and could be scheduled to start
sometime between week 19 and week 25 depending on factors such as the resources available to a task on the critical path.

b. Gantt chart
A Gantt chart is a graphic display of a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project. It was
developed in 1918 by H.L. Gantt. In a Gantt chart, activities are listed down the left side of the chart, dates are shown across the
top, and planned activity durations are shown on horizontal bars.
It is a tool which enables project managers organizes time, people, equipment, and money. Allows managers to monitor the
progress of a project and ensures the right people and equipment are in the right place and the right time. It can be created using
Spreadsheet.
The time relation of all tasks to each other (for example, tasks carried out simultaneously) is therefore clearly apparent in a Gantt
chart. Unlike PERT charts, GANTT charts do not show the critical path, however, dependencies between tasks can be indicated
by lines linking tasks.

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Figure 12: Example of Gantt chart

❖ Limitations of a Gantt chart

➢ Does not clearly indicate details regarding the progress of activities.
➢ Does not give a clear indication of interrelation between the activities.
Example 3: The following table shows the tasks, dependencies, and estimated times a project manager might input to a basic
GANTT chart for a software development project.

Project start date : 12 June 2015

Task Task description Predecessor Time (days)
Identifier Task(s)
1 Establish project - 2
2 Establish customer requirements 1 3
3 Produce software specification documents 2 4
4 Write test plans 3 1
5 Write code 3 2
6 Developer testing 5 2
7 System testing 4, 6 4
8 Write Customer documentation 3 3

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Task 1 has no predecessors, and can thus start on 12 June. The Gantt chart shows the task as a box starting on 12 June and
finishing on 13 June on the horizontal access. Task 2 requires Task 1 to be completed, and the duration is three days, so the box
covers the dates 14 to 16 June. The line from the finish of Task 1 to the start of Task 2 indicates the dependency. Note that Tasks
4, 5 and 8 all require Task 3 to be completed, and have no other dependencies, so these all start on the same date. The chart below
show all seven days of the week, but often, weekend days are excluded.

Figure 13: Gantt chart representation

7. Difference between PERT chart and Gantt chart

PERT charts focus on the sequence of tasks and their dependencies between one another while Gantt charts focus on the time
required for each task. Other differences include the following:
➢ PERT chart display critical and non-critical tasks whereas Gantt charts fail to show the critical and non-critical tasks.
➢ PERT chart produces more accurate expected time TE. This is because tasks in PERT charts will have three
representative time structures; optimistic time, most likely, and pessimistic. By averaging these times, a manager can
predict the time a task will take to complete more realistically than the single time that Gantt charts provide.
➢ Gantt charts are straightforward and are not made for projects which will experience change; while PERT charts are
complex and tolerate great deals of unknown.
➢ Gantt charts focus on the time required to complete a task whereas a PERT chart focuses on relationships between the
tasks, the sequence of tasks, their dependencies between one another and time.
➢ Gantt charts handle sequence and duration while PERT charts manage large and complex projects with variable
duration tasks.
➢ A PERT chart presents information in the form of a flow chart or network diagram while the Gantt chart presents
information in the form of a bar chart.
Report writing
Reports are documents which both give readers information and ask the reader to do something with
that information. Reports can be used:
➢ To suggest new ideas and options;
➢ To ask people to accept a point of view;
➢ To influence decisions;
➢ To ask people to make choices between alternative recommendations.
Therefore, a well-structured and well written report can be a very influential document.
❖ The Format of a Report
1. Problem analysis/specification/introduction.
2. Design (technical specification).
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3. Implementation (how the project was carried out).

4. Testing (how did you verify to ensure that the project is working as specified).
5. Evaluation (what problems did you encounter? How did you solve them?)

CHAPTER 10: OPERATIONS ON NUMBER SYSTEMS

Lesson 1: Notions on number systems
Introduction
Human beings use a number system consisting of different digits (0-9) which corresponds to the number of
fingers we have. This representation is called the decimal number system.

Computers are digital devices (don‘t have fingers) so uses two states either ‗0‘ or ‗1‘, ON or OFF, True or False,
High or Low. A computer can understand the positional number system where there are only a few symbols called
digits and these digits (symbols) represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.

Definitions
Number system: it is a set of symbols and rules used to represent numbers in a certain base.
Base: the number of different symbols used in a given number system is known as the base or radix of the number
system. The largest value of a symbol (digit) in a given number system is always less than the base or radix of that
system. If the base of a system is represented by “b”, then the largest value a digit in that system can assume or have
is “b-1”.
Binary digit: it is a made up of “0” or “1”. The short form of Binary digit is BIT. Computers deal with numbers in groups
of bits usually a length that is the power of 2.
For example, a digit is called a bit, Bits are commonly stored and manipulated in groups of 4 (known as a
nibble), 8 (known as a byte), 16 (usually known as a half word), 32 (a word), or 64 bits (a double word).
Sometimes other groupings are used like 16 (known as a word), 32 (known as a double word).
Truth table: as seen in logic gates.
Types of Number system
Number system Elements/symbols
Binary (base 2) 0,1
Octal (base 8) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal (base 10) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal (base 16) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13,
E=14, F=15

Conversion from any base to base 10

Conversion: it is an act of changing from one number system to another number system.

Conversion from base 2, base 8, and base 16 to base 10.

✓ Rang the number from right to left starting with zero and then express the number with its base.
❖ Base 2 to Base 10
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E.g. (1011)2 = 13021110 = 1*23+0*22+1*21+1*20 = 8+0+2+1 = (11)10

(101.011)2 = 1*22+0*21+1*20+0*2-1+1*2-2+1*2-3 = (5.875)10

❖ Base 8 to Base 10
(237)8 = 22 31 70 = 2*82 + 3*81 + 7*80 = (159)10

❖ Base 16 to Base 10

(4AC9)16 = (19145)10

Conversion from base 10 to any base

✓ Divide the number in base 10 by the base you want to convert the number to until there is nothing left to divide
while writing the remainder as the number in the new base. Read the answer i.e. number in new base from bottom
from top. The last remainder is the MSB and the first remainder is the LSB.

✓ The left-most bit in a binary number is the most significant bit while the right-most bit is the least significant bit.
LSB

Ex. 11011 E.g. (250)10 to base 2

250/2 = 125R0
MSB
125/2 = 62R1
62/2 = 31R0
31/2 = 15R1
15/2 = 7R1
7/2 = 3R1
3/2 = 1R1
1/2 = 0R1 ↑ therefore (250)10 =
(11111010)2

To convert (250)10 to base 8 and base 16, divide by 8 and 16 respectively writing the remainder. (250)10 = (372)8 and
(250)10 = (FA)16.

Conversion from base 10 with fractions to base 2

To convert a decimal number with a fraction (point) to base 2, convert the whole part as before i.e.
dividing by 2 until there is nothing left to divide then multiply successively the decimal part (fractional part) by 2
keeping the whole part as the number in base 2 until the decimal number is a whole number with a point zero (.0).
The answer is read from top to down.

E.g. (15.375)10
The whole part is (15)10 = (1111)2. The fractional
part is (0.375)10 Then it is converted as follows:
0.375*2= 0.75 0↓

0.75*2=1.5 1
0.5*2=1.0 1
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0.0*2=00 end. Therefore (0.375)10 = (0.011)2 and so (15.375)10 = (1111.011)2

Conversion from base 2 to 8 and 16 and vice versa A B C Octal equivalent

Conversion from base 8 to base 16 and vice versa

✓ To convert from base 8 to base 16, the number in base 8 is first converted 0 0 0 0
to base 2 then to base 16 by grouping the number in base 2 into groups 0 0 1 1
of 4-bits then looking for each of the equivalent 4bits group from the 0 1 0 2
3
hexadecimal conversion table (truth table). 2 = 8.
0 1 1 3
Table 1:
1 0 0 4
Binary to Octal conversion ✓ A base 8 number has 3-bits (3
variables). table 1 0 1 5
1 1 0 6
✓ To convert from base 16 to base 8, the number in base 16 is first 1 1 1 7
converted to base 2 then to base 8 by grouping the number in base 2 into
groups of 3-bits then looking for each of the equivalent 3-bits group from the octal conversion table (truth table).
24 = 16. A base 16 number has 4-bits (4 variables).
A B C D Hexadecimal equivalent

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3
0 1 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 5
0 1 1 0 6
0 1 1 1 7
1 0 0 0 8
1 0 0 1 9
1 0 1 0 A
1 0 1 1 B
1 1 0 0 C
1 1 0 1 D
1 1 1 0 E
1 1 1 1 F
Table 2: Binary to Hexadecimal conversion table

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Addition and subtraction in a number system

Binary Arithmetic
Binary Addition
Examples

………………………………….

………………………….

…………………………..

Binary Subtraction
Examples

()
…... ( )

( )

Addition and subtraction in a number system

LESSON 2: ANALYZING SIMPLE LOGIC CIRCUITS

Basic logic gates
Introduction
A large number of electronic circuits (in computers, control units, and so on) are made up of logic gates.
Logic gates are used in many electronic devices, from computers to communication systems.
The gates which are switching circuits control the movement of machines to perform their required task.
Each of the basic logic gates is a piece of hardware or an electronic circuit that can be used to implement some
basic logic circuits.
Digital logic systems are based on binary (two level) number system (1 or 0, high or low, on or off and true or
false). The term logic is used to describe the set of the basic electronic components which when combined with each
other are able to perform complex, logical and arithmetic operations.

1. Definitions
A logic gate is an is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. It is an electronic circuit implementing a
Boolean function, a logical operation performed on one or more binary inputs that produces a single binary output.
Logic gates use the principles of a mathematical system known as Boolean algebra. As well as a standard Boolean
expression, the input and output information of any logic gate or circuit can be schemed into a standard table to give a
visual representation of the switching function of the system. The table used to represent the Boolean expression of a
logic gate function is commonly called a Truth Table. A logic gate truth table shows each possible input combination
to the gate or circuit with the resultant output depending upon the combination of these input(s).
To construct a truth table, we evaluate the Boolean expression for all possible combinations of values for the input
variables. The number of possible combinations is always equal to 𝟐𝒏 where 𝒏 is the number of input variables.

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2. Basic logic gates

There are three basic logic gates: AND, OR, NOT.
a. NOT gate
The simplest possible gate is called an “inverter” or a NOT gate. It has just one input and the output is its opposite: if
the input is high (1), the output is low (0) and viceversa.
NOT operation on a logic variable X is denoted as X̅ or X’, if X is the input to a
NOT gate, then its output Y is given by Y =X̅ and reads as Y equals NOT X. Thus, if X
= 0, Y = 1 and if X = 1, Y = 0. The symbol for an inverter is shown below:

Read as inversion of X gives Truth table of a NOT gate

b. AND gate
An AND gate is a circuit with two inputs and a single output which is set to one only if both the inputs are 1. This
means that it will give a high output only if all of the inputs are high.
For example, in a simple lighting circuit with two switches in series the lamp will light only if both switches are pressed.
The multiplication sign stands for the AND operation. The standard symbol for the AND gate and its truth table is
shown below. A and B are input variables while Y is the output variable.
Y=A.B or Y=AB. It reads as Y equals A AND B. This is the case for two input variables.

Read as A AND B gives Y

Truth table of an AND gate

c. OR gate.
An OR gate will give a high output if any of the inputs is high. For example, in a simple lighting circuit with two
switches in parallel the lamp will light if either switch is pressed.
The OR gate is composed of two inputs and a single output and performs logical addition. The sign (+) stands for the OR
operation and not for ordinary addition.
OR gate,
Truth Table
and
Circuits as shown
below. Read as A OR B gives Y
Truth table of an OR gate

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3. Other type of Logic gates

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be performed. In theory there is no limit to the number of
gates that can be arranged together in a single device, but in practice, there is a limit to the number of gates that can be
packed into a given physical space. Some basic combination gates are: NAND gate, NOR gate, ExclusiveOR (XOR)
and Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gate.

➢ NAND Gate: It is composed of two input variables and a single output variable. The term NAND gate is formed
by the combination of NOT-AND and implies an AND function with an inverted on the output.
The logical operation of the NAND gate is such that the output is LOW (0) only when all the inputs are HIGH (1) else the
output is HIGH (1).
A B X
0 0 1
X = (AB) 0 1 1
1 0 1

Truth table of NAND gate 1 1 0

➢ NOR Gate: The NOR gate which is composed of two inputs variable and a single output variable also has a
universal property. The term NOR is formed by the combination of NOT-OR and implies an OR function with
an inverted output. The logical operation of the NOR gate is such that the output is HIGH (1) only when all the
input variables are LOW (0) else the output is LOW (0).

A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
X = (A+B) 1 0 0
Truth table of a NOR
1 1 0
gate

➢ Exclusive-OR (XOR) and Exclusive-NOR (XNOR): These gates are usually formed from the combination of
the other logic gates. The exclusive-OR is an INEQUALITY function and the output is HIGH (1) when the
inputs variables are not equal to each other. Conversely, the exclusive-NOR is an EQUALITY function and the
output is HIGH (1) when the inputs are equal to each other. The output of XOR is as follows:

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Lesson 27: Derived gates

4. Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra is a mathematical
system, developed by the English
mathematician, George Boole, which is
used for the formulation of the logical
statements with symbols so that the
Truth table of a XOR gate
problems can be solved in a definite manner of ordinary algebra. In short, Boolean algebra is the mathematics of
digital systems. Since Boolean algebra deals with the binary number system, the variables used in the Boolean
equations have only two possible values (0 or 1). Thus, for performing the logical algebraic operations, that is,
'addition' and 'multiplication', Boolean algebra follows certain rules.

❖ Rules of Boolean algebra

These rules are shown in the table below.
Addition Rules Multiplication Rules
1 0+0=0 0∙0=0
2 0+1=1 0∙1=0
3 1+0=1 1∙0=0
4 1+1=1 1∙1=1
5 A+0=A A∙0=0
6 A+1=1 A∙1=A
7 A+A=A A∙A=A
8 A + A̅ = 1 A ∙ A̅ = 0
9 A + AB = A
10 A + A̅ B = A + B
11 (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC
12 AC + BC = A(B+C)

These rules can be check be the use of Truth Table.

❖ Laws of Boolean algebra

The following are different laws of Boolean algebra.

• Complement law
𝐴∙𝐴=0 | 𝐴+𝐴=1
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• Idempotence law
𝐴·𝐴=𝐴 | 𝐴+𝐴=𝐴

• Absorption law
𝐴(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴 | 𝐴 + (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐴

• Involution law
𝐴=𝐴

• Identity law
𝐴·1=𝐴 | 𝐴+0=𝐴

• Redundancy law
𝐴·0=0 | 𝐴+1

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Lesson 28: Logic circuits

5. Logic circuits and Boolean function

A Logic circuit is a set of gate joined together to produce a specific output from give inputs
For example, let’s consider the following circuit: It contains three inputs A, B and C and two types of gates.

A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables and logical operators like (OR,
AND, NOT with an equality sign). In essence, a truth table is a list which defines a Boolean function.
For example, X = A · B + A · C. Let us determine the truth table of the given function:

There are 3 inputs; thus we must have 23 (i.e. 8) possible combinations of 1s and 0s.
A B C A∙B A∙C A∙B + A∙C
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

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MODULE III: SOFWARE DEVELOPMENT, PROJECTS

CHAPTER 11: ALGORITHMS AND PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Lesson 1: Algorithms
Problem situation:
Divine wants to make a tea, but he doesn’t know how to do it. You are used to do it and he is asking for a hand.
1) What does he need to make a tea?
2) What are the necessary steps to follow to make a tea?
I. Algorithmic concepts
1. Definition of terms
An Algorithm is a finite sequence of well-defined and precise instructions that can be used to solve a specific
problem.
Algorithmic thinking is a way of getting to a solution through the clear definition of the steps needed.
Computational thinking is a set of problem-solving method that involves expressing problems and their solutions
in ways that a computer could also execute.
Logical thinking is the act of analyzing a problem using reasoning skills and coming up with a meaningful
conclusion.
Computational complexity: is the amount of resources required to run an algorithm. (Focus is given to time and
memory requirements). The time complexity of an algorithm indicates how fast the algorithm runs. The space
complexity indicates how much memory the algorithm needs.
2. Steps to resolve a problem (Computer problem solving approach)
Problem solving is done through a rigorous analytical methodical approach; it can be summed up essentially in 5
points namely:
➢ Define the problem identified by specifying the expected results (outputs)
➢ Identify the data input required for obtaining the output.
➢ determine how to process the inputs to obtain the desired output. That is to determine what formula, method,
way or steps that can be used to obtain the output.
➢ Implement the chosen processes to solve the problem while respecting the conditions, if there is any
➢ Test the algorithm, that is try the algorithm with the exact or some randomly values to ensure the correctness
and the effectiveness of the algorithm.

Example: A car travels 150km in 2h. How fast is the car moving?
Input: distance, time.
Processes: Ask for the distance and time, set the speed to: distance/time, display the speed.
Output: speed.

Methods usually employed when solving problems in Computer Science are Stepwise Refinement and Top-Down
Design.
➢ Stepwise Refinement: this means replacing existing algorithmic steps/instructions with a new version that
fills in more details. When carrying out stepwise refinement, the complex problem is broken down into a
number of simpler steps which are simpler than the one required solving the overall problem. Refinement
of the steps continues in this manner until each step is sufficiently detailed.
➢ Top-Down Design: the goal of the top-down design is to divide a given problem into sub-problems. A sub-
problem in turn can be thought of as simply another problem and so it can be divided into sub-problems
which would be easier to solve than the original problem. The division of the problem starts at the top level
down that is why the process is called top-down design.
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3. Characteristics of Algorithms
A good algorithm should have the following characteristics:
➢ It must be explicit: i.e.be clear and obvious.
➢ It must be precise or unambiguous: it must be specified exactly and accurately and there should be no doubt
about what to do next
➢ It must be effective or executable: it must produce a result and there should be no impossible or unknown
steps in the algorithm
➢ It must be finite or terminate: it must have a beginning and an end though there are some that do not end.
➢ Efficient: some algorithms may work correctly but be inefficient by taking more time and using more
resources (space) than required to solve the problem.
➢ Must have an input and output

To satisfy these quality standards, one can put the following question at the time of the resolution of the algorithm
problem:
➢ Which are the data on which the algorithm will work?
➢ Which are the processes which it must execute to offer these services?
➢ Which are the services which it most produce (this include respond to users request or another algorithm)?

3. Effectiveness of a solution
There are many different solutions to the same problem so in order to consider the effectiveness of a given solution,
the following questions may be asked:
➢ Does the solution work for all sets of data?
➢ Does the solution have any unnecessary processes that are never used?
➢ Are any actions repeated more often than necessary?
➢ Can the solution be simplified and still work as well?
II. Representing algorithms
There are many ways in which algorithms can be represented. We shall consider just 3 ways. They are: Structured
English (Natural language), Flow charts, and Pseudo code.
1. Structured English
To represent algorithms in Structured English, we simply write down the steps to follow in solving a problem in
chronological order.
Examples:
An algorithm to add 2 numbers and to find the An algorithm to make tea will be given as
difference
1. Get two numbers a and b; 1. Put water into the coffee machine
2. Add tea to it
2. Add a and b;
3. Plug the machine to the current
3. Subtract b in a; 4. Wait for ten minutes
4. Display the sum; 5. Stop machine
6. Unplug it from current
5. Display the difference; 7. Serve tea in a tea cup
8. Add sugar
9. Drink

2. Flow charts
A flow chart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. It uses graphic symbols to describe the nature and flow
of steps in an algorithm. Each step in a flowchart contains information about what must be done, and the arrows show
the order in which the instructions must be executed.

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Symbol Name Meaning

Indicate the beginning (begin/start) or end

Terminator
(end/stop) of an algorithm

Indicates a process i.e. instructions,

Rectangle procedures, or actions to be carried by an
algorithm.
Indicates a decision or choice that must be
Rhombus or made and only one flow line enters the
Diamond diamond. However, two or more flow lines
may leave a diamond

Parallelogram Indicates data input and output

Arrow indicates the direction of flow

Circle Joins two or more lines.

❖ Advantages of flow chart

➢ Communicate the details of a task or procedure to others.
➢ Excellent way of communicating each stage in a procedure.
➢ Acts like a guide or blueprint for the designer.
➢ Helps in analyzing problems or bottlenecks in a given task.
❖ Disadvantages of a flow chart
➢ It is often difficult to present complex processes or tasks clearly using flow charts.
➢ Flowchart symbols cannot be typed
➢ Alterations can become a hassle when using flowcharts.

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Examples:

Flow Char to add two numbers

Begin Begin

Read a, b Get a and b

X <- a + b
Add a and b

Write X
Display the sum

end
end

3. Pseudo code
A pseudo code is an outline of a computer program written in a mixture of a programming-like language and English.
Pseudo-codes help programmers write out the program in a simple clear language before attempting to put it in a
suitable programming language of their choice. Writing pseudo code is one of the best ways to plan a computer
program.
The three standards for writing good pseudo-code are:
➢ Number each instruction or use indentation: this is to enforce the notion of an ordered sequence in which
instructions are carried out.
➢ Each instruction should not be ambiguous but effectively computable.
➢ Nothing should be left out.

The advantage of pseudo-code is that it allows the programmer to concentrate on how the program works while
ignoring the details of the language.
For example, here is a pseudo code outline of a program that reads two numbers and says which is greater:
Begin
Read (a, b);
If a is greater than b then;
Write (“a is greater than b”);
If b is greater than a then;
Write (“b is greater than a”);
End
The advantages of pseudo-code are:
➢ It allows the programmer to concentrate on how the program works while ignoring the details of the
language.
➢ It describes how an algorithm should work
➢ It explains the computing process to less technical users.

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a. Basic Structure of an algorithm

An algorithm essentially consists of 3 parts: the header, the declarative part and the body.
Algorithm name_of_the_algorithm
The Header: Simply identify the
CONST name_of_constant = value algorithm. The algorithm can take any
name.
VAR name_of_variable: type
The declarative part: allows you
Begin to declare all object to be used in the
body of the algorithm: variable,
Instruction 1; The declarative
constant, part: function,
structure, Allow you to
declare
procedure all object to be used in the body of
….
the algorithm: variable, constant,
Instruction n; structure, function, procedure

End The body: Contains instructions,

delimiters, processing operations
and The body: Contains instructions,
comments
delimiters, processing operations and
b. Variables, Constants and Literals comments variable, constant, structure,
function,
❖ Variable: it is an object in a program whose value can be modified during procedure
the execution of the program.
To declare a variable, we use the keyword VAR followed by the name and the type of the variable. The syntax
is as follows: VAR name_of_the_variable: type
Example: declaration of variable A of type Integer
VAR A: Integer
A data type defines the domain in which an object gets its value and the kind of operations that can be performed on
the object. The basic data types are
Name of type Description Example of values
Integer used to store positive, negative whole 1; 50; 234; 16578; -89
number and zero
Real used to store real numbers with decimal 12; 15.57; -64.234
points both positive and negative.
Boolean used to store logic values true/false; yes/no.
Character used to store a single character, digit or ‘d’; ‘6’; ‘#’; ‘=’
special character
Strings used to store a word or phrase “nested55”; “34$5”

❖ Constant: it is an object whose value cannot be modified in the course of the algorithm or program. A constant
is given a value that remains the same all through the program.

To declare a constant, we use the keyword CONST followed by the name and the value. The syntax is as follows:
CONST name_of_constant = value
Example declaration of 𝜋 equal to 3.14 as a constant.
CONST PI = 3.14
Variables and constants are characterized by:
➢ An identifier: This is the name of the object.
➢ A value: This is the content of the object.
➢ A type: This defines the domain in which the object gets its value

❖ A Literal: is anything (numbers or text) that is fixed (set) by a programmer during the creation of the program’s
code. It is usually written within double quotes. Examples “Enter a number”, “The result is” are literals.
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c. Basic Instructions
An instruction is a processing order to perform an action. The three basic instructions used in an algorithm are input,
output and assignment instructions.
❖ An input instruction allows to read a value from the keyboard using the keyword “read ()”, “readln ()” or Get.
The value read is saved in a variable of the same.
The syntax is: read(name_of_variable);
Example: read(a);
❖ An output instruction allows to display an information on an output device such as monitor or printer. We use
the keyword: “write ()”, “writeln ()” or print.
The syntax is write (“What we want to display”);
Example write(“bonjour”);
❖ The assignment or affectation instruction allows a value to be assigned to a variable. the content of a variable
can be assigned as the content of another variable. The symbols used for affectation statement are: “←” or “:=”
The syntax is name_of_variable ← value;
Example: a ← 2; message ← “bonjour Peter”; sum ← a + b;
❖ Incrementation/ decrementation instruction
➢ Incrementation is the operation of adding 1 (and by extension any fixed integer value) to a variable
called a counter.
The syntax is: i ← i +1; i++;
➢ Decrementation is the operation of substracting 1 (and by extension any fixed integer value) to a
variable called a counter.
The syntax is: j ← j +1; j - -;
Activity: Complete the table below
Instruction x y z
x←2 / /
x←x+1 / /
y←1+x
z←x+y
y←z+x

d. Basic Algorithmic Control Structures

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i. Sequence Structure
A sequence control structure executes a set of instructions (Actions) one after the other from the first to the last in
the order they are given.
Syntax: Instruction 1
Action 1
Get a ;
Instruction 2
Get b ;
… Action 2
Instruction n c← a + b ;
print (“Sum =”, c) ;
Action n

ii. Selection Control Structure (alternative structure)

A selection control structure (condition control structure) chooses the instruction or set of instructions to be executed
based on the validity of a certain condition. Examples: If …then …else and case …of

❖ If… then … else

Condition
Syntax: if condition then
Get a, b;
instruction 1; if a = 0 then
else print (“error: division by
instruction 2; zero”);
end else Action 1 Action 2
print (b/a);
end

It is possible to nest many selection structures.

Syntax:
if condition1 then Get a, b;
if condition 2 then if a < > o then
instruction 1; if b < > 0 then
else write (b/a);
instruction 2; else
else print (“the answer is 0”);
instruction 3; else
print(“error: division by 0”);
end

Explanation: If condition1 is true, we move to condition2. If condition2 is true, then instruction 1 is executed otherwise,
instruction 2 is executed. If condition 1 is false, instruction 3 is executed. Instruction1 or instruction 2 will be executed
if and only if condition 1 is true.
Get day
❖ Case … of Case day of
1: print “today is Monday”;
Syntax: Case variable of 2:print “today is Tuesday”;
Case 1: Instruction 1 ….
7:print “Today is Sunday”;
Case 2: Instruction 2 end
…
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Case n: Instruction n
end
Explanation: the value of variable is evaluated, if it matches with case 1, instruction 1 is executed. If it matches
with case 2, instruction 2 is executed and so on. Case…of is a multiple selection structure. It is used when an important
number of choices are to be considered depending on the value of a variable.

iii. Repetition (iteration) Structure

The repetition (iteration) control structure executes an instruction or set of instructions many times until a certain
condition is reached or while a condition is true. Repetition structures define the order of operations and the number of
repetitions. They are also known as loops. Examples are: while…do, repeat…until, for…to…do.
❖ While Loop Syntax: Get n
I←1 Initialization
While condition do While i <= n do
Instruction(s) Print ← “his is a loop”;
i ← i + 1; Condition
End while end while

Instructions

Explanation: The condition is evaluated, if it is true instruction(s) is/are executed. Instruction(s) is/are executed as
long as condition remains true. When the condition becomes false, the loop stops.
❖ Repeat Loop Syntax: Get n
Repeat i ← 1;
Instruction(s) repeat Initialization
Until condition print “this is a repeat loop”;
i ← i + 1;
until i <= n Instructions

Condition

Explanation: The instruction or set of instructions is executed and the condition is evaluated. If it evaluates to
false, the instruction or set of instructions is executed again. If condition evaluates to true, the program exits the loop.
Get n
❖ For Loop Syntax: For i: = 1 to n do
For var ← low_limit to hi_limit do Initialization
Print “this is a for loop”
Instruction(s); End For
End for Or
Or Get n Condition
For var: ← hi_limit downto low limit do For i: = n down to 1 do
Instruction(s) Incrementation
Print “this is a for loop” /decrementation
End for End For

Instructions

Explanation: var (variable) is given a value low limit or hi limit depending on the loop, which is automatically
incremented or decremented (by 1) after any execution of the loop. The loop stops when low limit becomes greater
than hi_limit. In both cases, if hi_limit is less than low limit, the loop body is not executed at all.

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Remark: Some problems are recursive in nature. The solution to such problems involves the repeated
application of the solution to its own values until a certain condition is reached. Algorithms for such problems are
known as recursive algorithms.
A recursive algorithm is one that calls (invokes) itself during an execution. Examples are the Factorial function,
the sum function, and the Fibonacci function.
Recursion can be defined as the calling of a procedure by itself thereby creating a new copy of the procedure.

Exercises
1) Write an algorithm to calculate the area of a circle.
2) Write an algorithm to solve a linear equation.
3) Write an algorithm that reads a person‘s sex and writes good morning sir if it’s male and good morning madam
if it‘s female.
4) Write an algorithm that solves a quadratic equation

Lesson 2: Programming
Introduction
Programming or program development is the act of writing computer programs.
A computer program is a set of instructions written in a programming language that tells the computer what to do in
order to solve a problem. In other words, it is an algorithm expressed in a programming language.

1.Characteristics of a good Computer Program and software

➢ Efficiency: it is the degree with which the program fulfills its purpose without waste of resources.
➢ Reusability: it is the ease with which a program can be reuse to design other programs.
➢ Maintainability: it is the ease with which modifications can be made to satisfy new requirements or to
correct deficiencies.
➢ Reliability: this is the extent to which a program fails to perform its functions under normal operating
circumstances.
➢ Correctness: degree with which a program meets its specified requirements.
➢ Robustness: degree with which a program resist to users manipulations errors.
➢ Documentation: enough comment should be included in a program to facilitate its understanding by
any computer user.
➢ Portability: it refers to the ability of software to run on different platforms (system software’s) with or
without minimal changes.
➢ Flexibility: a program should be flexible enough to handle most of the changes without having to
rewrite the entire program.
➢ Readability: it should be written in such a way that it makes other programmers or users to follow the
logic of the program without much effort.
2.Programming Languages
A programming language is a set of words, symbols and rules for writing computer programs.
A programming language is determined by its syntax (rules guiding the formulations of the program statement) and
semantics (it describes the meaning of the program statement i.e. it is the vocabulary of the language).
Two categories of programming languages exist: low-level languages and high-level languages.
a. Low Level Languages
Low level languages are those that allow low-level access to hardware features. There are two categories of low-
level languages: machine language and assembly language.
➢ Machine Language: it is the computer’s language. It is the language the computer understands. A Machine
language instructions are written in binary (a series of 0s and 1s), and are directly executable by the computer
(processor). Each machine language statement corresponds to one machine action. Machine language is the
first generation of programming languages.

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➢ Assembly Language: it is a low-level language that uses words or symbolic codes called mnemonic codes
to represent machine language instructions. Assembly language is the second generation of programming
languages. ADD, LOAD, and STORE are known as mnemonics. For example:
LOAD R0 Number1 Loads number1 in register 0
ADD R2 R0 R1 Adds registers 0 and register 1 and store result in register 2.
❖ Advantages of low level languages
➢ Programs are easier to write and understand when compared to machine language.
➢ It can produce small size program.
➢ It can produce very fast code as it allows low-level access to hardware features.

❖ Disadvantages of high level languages

➢ Programs are not as easy to write and understand when compared to high level languages.
➢ Programs are tied to specific computer hardware and can’t be reused on another kind of computer.
b. High Level Languages
A high-level language is a language that is closer to human language.
It allows a programmer to write programs without having to understand the inner workings of the computer. High-
level languages are the third generation of programming languages. Examples of high-level languages are C, BASIC
(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), Pascal, Java, FORTRAN (FORmular TRANslation), C++, COBOL
(COmmon Business Oriental Language ), etc.
❖ Advantages of high level languages
➢ Programs are easy to write and understand
➢ Built-in libraries to perform routine tasks
➢ Can be ported to multiple hardware setups from same.
❖ Disadvantages of high level languages
➢ Slower than second generation languages
➢ Produce larger program files for same functionality than second generation languages.
➢ May not allow for low level hardware access.
3.Language Translators
To run a program on a computer, the program needs to be translated into the machine language of the computer on
which it will run.
A language translator is a computer program that translates program instructions from one language into another
without loss of original meaning. There are three types of language translators: assembler, compiler, and interpreter.
a. Assembler
An assembler translates instructions from assembly language into machine language. This process is called
assembling.
b. Compiler
A compiler is a computer program that translates an entire block (i.e.at once) of instructions written in a high-level
language into machine language instructions before executing it.
The high-level language program is called source code and the generated machine language program is called object
code. Types of compiled languages are Pascal, C, C++, FORTRAN, JAVA, and Python.
❖ Advantages of a Compiler
➢ Fast in execution
➢ The object/executable code produced by a compiler can be distributed or executed without having the
compiler present.
➢ The object program can be used whenever required without the need of recompilation.
❖ Disadvantages of a Compiler
➢ Debugging a program is much harder. Therefore not so good at finding errors.
➢ When an error is found, the whole program has to be re-compiled though compilation process is so fast.
c. Interpreter
An interpreter is a computer program that translates and executes instructions written in a high-level language into
machine language instructions one line at a time. If a program performs a section code 1000 times, then the section is
translated into machine code 1000 times since each line is interpreted and then executed. Types of interpreters: BASIC,
Lisp, Logo, etc.
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❖ Advantages of an Interpreter
➢ Good at locating errors in programs since interpretation is done line by line.
➢ Debugging is easier since the interpreter stops when it encounters an error.
➢ If an error is corrected, there is no need to retranslate the whole program.
❖ Disadvantages of an Interpreter
➢ It is slow as interpretation is done line by line.
➢ Translation has to be done every time the program is to be executed since no object code is produced.
➢ For the program to run, the interpreter must be present.
4. Program Errors and Correction
➢ Syntax Error
Syntax is the set of rules that specify how the symbols of a language can be put together to form meaningful
statements. A syntax error is a place in a program where the syntax rules of the programming language were
not followed. A syntax error will stop a program compilation or interpretation.
➢ Semantic Error
Semantics specify the meaning of an orderly well-formed program. A semantic error is a situation where the
programmer misunderstood the meaning of something in the programming language. Compilation and
interpretation do not detect semantic errors. Semantic errors are detected from wrong results. They are also
called logical errors.
Something may be syntactically correct but semantically incorrect.
➢ Run-time Error
Run-time error is an error that occurs when a program is being executed. For example, a run-time error may
occur if division by 0 is attempted. A run-time error may cause the program to stop execution.
➢ Debugging
An error in a computer program is known as a bug and debugging is the process of finding and removing bugs.
Syntax errors and semantic errors are bugs. A debugger is the software tool (or person) used for this purpose.
5.Key Words and Operators
a. Key Words
Any high-level language has its own set of predefined words which are used to write programs. Each of these words
has a specific meaning, and cannot be used for any other purpose within the programming language IDE. These words
are known as key words or reserved words.
A reserved word is a key word in a programming language that has a specific meaning and cannot be used for any
other purpose. E.g. If, Else, For, To and goto.
b. Operators
Operators are used to perform various operations on data. They may be arithmetic, relational or logical. Arithmetic
operators are +, -, *, %, ++ and -- and /. Relational operators include <, >, ==, <=, >= and !=. Logic operators are NOT
(!), AND (&&) and OR (||).

6.Programming paradigms
It is a fundamental style and methodology of computer programming. There are: imperative (procedural),
declarative, and object oriented Paradigms.
➢ Imperative Paradigm: It is also known as procedural programming paradigm. It uses sequences of instructions
that are executed by the processor in the order the programmer designed. Imperative programming manipulates
variables and data structures/types stating how to obtain the results. Examples: C, Pascal, FORTRAN, Ada, etc.
➢ Declarative Paradigm: Made up of logic Paradigm and Functional Paradigm. Its control flow is implicit i.e.
the programmer states only what the result should look like not how to obtain it.
➢ Logic paradigm is a programming process that consists of a set of facts and rules (axioms) describing
properties of a certain objects and theorems to be proved. E.g. Prolog, Mercury. Prolog and Mercury are fifth
generation language also called Natural Languages.
➢ Functional programming paradigm: Here a program development is the construction of mathematical
functions. E.g. Lisp, Mathematical, etc.
➢ Object Oriented Paradigm (OOP): Here software is viewed as a collection of units called objects which
receive messages each of which is capable of performing the actions that are immediately related to it as well

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as requesting actions of other objects. Objects respond to messages by performing operations called methods.
Together, these objects interact to solve the problem. E.g. design of graphical user interface using C++,
Python, Perl, Java.
7.Software development tools
These are software that are used to develop applications and system software.
➢ Source code editor: A source code editor is a text editor program designed specifically for editing source
code of computer programs. It could be a standalone application or it may be built into an IDE.
➢ Integrated Development Environment (IDE): An IDE is single software that provides comprehensive
facilities to computer programmers in which all software development is done. Also known as Integrated
Design Environment or Integrated Debugging Environment. An IDE normally consist of: a source code
editor, a compiler or interpreter, automation tools, a debugger.
➢ Linker: This is software that is used to combine object code modules (sub-programs) together to make a
complete program.
8.Stages in the program development cycle
➢ Problem Analysis.
➢ Task Analysis.
➢ Algorithm Development.
➢ Coding
➢ Testing and Debugging.
➢ Documentation and Maintenance.
Lesson 3: Introduction to C Programming Language
Introduction
C is a very powerful all-purpose programming language mostly used in creating OSs and more sophisticated
programs.
C is one of the oldest programming languages and the most widely used, it was developed in the 70s, but it is still very
powerful. Learning C is a great way to introduce yourself to more complex languages as well, and the knowledge you
gain will be useful in almost every programming language and can help you get into application development.

1.Why to use C?
C was initially used for system development work in particular the programs that make-up the operating system. C
was adopted as a system development language because it produces code that runs nearly as fast as code written in
assembly language. The modern version of C is Objective C & C++.
Some examples of the use of C might be: Operating Systems, Language Compilers, Assemblers, Text Editors, Print
Spoolers, Network Drivers, Modern Programs, Databases, Language Interpreters, and Utilities.

2.Software needed for a C program

C code needs to be compiled by a program that interprets the code into signals that the machine can understand. Also
known as Integrated Development Environment IDE made up of Text Editor and Compiler. Depending on the platform
we can use the following software
➢ For Windows; Dev C++ or tuo C or CodeBlocks.
➢ For Mac; XCode is one of the best C compilers.
➢ For Linux; gcc is one of the most popular options.

3.Reserved/Key words in C
These are words that should not be used as an identifier to define variables or functions in a program.
void Used to indicate that a function takes no arguments or returns no value
Data structures-
related
typedef Used to associate a type with an identifier
const Used to declare constants
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char, int, float, double Simple data types

struct Used to create a record data structure
Selection
if test a condition and perform a set of instructions based on the result
else used in if statement to provide an execution path when the if test fails
The switch statement tests the value of a expression and test with the different "case"
switch, case and default
values. We can use "default" value, if it doesn't matches any of "case" values.
break Used to jump out of the innermost enclosing loop or switch statement
continue Used to skip the statements that follow continue inside the loop
Operators
sizeof Determines the number of bytes of an object
return Used to terminate the execution of a function
Used to terminate the execution of a function and returns the value val to the calling
return val
function
Loops-related
for Used in a for loop
do Used in a do… while loop (equivalent to repeat..until loop in Pascal
while Used in a while loop
Constant values
null pointer value indicating the pointer does not contain a value

NOTE: C is a case-sensitive language i.e. all keywords must be in lowercase.

4.Basic C code
Take a look at the very basic program below to get a good idea about how some of the various aspects of the language
work together, and to get an idea of how programs function.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
/*my first program in C */
printf("Hello, World! \n");
system("PAUSE");
return 0;
}

➢ The # i nc l u de < s t di o . h> It is a preprocessor command which tells a C compiler to include stdio.h file
before going to actual compilation and also loads libraries that contain the functions you need. In this example,
s t di o . h lets us use the p r i n t f ( ) and system( ) functions.
➢ The i n t m ai n ( ) command tells the compiler that the program is running the function called "main" and that
it will return an integer when it is finished. All C programs run a "main" function.
➢ The braces { } indicate that everything inside them is part of the function. In this case, they denote that
everything inside is a part of the "main" function.
➢ /* …. */ : is comment and is ignored by the C compiler , to comment in C place / * at the start of the comment
and * / at the end.
➢ The p r i nt f ( ) function displays the contents of the parentheses on the user's screen. The quotes ensure that
the string inside is printed literally. The \ n sequence tells the compiler to move the cursor to the next line.
➢ The “ ; ” denotes the end of a line. Most lines of C code need to end with a semicolon.
➢ The system (“pause”) or g e t c h ar ( ) command tells the compiler to wait for a keystroke input before
moving on. This is useful because many compilers will run the program and immediately close the window.
This keeps the program from finishing until a key is pressed.
➢ The r et u r n ( ) command indicates the end of the function.

Remark: Comments are part of the code that is not compiled but allows you to explain what is happening. This is useful
for reminding yourself what your code is for and for helping other developers who might be looking at your code.

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5.Using Variables
Variables allow you to store data either from computations in the program or from user input. Variables need to be
defined before you can use them and there are several types to choose from.
Some of the more common variables types in C programming include i nt , c ha r , and f l o a t . Each one stores a
different type of data.

How variables are declared?

Variables need to be established, or "declared", before they can be used by the program. You declare a variable by
entering the data type followed by the variable's name. For example, the following are all valid variable declarations:
float x;
char name;
int a, b, c, d;

Note: you can declare multiple variables on the same line as long as they are of the same type. Simply separate the
variable names with commas.

Like many lines in C, each variable declaration line, instruction line needs to end with a semicolon.

Variables must be declared at the beginning of each code block (The parts of your code that are enclosed in {}
brackets). If you try to declare a variable later in the block, the program will not function correctly.

6.C input and output

As in Pascal, many C programs make used of user-supplied inputs and produce outputs that are intended for
consumption by the user. The inbuilt functions scanf and printf are commonly used for input and output, as explained
in Table below.
Function Description
This function can be used to read keyboard input. Usage of this function generally takes the
form scanf("format", argument_list);, where format is a string of characters that controls the
input process. Some examples:
• scanf("%d", &x); /*read data into int variable x*/
scanf • scanf("%f", &y); /*read data into float variable y*/
• scanf("%d%f", &x,&y); /*read data into integer variable x*/
/*and float variable y*/
• scanf("%c", &z); /*read data into character variable z*/
• scanf("%s", &w); /*read data into character array w */
This function can be used to display things on screen. Usage of the function
generally takes the form printf("print_specifier", argument_list);, where print_specifier is a
string that will be printed, and contains zero or more %character; %character is replaced by
arguments that follow the print specifier. Some examples
printf • int x=10; float y=6.5; char z = 'D';
• printf("%d", x); /*10*/
• printf("Integer value %d", x); /*Integer value 10*/
• printf("Float value %f", y); /*Float value 6.500000*/
• printf("Character value %f", z); /*Character value D*/

Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("You entered %d", x);
system("PAUSE");
return 0;
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➢ The " % d" string tells s can f to look for integers in the user input.
➢ The & before the variable x tells s ca n f where to find the variable in order to change it, and stores the integer
in the variable.
➢ The final p r i n t f command display the inputted integer to the user.

Example 2:
1. /*this program computes the dimensional weight of a box*/
2. #include<stdio.h>
3. Int main (void)
4. {
5. Int height, length, width, volume;
6. Float weight;
7. Printf (“enter the length of box: ”);
8. Scanf (“%d”, &length);
9. Printf (“enter the width of box: ”);
10. Scanf (“%d”, &width);
11. Printf (“enter the height of box: ”);
12. Scanf (“%d”, &height);
13. Volume = length*width*height;
14. Weight = (volume+165)/166;
15. Printf (“volume (cubic inches) : %d\n”, volume);
16. Printf (“dimensionalweight (pounds) : 2f\n”, weight);
17. Return 0;
18. }

Details of the program

Line Explanation

1 A comment describing what the program does and is ignored by the compiler.
2 Commands beginning with the # are known as pre-processor directives.
3 The main function starts the execution of the program. The keyword ‘int’ indicates the return
type is an integer. Also the keyword ‘void’ indicates that the function takes no arguments.

4, 18 The braces each indicate where the body of the program begins and ends respectively. They
can also be use to group statements.

5, 6 Define the type of data that each variable i.e. height, length, width, volume and weight will
hold. Here we have integers and float (decimal numbers)

7, 9, 11 Printf statement: it causes the message ‘enter length, width, and height of box” to be displayed
on the console screen.

8, 10, 12 Scanf statement: it reads input and stores it in the specified variable. %d indicate s that the
input is a decimal integer, %f; input is a floating point number, %s input is a string. The
‘&’specifies the location where the variable is stored.

13, 14 Computations
15, 16 Printf displays the values of the numeric expressions volume and weight as integers and
floating point numbers respectively. For the weight, ‘2f’ specifies that the value printed will
have just 2 digits after the decimal point. The ‘\n’ character tells printf to move the cursor to
the beginning of a new line.

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17 Indicates that the main function terminates and the program returns the value ‘0’ to the O.S.
when it terminates or returns a value to the user.

6.Learn the basic operators in C

❖ Arithmetic operators : these operators perform arithmetic manipulations on their operands
Operators Description
+ Adds both operands
- Subtracts second operand from the first
* Multiplies both operands
Divides numerator by denominator
Note: In C, if both operands are ints, integer division is performed and the result
will be an integer. The fractional part of the result is discarded. If however, any
/
of the operands is float
or double, the result is a floating point number and the fractional part is not
discarded
/ Integer division. Same comment above with C.
Modulus operator. Result is the remainder when numerator is divided by the
%
denominator
++ Increment operator. Increments its operand by 1
-- Decrement operator. Decrements its operand by 1

❖ Conditional operators (Relational operators)

These operators perform a comparison on their operands and result in a true or false result.

Operators Description
== Equality. The result is true if both operands are equal, and false otherwise
!= Not equal. The result is true if operands are not equal, and false if they are equal
Greater than. The result is true if the left operand is greater than the right operand
>
and false otherwise.
Less than. The result is true if the left operand is less than the right operand, and
<
false otherwise.
Greater than or equal to. The result is true if the left operand is greater than or equal
>=
to the right operand, and false otherwise.
Less than or equal to. The result is true if the left operand is less than or equal to the
<=
right operand, and false otherwise.

❖ Logical operators:
These operators perform logical operations on their operands; the result is a true or false

Operators Descriptions
The AND operator.
&& In C, the result is true if both operands are non-zero, otherwise the result is false.
In Pascal, the result is true if both operands are true, otherwise the result is false.
The OR operator.
|| In C, the result is true if any of the two operands is non-zero, otherwise the result is false.
In Pascal, the result is true if any of the two operands is true, otherwise the result is false.
The NOT operator. Used to reverses the logical state of its operand. If a condition is true
!
then the NOT operator will make false

❖ Assignment Operators: Change the value in a memory location, i.e. in a variable

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Operators Descriptions
Simple assignment operator. Assigns the value of the right hand side expression to the left
hand side operand Statements involving the assignment operator may look mathematically
= incorrect.
Examples: c = c + 5; (in C) or c := c + 5; (in Pascal) should be interpreted as follows: Assign
to variable c a value which is the same as the old value of c, plus 5.
These C operators perform an arithmetic operation, then assign the result to the left operator.
+=,-=,*=,
Example, += (add AND assignment operator) adds right operand to the left operand and
/=, %=
assign the result to left operand. Hence, c += 5 is equivalent to c = c + 5;

❖ Manipulate your variables.

You can use mathematical expressions to manipulate the data that you have stored in your variables. The most
important distinction to remember for mathematical expressions is that a single “= ” sets the value of the variable, while
“= = ” compares the values on either side to see if they are equal.
x = 3 * 4; /* sets "x" to 3 * 4, or 12 */
x = x + 3; /* adds 3 to the original value of "x", and sets the new value as the variable */
x == 15; /* checks to see if "x" equals 15 */
x < 10; /* checks if the value of "x" is less than 10 */
7.Using Conditional Statements
Conditional statements are what drive most programs. They are statements that are determined to be either TRUE or
FALSE, and then acted upon based on the result. The most basic of the statements is the i f statement.
TRUE and FALSE work differently in C than what you might be used to. TRUE statements always end up equaling
a nonzero number. When you perform comparisons, if the result is TRUE then a "1" is returned. If the result is FALSE,
then a "0" is returned. Understanding this will help you see how IF statements are processed.
❖ Write a basic IF statement.
You can use IF statements to determine what the program should do next after the statement is evaluated. You can
combine it with other conditional statements later to create powerful multiple options, but for now write a simple one
to get used to them.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
if (3 < 5 )
printf("3 is less than 5");
getchar();
}
❖ Use ELSE/ELSE IF statements to expand your conditions.
You can build upon IF statements by using ELSE and ELSE IF statements to handle different results. ELSE
statements run if the IF statement is FALSE. ELSE IF statements allow you to include multiple IF statements into one
code block to handle various cases. See the example program below to see how they interact.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int age;
printf("Please enter your current age: ");
scanf("%d", &age);
if ( age <= 12 ) {
printf("You're just a kid!\n");
}
else if (age < 20) {
printf("Being a teenager is pretty great!\n");
}
else if (age < 40) {
printf("You're still young at heart!\n");
}

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else {
printf("With age comes wisdom.\n");
}
return 0;
}

The program takes the input from the user and takes it through the IF statements. If the number satisfies the first
statement, then the first pr i n t f statement is returned. If it does not satisfy the first statement, it is taken through each
ELSE IF statement until it finds one that works. If it doesn't match any of them, it goes through the ELSE statement at
the end.
8.Loops
Loops are one of the most important aspects of programming, as they allow you to repeat blocks of code until specific
conditions are met. This can make repeating actions very easy to implement, and keeps you from having to write new
conditional statements each time you want something to happen.
Loops use what is known in C as Increment and Decrement. The unary operator ++, --, is used to increment and
decrement which acts upon single operand. Increment operator increases the value of variable by one. Similarly,
decrement operator decreases the value of the variable by one. These operators can only be used with the variable but
can’t be used with expression ++(x+y+z) or constants ++6.
There are three main types of loops: FOR, WHILE, and DO...WHILE.

❖ Use a FOR loop.

This is the most common and useful loop type. It will continue running the function until the conditions set in the
FOR loop are met. FOR loops require three conditions: initializing the variable, the condition to be met, and the way
the variable is updated. If you don't need all of these conditions, you will still need to leave a blank space with a
semicolon, otherwise the loop will run forever.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int y;
for (y = 0; y < 15; y++;)
{
printf("%d\n", y);
}
getchar();
}

In the above program, y is set to 0, and the loop continues as long as the value of y is less than 15. Each time the
value of y is printed, 1 is added to the value of y and the loop is repeated. Once y = 15, the loop will break.
❖ Use a WHILE loop.
WHILE loops are more simple than FOR loops. They only have one condition, and the loop acts as long as that
condition is true. You do not need to initialize or update the variable, though you can do that in the main body of the
loop.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int y=0;
while (y <= 15){
printf( "%d\n", y );
y++;
}
getchar();
}

The y + + command adds 1 to the y variable each time the loop is executed. Once y hits 16 (remember, this loop goes
as long as y is less than or equal to 15), the loop breaks.

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❖ Use a DO...WHILE loop.

This loop is very useful for loops that you want to ensure run at least once. In FOR and WHILE loops, the condition
is checked at the beginning of the loop, meaning it could not pass and fail immediately. DO...WHILE loops check
conditions at the end of the loop, ensuring that the loop executes at least once.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int y;
y = 5;
do {
printf("This loop is running!\n");
} while ( y != 5 );
getchar();
}

This loop will display the message even though the condition is FALSE. The variable y is set to 5 and the WHILE
loop is set to run when y does not equal 5, so the loop terminates. The message was already printed since the condition
is not checked until the end.

CHAPTER12: WEB AUTORING

Lesson 1: Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
1. HTML overview
HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language and it is the most widely used language to write Web Pages. It was
created by Tim Berners-Lee a British scientist in late 1991. Hypertext refers to the way in which Web pages (HTML
documents) are linked together. Thus, the link available on a webpage is called Hypertext. As its name suggests, HTML
is a Markup Language which means you use HTML to simply "mark-up" a text document with tags that tell a Web
browser how to structure it to display. Originally, HTML was developed with the intent of defining the structure of
documents like headings, paragraphs, lists, and so forth to facilitate the sharing of scientific information between
researchers. Now, HTML is being widely used to format web pages with the help of different tags available in HTML
language.

To create a web page you need a text editor like notepad, notepad++, blocknote, Adobe Dreamweaver, Brackets,
CoffeeCup, Edit plus, etc. Save the code with extension .html or .htm and then run (compile) the code using any of
your favourite web browsers like Internet Explorer or Google Chrome, or Firefox etc.
2. Basic HTML document
In its simplest form, following is an example of an HTML document:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>This is document title</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>Document content goes here.....</p>
</body>
</html>

After running this code with Mozilla Firefox or any other browser, the output will look like this:
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A. HTML
Tags
It is a set of characters constituting a formatted command for a web page. As told earlier, HTML is a markup language
and makes use of various tags to format the content. These tags are enclosed within angle braces <Tag Name>. Except
few tags like <hr /> tag is an example of the empty element where you do not need opening and closing tags, as there
is nothing to go in between them. The <hr /> element has a space between the characters hr and the forward slash. Most
of the tags have their corresponding closing tags. For example, <html> has its closing tag</html> and <body> tag has
its closing tag </body> tag etc.
Above example of HTML document uses the following tags:
Tag Description
<!DOCTYPE...> This tag defines the document type and HTML version.
This tag encloses the complete HTML document and mainly comprises of
<html> document header which is represented by <head>...</head> and document
body which is represented by <body>...</body> tags.
This tag represents the document's header which can keep other HTML tags
<head>
like <title>, <link> etc.
<title> The <title> tag is used inside the <head> tag to mention the document title.
This tag represents the document's body which keeps other HTML tags like
<body>
<h1>, <div>, <p> etc.
<h1> This tag represents the heading.
<p> This tag represents a paragraph.

To learn HTML, you will need to study various tags and understand how they behave while
formatting a textual document. Learning HTML is simple as users have to learn the usage
of different tags in order to format the text or images to make a beautiful webpage.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends using lowercase tags starting from HTML4.
B. General HTML Document Structure
A typical HTML document will have the following structure:
Document declaration tag
<html>
<head> … </head>
<body>
…
</body>
</html>

Remark: The <!DOCTYPE> declaration tag is used by the web browser to understand the version of the HTML used
in the document. Current version of HTML is 5 and it makes use of the following declaration: <!DOCTYPE html>
C. HTML Elements
An HTML element is defined by a starting tag. If the element contains other content, it
ends with a closing tag, where the element name is preceded by a forward slash as shown below with few tags:

Start Tag Content End Tag

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<p> This is paragraph content. </p>

<h1> This is heading content. </h1>
<div> This is division content. </div>
<br /> This is line break
Hr Headings
< !-- This is a comment -->
<a href=”default.html”> This is a link </a>
<body> Content of your page </body>
<head> Special information about your page </head>

So here <p>....</p> is an HTML element, <h1>...</h1> is another HTML element.

There are some HTML elements which don't need to be closed, such as <img.../>, <hr/> and <br /> elements. These
are known as void elements.
HTML documents consists of a tree of these elements and they specify how HTML documents should be built, and
what kind of content should be placed in what part of an HTML document.
D. HTML Tag vs. Element
An HTML element is defined by a starting tag. If the element contains other content, it ends with a closing tag. For
example, <p> is starting tag of a paragraph and </p> is closing tag of the same paragraph but <p> This is
paragraph</p> is a paragraph element. There are also Nested HTML Elements where it is very much allowed to keep
one HTML element inside another HTML element:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Nested Elements Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is <i>italic</i> heading</h1>
<p>This is <u>underlined</u> paragraph</p>
</body>
</html>

Which when run will produce the following output:

This is italic heading
This is underlined paragraph

E. HTML Attributes
We used them so far in their simplest form, but most of the HTML tags can also have attributes, which are extra bits
of information.
An attribute is used to define the characteristics of an HTML element and is placed inside the element's opening tag.
All attributes are made up of two parts: a name and a value:
➢ The name is the property you want to set. For example, the paragraph <p> element in the example carries
an attribute whose name is align, which you can use to indicate the alignment of paragraph on the page.
➢ The value is what you want the value of the property to be set and always put within quotations. The below
example shows three possible values of align attribute: left, center and right.
Attribute names and attribute values are case-insensitive. However, the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C) recommends lowercase attributes/attribute values in their HTML 4 recommendation.
Example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Align Attribute Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p align="left">This is left aligned</p>
<p align="center">This is center aligned</p>
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<p align="right">This is right aligned</p>

</body>
</html>

This will display the following result:

This is left aligned

This is center aligned

This is right aligned

F. Core Attributes
The four core attributes that can be used on the majority of HTML elements (although not all) are: Id, Title, Class,
and Style
These attribute which provide additional information about an element. Attributes are always assigned in the opening
tag and always contain a name and value pair. The value must be contained in double quotes.
<tag name=”value”> Content </tag>
Attribute Descriptions

Class Specifies one or more class names for an element (CSS)

Id Specified a unique id for an element

Style Specifies an inline CSS style for an element

Title Specifies extra information about an element (displays as tooltip)

G.HTML Lines
The HTML horizontal rule can be used to divide content areas and uses the <hr> tag. Inserting the <hr> tag will draw
a horizontal line across your content area.
H. HTML Comments
Comments can be inserted into HTML code to make it more readable and to explain to the reader of your code what
it is you plan to do or what you have changed. It’s always good practice to comment your HTML code. Comment
elements are written as follows and do not show on your rendered page.
<!-- This is a comment -->
The <!-- is the beginning of the comment and the --> is the end. Everything typed within these tags will be invisible
to the viewer unless the source code is viewed.
T. HTML “White Space”
Browsers will ignore all “white space” in your HTML document. White space can be added to make your code more
human readable, but it will be completely ignored when the browser renders the document. Keep this in mind when
you write your code. Everything is controlled by a tag. Tags tell the browser what to do, if you instruct nothing,
nothing will result.
U. HTML Headings
HTML headings are defined with <h1> through <h6> tags. <h1> defines the most important heading while <h6>
defines the lease important heading.
V. HTML Paragraphs
HTML Documents are divided into paragraphs. Paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag. Browsers will automatically
add white space above and below a paragraph tag. Make sure to include the closing </p> tag to complete the paragraph
and start the next.
W. HTML Formatting
HTML also uses tags for formatting text, much like you would with a word processing
program. Text formatting means simply things like bold, italic, and underline. You
should note, however, that underlining text in an HTML document is terribly poor
form as it can be misconstrued as a link. All formatting tags must be closed.

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Tag Description
<b> Defines bold text
<strong> Also defines bold text
<i> Defines italic text
<em> Also defines italic text
<sub> Defines subscript text
<sup> Defines superscript text
<blockquote> Defines a section of text that will be indented
Example:
<p>Text formatting means simply things like <b>bold,</b><i> italic,</i> and
<u> underline. </u>

X. HTML Links
The HTML <a> tag defines an anchor or hyperlink.
A hyperlink (or link) is a word, group of words, or image that you can click on to jump to another document. When
you move the cursor over a link in a Web page, the arrow will turn into a little hand. The most important attribute of the
<a> element is the href attribute, which indicates the link’s destination.
By default, links will appear as follows in all browsers:
➢ An unvisited link is underlined and blue.
➢ A visited link is underlined and purple.
➢ An active link is underlined and red.
Y. HTML Link Syntax
An HTML link is required to have an attribute in order to have a function. The <a> tag will surround the content you
wish to effect, whether it be an image, text or any other HTML element. The value of the attribute must be contained
in quotes.
Attribute Value
href Specifies the destination of the link
target Specifies the browser window to display the link
id Specifies a bookmark inside a document
title Displays a tooltip (not required)

Example
<a href=http://www.andar360.com> Andar360.com</a>
<a id=”top”>Top of the page</a>
<a href=”#top”>Go to the top of the page</a>
<a href=”home.html” target=”_parent”>Go to Home Page</a>
❖ Target Attribute
There are five values for the target attribute. The target attribute specifies where to open the linked document and is
supported in all major browsers. As with all attributes the value must be contained in quotes.
Value Description
Value Description
_Blank Opens the linked document in a new window or tab
_Self Opens the linked document in the same frame as it was
clicked
_Parent Opens the linked document in the parent frame
_Top Opens the linked document in the full body of the window
Framename Opens the linked document in a named frame

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Z. HTML Head
The HTML <head> element is a special container element to contain all of the head specific elements. Elements
inside the head can include scripts, tell the browser where to find external information such as style sheets or JavaScript
and provide search engines with descriptive information about the content of the page.
Tag Description
<head> Defines information about the document
<title> Defines the title of a document
<base> Defines the default address of the page
<link> Links to the document to an external resource
<meta> Defines metadata about an HTML document
<script> Defines a client-side script
<style> Defines style information for a document

HTML Images
Images are displayed in HTML by use of the <img> tag. The <img> tag does not need to be closed. The <img> tag
has multiple attributes to define what to display and how it should be displayed. As with other attributes, values must
be contained in quotes.
Attribute Value Description
alt Plain text Alternate text to describe the image
border Pixels # Width of border around an image “0” for none
height Pixels # Height in pixels
src URL The location of the image file
width Pixels # Width in pixels
HTML Tables
A table is comprised of rows and columns, similar to a spreadsheet, and can be quite complex. Tables consist of a
number of tags and will always start with the <table> tag. Like many other tags the table tag can have attributes assigned
to it such as width and follow the same rules as other attributes. The <table> tag signifies the start of a table but will
need other tags to assign rows and columns inside it.
❖ Table Rows and Columns
Table Rows are defined using the <tr> tag and columns are defined using the <td> tag. The <td> tag stands for ‘Table
Data’ and can contain text, images, links, lists or any other HTML element. Below is an example of a simple table in
HTML.
<table>
<tr>
<td>Row One – Column One</td>
<td>Row One – Column Two</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Row Two – Column One</td>
<td>Row Two – Column Two</td>
</tr>
</table>

The output is the following :

Row One –Column One Row One – Column Two
Row Two – Column One Row Two – Column Two
HTML Lists
There are two types of lists in HTML, Ordered and Unordered. Quite simply, the two are best described as Numbered
and Bulleted, respectively. Lists contain two types of tags: The type of list: Ordered <ol> and Unordered <ul> and the
List items <li>.
Unordered List
<ul>
<li>List Item</li>
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<li>List Item</li>
</ul>
Ordered List
<ol>
<li>List Item</li>
<li>List Item</li>
</ol>

_________________________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 13: DATA COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channelled and imparted by a
sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. All
forms of communication require a sender, a message, and an intended recipient. Communication requires that all
parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speech, song, and tone of
voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact,
through media, i.e., pictures, graphics and sound, and writing. It should be noted here that communication is only said
to have taken place when the recipient understands the message or information sent.
In data communication the following basic terms are frequently used:
➢ Data: a collection of facts in raw form that becomes information after processing.
➢ Signal: an electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
➢ Signaling: propagation of signals across a communication channel.
➢ Transmission: sending of data from one place to another by means of signals.
Five basic components in a communication system.
➢ Data Source: creates data for transmission,
➢ Transmitter: encodes data for transmission,
➢ Communication channel: connecting medium between communicating devices,
➢ Receiver: decodes transmitted data back to original,
➢ Destination: the final destination of the transmission.
Example: John calls Peter on phone.
The data source is John, the transmitter is John’s phone, the communication channel is the telephone cable or microwave,
the receiver is Peter’s phone and the destination is Peter.
1. Communication Channels
A communication channel is a pathway over which information can be conveyed. It may be defined by a wire that
connects communicating devices, or by a radio, laser, or other radiated energy source that has no obvious physical
presence. Information sent through a communication channel has a source from which the information originates, and a
destination to which the information is delivered. Although information originates from a single source, there may be
more than one destination, depending upon how many receive stations are linked to the channel and how much energy
the transmitted signal possesses. Any communication channel has a direction associated with it:
a. Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, signals are transmitted in only one direction. The flow of information is unidirectional from
transmitter to receiver always. Examples are radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, computer to the printer
connection and CPU to monitor communication.
b. Half duplex Mode
In half duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions but only one way at a time. The flow of information
is bidirectional but information can only be sent if it is not being received. It is suitable for data transmission between a
computer and dumb terminals. An example is the police radio (walkie-talkie).
c. Full duplex Mode
In full duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. The communicating devices can
transmit at the same time. The flow of information is bidirectional. It is suitable for interactive systems. An example is
the telephone.
2. Data transmission modes
a. Digital vs. Analogue transmission
Digital transmission or digital communications is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-
point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibres,
wireless communication channels, and storage media.

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While Analogue communications is the transfer of continuously varying information signal, analogue
communications is the transfer of discrete messages. The messages are either represented by a sequence of pulses by
means of a line code (baseband transmission), or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms (pass band
transmission), using a digital modulation method.
b. Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission refers to the exchange of data between two or more parties without the requirement for
all the recipients to respond immediately. There is gap present between the data and consist of start bit (1) and end bit
(0) in middle of which actual data is present. It is much better and flexible than synchronous communication though
it’s slow and cheaper.
In synchronous transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames. Here, there is no gap present between data.
Synchronous transmission means that two or more people exchange information in real-time. Mostly used to confirm
an important operation immediately and it’s fast and costlier.

c. Serial vs. Parallel transmission

In serial transmission there is only a single line (or few more) between the source and destination and the complete
data is transferred through it. Since the data bits are transferred one by one, in series, hence serial transmission is quite
slow in comparison to parallel transmission but in spite of its slow speed it is quite practical. This is the reason why it
is used in abundance. For example, transmission between computer and terminal takes place in serial form. All USB
devices such as pen drive, web camera etc. are serial devices.
In parallel transmission, there are multiple lines (usually 8 or multiples of eight) so that more than one bit can be
transmitted at a time. Since multiple bits are transferred in parallel hence the transmission is very fast. But in spite of
being fast, it is not practically used for longer distance because multiple lines are costlier to lie and due to the
parallel wires running beside each other, the problem of cross talk starts and the signal gets corrupted. But for the
shorter distances such as connecting printer to the computer for printing, it works very well.

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3. Communication media and devices

In communication, media (singular medium) are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to store and
deliver information or data. It is often referred to as synonymous with mass media or news media, but may refer to a
single medium used to communicate any data for any purpose.
a. Wired communication media and devices
This refers to the transmission or delivery of information or data with the use of wires. There are many types of
wires: twisted pair, coaxial, fibre optic, etc. In addition to the hardware components needed for networking wired
communication makes use of:
❖ Modems (Modulation DEModulation)
This is a device that during communication converts digital carrier signals to analogue information (analogue
to digital conversion) in order to produce a signal that can easily be transmitted and decoded to produce the
original digital information or data (digital to analogue conversion) by another modem the other side .It
therefore carries out modulation at one end and demodulation at the other.
❖ Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
A multiplexer is a device that accepts many signals (both analogue and digital) from different sources and
transmits them in a single line while, a demultiplexer does the reverse i.e. accepts a single signal send to it
by the multiplexer and breaks it into the multiple signals expected.
b. Wireless communication media
Wireless communication technology which is not new at all in our lives has been gaining much fame now our days.
This is communication of media without physical connection. This technology today makes use of:
❖ Infrared Transmissions
This is a type of technology that makes use of very high frequencies approaching that of visible light in the
electromagnetic spectrum to carry out close broadcast transmission in a close range. Infrared signals can easily be
blocked by opaque object objects and can equally receive interference from light, the reason why they are mostly made
use of in command alarm or door opening systems in super markets, office buildings etc. Infrared transmissions are
limited to short distances.
❖ Microwave Transmission
Just like the infrared technology, the microwave technology also makes use of high frequencies but involves both
long and short distance communications especially that involving satellites. In this type of communication, the emitter
and the receiver must be within the line of sight of each other.
❖ Radio waves
This is the old wireless technology that has often been used by the FM and AM radios.
❖ The Bluetooth wireless transmission technology
This is the most recent of the wireless technologies. It operates on a 2.4GHz frequency band with a speed of about 1 or
2 Mbps. With this technology, a single device can communicate continuously with several other devices within a room
such as printers, keyboards laptops mobile phones etc. All these devices have in-built features that automatically
adjust the signals for interference.
Two major hardware components used in the wireless communication technology are:
➢ The wireless Access Point (WAP) or Access Point (AP)
This is a small box with antenna(s) used to broadcast radio waves, used to send and receive data signals in both
directions. Good broadcasting is recorded within a range (hotspot) of 10m to 16km after which the signal grows
weaker as you move from the AP or WAP. There exist some devices that incorporate both the AP and a router
e.g. Linksys, Cisco and 3COM.
➢ Wireless adapters
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These are devices that are very similar to the network interface cards and are often connected in much the same
way. There exist in many forms both internal and external to the computer.

Benefits of Wireless communication

➢ It’s cheaper.
➢ Flexible.
➢ Data is transmitted faster and at high speed.
➢ Reduced maintenance and installation cost compared to other form of networks.
➢ Wireless network can be accessed from anywhere, anytime.

Limitation of Wireless communication

➢ It’s less secure.
➢ Unreliable.
➢ More open to interference.
➢ Increased chance of jamming.
4. Types of attacks on networks
Four types of attacks are possible: freeloading to use the network or Internet connection without permission;
eavesdropping to pick up the owner’s data including passwords sent to systems elsewhere; intrusion to tamper with
the owner’s system; and jamming to prevent the use of the network, or degrade its performance, by deliberately
transmitting radio waves that interfere with it.
5. Network classification based on communication
Based on communication, network can be classified as private, public or international.
➢ Private communication Network
In the Internet addressing architecture, a private network is a network that uses private IP address space to support
the communication needs of a particular institution such as a school or college, university or organizations.
➢ Public communication Network
This is a network designed to provide the public with voice, video and data communication over a large geographical
area. The users or subscribers pay a fee for using the network e.g. Internet Service Providers (ISP) (e.g. Camtel, MTN,
Orange, Nexttel, Ringo).
➢ International communication Network
This is a network designed to provide users from different continents with voice, video and data communication
facilities and teleconferencing services using the satellites.

6. Other Types Of Networks Include The Following:

➢ Intranet
An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to securely share any part of an
organization's information or network operating system within that organization. The term is used in contrast to
internet, a network between organizations and instead refers to a network within an organization.
➢ Extranet
An extranet is a private network that uses Internet protocols network connectivity. An extranet can be viewed as part
of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside the company usually via the Internet.

➢ VPN (virtual private network)

It is a private secure network connection established within a public network such as the Internet. The network nodes
appear to be connected by private lines and so form a virtual private network.
Remark: Difference between Domains and Work groups
A Domain is a sub network made up of a group of client computers under the control of one central computer called
the server.
A workgroup is a collection of computers on a local area network (LAN) that share common resources and
responsibilities. Workgroups provide easy sharing of files, printers and other network resources. Being a peer-to-peer
(P2P) network design, each workgroup computer may both share and access resources if configured to do so.

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7. Network/communication protocols
The protocols in human communication are rules about appearance, speaking, listening and understanding. These
rules, also called protocols of conversation, represent different layers of communication. They work together to help
people communicate successfully. The need for protocols also applies to computing systems.
The Internet Protocol (IP) and the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) are the most important of these, and the term
Internet Protocol Suite, or TCP/IP suite, refers to a collection of its most used protocols. Most of the communication
protocols in use on the Internet are described in the Request for Comments (RFC) documents of the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Some most used protocols of the TCP/IP suite include:
➢ IPX/SPX: (Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange) is a data transmission protocol
developed by Novell and widely used in local area networking.
➢ ARP: (Address Resolution Protocol) used to convert logical address to physical and vice versa.
➢ DHCP: (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) used to assign automatically IP address in a network.
➢ FTP: (File Transfer Protocol) used to transfer files over the network.
➢ HTTP: (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) used to transfer web pages over internet.
➢ ICMP: (Internet Control Message Protocol) used to manage errors on the internet.
➢ SCTP: (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) transmission protocol that combines the best of UDP & TCP.
➢ SMTP: (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) used to transmit electronic mail on the internet.
➢ SNMP: (Simple Network Management Protocol) used for administration task on distance computer.
➢ UDP: (User Datagram Protocol) used to transfer packets of data called user datagram.
➢ VoIP: (Voice Over Internet Protocol) used on the internet to make telephone calls.

CHAPTER 14: COMPUTER NETWORK AND THE INTERNET

Lesson 1: Computer Network
Introduction
Computer network is a collection of computers and other related devices that are connected together so they can
communicate and share resources. The smallest network can be as simple as two computers linked together. The
resources shared include files, folders, printers, disk drives and anything else that exists on a computer. Any computer
or device on a network is called a node.
Networking is the term that describes the processes involved in designing, implementing, upgrading, managing and
otherwise working with networks and network technologies.
A computer that is not connected or linked to another computer is referred to as a stand-alone computer. Such a
computer needs its own printer, hard disk drives and its own application programs.
For a device to be connected in a network, it must be connected through a cable, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites,
or infrared light beams and it must have a Network Interface Card (NIC), must have a Network Operating System (NOS)
and usually has at least one connecting device like hub or router that ties the computer on the network together and must
have a software that supports the movement of information in and out the computer.
1. Types Of Computer Networks
Depending on the geographical area covered, networks can be classified as local area networks, wide area networks,
metropolitan area networks, personal area networks etc.
1.1. Local Area Network
A local area network (LAN) is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices usually within an
office building, school campus, or home. It enables the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may
be needed by multiple users in an organization. A LAN is limited in size, spanning a few hundred meters, and not more
than a kilometer. It is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps. An example of LAN is the network in the computer
lab and Multimedia Resource Centre.
1.2. Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. It is
optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. A MAN
typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. An example of a MAN is a cable TV network.
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1.3. Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographic area such as a country, a continent or even the whole world. It
is a distributed collection of LANs. That is, it connects two or more LANs together. This is done using devices such as
bridges, routers or gateways, which enable them to share data. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is
the Internet.
1.4. Personal Area Network
A personal area network (PAN) is a network that is used for communication among computers and computer devices in
close proximity of around a few meters within a room. A PAN usually includes laptops, mobile phones, personal digital
assistants, digital cameras and headsets. It can be used for communication between the devices themselves or for
connection to a larger network such as the Internet. The most popular is the Wireless PAN (WPAN), a Wireless-
Fidelity/Bluetooth connection between two laptop computers or phones.
1.5. Wireless - Local Area Network
A wireless - local area network (WLAN) is a LAN based on wireless network technology. WLANs use radio signals as
the medium for communication. Wireless network cards are required to be installed in the systems for accessing any
wireless network around.
2. Network Components
2.1. Network Operating System
A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that supports networking. It provides the ability to share
resources like printers, file system, database, applications, and the ability to manage a network name directory, security,
and other housekeeping aspects of a network. Examples of NOS are Artisoft's LAN tastic, Novell's NetWare and
Microsoft's LAN Manager. Some multi-purpose operating systems come with capabilities that enable them to be
described as network operating systems. Examples are Windows NT, XP, Vista, 7 and 8.
2.2. Network Interface/Adapter Card
A network interface card (NIC) provides the physical interface (link) between the computer and the communication
medium. A NIC manages the communication and network protocol for the PC. It prepares data, sends data and controls
the flow of data. It plugs into the system board and provides ports for connection to the network. There are two kinds of
NIC: wired NIC for wired networks and wireless NIC (WNIC) for wireless networks.
Network Hardware’s
2.3. Hub
A hub is a device that works as central connecting point for multiple computers in a network. It has ports to which the
computers in the network are connected. Data sent to the hub is broadcasted to all the ports but, only the destination
computer receives it. There are three kinds of hubs:
• Passive hubs which only split the transmission signal so it can be sent to all the ports
• Active hubs (also called Multiport Repeaters) which regenerate data bits to maintain a strong signal over extended
cable lengths
• Intelligent hubs (also called Concentrators) usually have their own microprocessor chips and network operating
systems. They can be managed remotely on the network.
2.4. Switch
A switch is used at the same place as a hub but the difference between the two is that a switch has a switching table
within it. A switching table stores the Media Access Control (MAC) address of every computer connected to the switch
and sends the data only to the requested address, unlike the hub which broadcasts the data to all the ports. Switches can
therefore be considered as an advanced form of hubs.

2.5. Repeater
A repeater is a device used to expand the boundaries of a wired or wireless LAN. With physical media, data
transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters are used to preserve
signal integrity and extend the distance over which data can safely travel by regenerating the signals they receive. Active
hubs are considered as repeaters (multiport repeaters).
2.6. Bridge
A bridge, also called a layer 2 switch, is a device used to create a connection between two separate computer networks
or to divide one network into segments. Creating multiple segments in a local network reduces the network traffic
making the network to be faster and more efficient.
2.7. Router
A router is a device that joins several networks together and is responsible for routing data from one network to another.
It keeps track of the IP addresses of the computers on the networks connected to its network interface cards and directs
data packets appropriately. It is more powerful than a bridge because instead of just choosing network segments based

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on previous traffic, a router can look up the best route for a packet to take. Routers can be computers with operating
systems and special network software, or they can be other dedicated devices built by network manufacturers. The
Internet relies heavily on routers.
2.8. Modem
MODEM (MOdulator-DEModulator) is a device that encodes data for transmission over a particular medium, such as
telephone line, coaxial cable, fiber optics, or microwaves. It converts digital signals from a computer to analog signals
or waveform for transmission over a medium (modulation) and converts analog signals from the medium to digital
signals understandable by the computer (demodulation). It can be external, internal i.e. mounted inside the computer, or
built-in i.e. integrated in the motherboard.
Common types of modems are:
o Dial-up Modem
o Cable Modem
o Domain Subscriber Line Modem (Asymmetric DSL & Symmetric DSL)
o Sat modem
2.9. Multiplexer
A multiplexer abbreviated (MUX) is a device that takes input signals from different sources and transmits them over a
single transmission line. This process is known as multiplexing. There are different types of multiplexing:
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into sub channels of different
frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel.
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in alternating
time slots.
• Code-division multiplexing (CDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel but every
signal is coded differently.
Orange and MTN use a combination of FDM and TDM called GSM while Camtel uses CDM.
2.10. Cables
A cable is use to physically connect nodes together. There are three common types of cables: coaxial cable, twisted pair
cable and fiber optical cables.
a. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an inner core and an outer flexible braided shield, both of conductive material separated by an
insulator. The braided shield prevents the cable from picking up or emitting electrical noise. There are two types of
coaxial cables: thin net and thick net.
b. Twisted Pair
Twisted-pair cable is the most common type of cabling used in LAN networks today. It consists of a pair or pairs of
insulated wires twisted together. Cable twisting helps reduce noise pickup from outside sources and crosstalk on multi-
pair cables. There are two types of twisted pair cables: shielded twisted pairs (STP) and unshielded twisted pairs (UTP).
c. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cables use optical fibers that carry digital data signals in the form of modulated light pulses. An optic fiber
consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded by a concentric layer of glass, known as the
cladding. Each cable has two fibers - one to transmit and one to receive.
There are two types of fiber optic cables:
• Single Mode Fiber (SMF) uses a single ray of light to carry transmissions over long distances.
• Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) uses multiple rays of light simultaneously with each ray of light running at a different
reflection angle to carry transmissions over short distances.
2.11. Gateway
A gateway is a device that connects two different computer networks using direct and systematic translations between
protocols. A gateway translates outgoing network traffic to the protocol needed by the destination network. The term
gateway is also sometimes loosely used to describe any device that acts as the entry or exit point for a network.
2.12. Interworking
It is a technique of linking different networks by using intermediary devices such as routers or gateways.

Assignment: Give the difference between Extranet and Intranet.

3. Network Topologies
It is the arrangement of nodes in a communications network. There are two types of network topologies. Physical
network topology which refers is the physical layout or arrangement of the components of a network. Logical network

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topology which refers to the way data circulates or travels along communication lines in a network. The following are
physical Network topologies.

3.1. Bus Topology

In bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable (trunk or backbone) known as bus, by a transceiver either
directly or by using a short drop cable. Bus transmits in both directions such that any transmission can be received by
all stations. All ends of the cable must be terminated, that is plugged into a device such as a computer or terminator, to
avoid signals from bouncing back.

a. Advantages
➢ Easy and inexpensive to set up as little cabling is required.
➢ Easy to include additional stations without disrupting the network.
➢ Failure of one node does not affect network.
b. Disadvantages
➢ High rate of data collision.
➢ Fails if there is any damage to the bus.
➢ Any break in the bus is difficult to identify.

3.2. Star Topology

In a star topology, all the computers are connected to a central device which could be a computer (server), a hub or a
switch. Any communications between computers in this topology must pass through the central node. As such, the
central node controls all the activities of the network.

a. Advantages
➢ Breakdown of anode does not affect the network.
➢ No disruption of the network when connecting or removing devices.
➢ It is easy to detect faults.
➢ Good security because no workstation can interact with another without going through the server first.
b. Disadvantage
➢ Failure of the central node affects the entire network .
➢ It is costly due to the amount of cables required to connect the devices.

3.3. Ring Topology

In ring topology, all the nodes are connected in the form of a closed loop such that each node is connected to two others.
It uses an empty data packet called a token and a special protocol called token ring. Packets travel around the ring in a
clockwise direction. To transmit, a node requires an empty token.

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a. Advantage
➢ No collision as data travels in one direction.
b. Disadvantage
➢ If a node in the network fails, the entire network fails.
➢ Network is disrupted when additional stations are added.

Other types of topologies are:

3.4. Mesh Topology: In a true mesh topology, every node is connected to every other
node in the network.

3.5. Tree Topology: Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus
Topology. In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks is connected using Bus.
3.6. Hybrid Topology: Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two or more than
two different things. Similarly in this type of topology we integrate two or more different topologies to form a
resultant topology which has good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the constituent basic topologies rather than
having characteristics of one specific topology.

4. Network Standards
4.1. Token Ring Network
Token ring (IEEE 802.5 standard) is a network technology developed by IBM in which computers are connected
together in a ring. Token ring’s media-access method is called token passing. A special message, called token, circulates
along the ring from one computer to another and each computer can transmit only while it is holding the token.
Information flows in one direction along the ring from source to destination and back to source. When a station wishes
to transmit, it waits for the empty token to pass by. It seizes it and inserts data into it and then releases it to the medium.
The token circulates until it gets to the destination computer that picks it and retrieves the data. After retrieving the data,
it regenerates the token and sends it back to the medium.
4.2. Ethernet Network
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 standard) is the most common and widely used technology to establish any computer network.
An Ethernet network is formed by physically connecting the individual computer units to each other in a bus topology
or a star topology. Ethernet’s media access policy is CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection).
• CS: means that a station listens to the medium and transmits only if medium is idle
• MA: means that any station can use (access) the medium
• CD: means that each station stops transmitting immediately it senses a collision
When a collision is detected, the two stations involved will retransmit after a random time wait created by a back off
algorithm.

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4.3. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
FDDI is a network technology that uses fiber-optic cables in a ring topology with dual rings on which information can
travel in opposite directions. The media access method for FDDI is token passing. The primary ring is used for data
transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. Because of this double ring topology, if a station fails or a cable
becomes damaged, the dual ring is automatically wrapped around itself, forming a single ring. This prevents downtime
as a result of a failed machine or faulty wiring.
4.4. Wireless Network Standards
Wireless networks are established without physical wiring techniques involved. They use radio and infrared signals and
are based around one of these technologies: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, WiMax, terrestrial microwaves and satellite.
a. Bluetooth: is a low power, short-range wireless technology largely used to interconnect computing devices
into a personal area network. It is based on IEEE standard 802.15 which gives specifications for Wireless Personal Area
Network (WPAN).
b. Wi-Fi: stands for Wireless Fidelity. It is based on a set of wireless networking technologies known as
802.11. These include 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n. The range of Wi-Fi network transmission is about 30-
40m indoors and up to about 100moutdoors.
c. WiMax: stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It is based on IEEE standard 802.16
and facilitates high speed wireless network links to both fixed and mobile devices. The range of a WiMax wireless
connection is around 3-10km.

5. Logical topologies also known as Network Architectures (configuration)

5.1. Client-Server Architecture
Client/server is a network architecture in which a more powerful computer called server is dedicated to serving less
powerful computers called clients. Servers hold shared resources like files, programs and the network operating system.
They provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are many different kinds of servers, and
one server can provide several functions. For example, there are file servers, print servers, mail servers, database servers
and Web servers, to name a few. Users run applications on client workstations which rely on servers for resources such
as files, devices and even processing power.
Internet services are organized according to client/server architecture. Client programs such as Web browsers and file
transfer programs create connections to servers, such as Web and FTP servers. The clients make requests of the server,
and the server responds to the requests by providing the service requested by the client.
5.2. Peer-to-peer Architecture
Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a network configuration in which all the workstations (computer) have equal capabilities and
responsibilities. Each workstation acts both as a server and a client. This means that any computer on the network can
provide services to any other computer. Peer-2-peer is usually implemented where strict security is not necessary. P2P
networks are generally simpler and less expensive, but they usually do not offer the same performance under heavy
loads.

REMARK A Hybrid network combines client/server and peer-to-peer architectures. It is the most commonly used
network architecture.
Different between Intranet and Extranet: these are networks that are used within organizations.
Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on TCP/IP protocols belonging to an organization usually a corporation
and is only accessible to the organizations members, employees, or others with authorization. Mostly protected using
firewall software or firewall device. They are now the fastest-growing segment of the Internet because they are much
less expensive to build and manage than private networks based on proprietary protocols e.g. companies, military, secret
services like MI5 and CIA, etc.

Extranet: An extranet is a controlled private network allowing customers, partners, vendors, suppliers, and other
businesses to gain information without granting access to the organization entire network. It is often a private part of a
website e.g. banks, etc. it is expensive to implement and maintained.

Benefits of a Computer Network

a. File sharing
Networks allow files located on one system to be accessed remotely.
b. High Speed Resource Sharing
Networks allow resources like modems, printers, programs, and scanners to be shared amongst multiple users.
c. Communication

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Computer networks have improved the way people communicate. People all over the world can communicate and
collaborate in a matter of minutes thanks to networks. In organizations, computer networks serve as the backbone of
daily communication
d. Save costs
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction in memory requirements which
indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses.
e. Increased Storage Capacity
A stand alone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many computers are on a network, the memory
of different computers can be used in such a case.
f. Teleconferencing or Videoconferencing
This is a communication technology that integrates video and voice to connect remote users with each other as if they
were in the same room. Each user needs a computer, webcam, microphone, and broadband internet connection to
participate. This enables organizations to save travelling cost for employees.
g. Backups: Files can be backed up more easily when they are all on a central file server rather than when they
are scattered across a number of independent workstations.

5.3. Limitations of a Computer Network

a. Security concerns
If a computer is a standalone computer, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if a
computer is on a network, a hacker or intruders can get unauthorized access by using different tools.
b. Malware attacks
Computers connected to a network are susceptible to malware attacks. If one system gets infected by a virus, there is a
possible for the other systems getting infected too
• The initial set up cost is high (needs NIC, NOS, Software, etc.)
• Increased risk of data corruption since many users use the system.
• Networks are always expensive to maintain so needs experts services.

I. Data Communication System

Objectives
➢ Describe data communication.
➢ Explain modes of data communication.
➢ Explain asynchronous method of data transmission.
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two devices via some form of communication channel. In
data communication the following basic terms are frequently used:
➢ Data: a collection of facts in raw form that becomes information after processing.
➢ Signal: an electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
➢ Signaling: propagation of signals across a communication channel.
➢ Transmission: sending of data from one place to another by means of signals.

Data Transfer Rate

It is the rate of that a certain amount of data is transferred over a given period of time. It can be in KB, MB, GB, TB,
etc. The same applies to the time taken i.e. mille-seconds, seconds, minutes, etc. mathematical relationship can be
expressed as shown below.
Data Transfer Rate = Quantity of data transferred/Time taken
It can be in KB/s

1. Basic Elements Of a Communication System

There are five basic components in a communication system.
➢ Data Source: creates data for transmission
➢ Transmitter: encodes data for transmission
➢ Communication channel: connecting medium between communicating devices
➢ Receiver: decodes transmitted data back to original
➢ Destination: the final destination of the transmission
Example: John calls Peter on phone.

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The data source is John, the transmitter is John’s phone, the communication channel is the telephone cable or microwave,
the receiver is Peter’s phone and the destination is Peter.

Communication Software’s: To communicate over a network you need some communication software. Since there
are a number of different communication tasks, there are different kinds of software to manage each task. There are
NOS, Dialing software, File transfer software, Terminal emulation programs, Data encryption programs, and Instant
messaging programs.

2. Data Transmission Concepts

2.1. Analog and Digital Signals
Data is transmitted from one point to another by means of electrical signals that may be in analog or digital form.
a. Analog Signals
An analog signal is one in which information is represented as a continuous variation of some physical property or
quantity. Analog signals are continuous waves that carry information by varying the frequency or amplitude of the wave.
✓ When the amplitude of the signal is varied the technique is called amplitude modulation (AM)
✓ When the frequency of the signals is varied, the technique is called frequency modulation (FM).
Human speech is an example of an analog signal. Telephone lines use analog signals because they were originally
designed for speech.

b. Digital Signals
A digital signal is one in which information is represented as a sequence of binary values 0 and 1.These two values
represent two conditions, on or off, corresponding to two known levels of voltage or current.
Digital signals do not continuously vary as analog signals. Signals are transmitted within the computer as digital signals.
Systems that use digital technology are known as baseband systems.

2.2. Baseband and Broadband Systems

a. Baseband System
A baseband system is a single-channel system that supports a single transmission at any given time. In a baseband
system, data is sent as a digital signal through the media as a single channel that uses the entire bandwidth of the media.
Baseband communication is bi-directional, which means that the same channel can be used to send and receive signals.
In Baseband, frequency-division multiplexing is not possible.
b. Broadband System
A broadband system is a multichannel system that supports multiple transmissions via multiple frequency channels. In
a broadband system, data is sent in the form of an analog signal where each transmission is assigned to a portion of the
bandwidth. Broadband communication is unidirectional, so in order to send and receive, two pathways are needed. This
can be accomplished either by assigning a frequency for sending and assigning a frequency for receiving along the same
cable or by using two cables, one for sending and one for receiving.
2.3. Transmission Modes
This simply refers to the direction of flow of information between two communicating devices. It could be simplex, half
duplex or full duplex.
a. Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, signals are transmitted in only one direction. The flow of information is unidirectional from transmitter
to receiver always. Examples are television broadcasting, computer to the printer connection and CPU to monitor
communication.
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b. Half duplex Mode
In half duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions but only one way at a time. The flow of information
is bidirectional but information can only be sent if it is not being received. It is suitable for data transmission between a
computer and dumb terminals. An example is the police radio (walkie-talkie).
c. Full duplex Mode
In full duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. The communicating devices can
transmit at the same time. The flow of information is bidirectional. It is suitable for interactive systems. An example is
the telephone.

2.4. Parallel and Serial Transmission

a. Parallel Transmission
Parallel transmission is the method of transferring blocks of data (several bits) at the same time over separate
channels/lines. This type of transmission requires a separate channel for each bit to be transmitted. For example, eight
separate channels will be required if a block of eight bits is to be transmitted in parallel. Parallel transmission is fast but
it is suited only for short distances as cabling for long distances will be expensive. It is mainly used for connections
within the computer and for connecting the computer to the printer.
b. Serial Transmission
Serial transmission is the method of transferring data one bit at a time through the same channel. If a block of 8 bits is
to be transmitted in series, the bits will be transmitted one after the other on the same channel. Serial transmission is
slower than parallel transmission but it is suited for long distances. It is cheaper as only one transmission line is required.
Serial transmission can be asynchronous or synchronous.
• Asynchronous serial transmission: it describes the process where transmitted data is encoded with start and stop
bits, specifying respectively the beginning and end of each character. Data is sent character by character with each
character preceded by a start bit and a stop bit is added to the end. Other control bits like the parity bit are added
to the group before the stop bit and small gabs are inserted to distinguish each group.
• Synchronous serial transmission: it describes a continuous and consistent timed transfer of data blocks. Data is
sent as one long bit stream or block of data without start or stop bits and with no gabs. Upon reception, the receiver
counts the bits and reconstructs bytes. Another channel is therefore used to transfer timing signals to keep the both
parties synchronized.
2.5. Switching Techniques
The process of transferring data blocks from one node to another is called switching. Data is routed by being switched
from one node to another. Two switching techniques exist: packet switching and circuit switching.
a. Packet Switching
Packet switching is a switching method in which the message to be transmitted is broken into small data packets and
sent over the network. Each packet contains a portion of data and some control information. The packets may take
different routes to arrive their destination and they may arrive in any other. On arrival, they are put back into order and
the message is reconstituted.
b. Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a switching method in which a dedicated communication path in physical form between two stations
within a network is established, maintained and terminated for each communication session. This channel remains open
throughout the communication process and cannot be used by anyone else. It has basically three phases: circuit
establishment, data transfer and circuit disconnect. The message is sent without being broken up, so it is received in the
order it was sent. This method was designed for voice transmissions. Telephone networks use this type of switching
method to transmit phone calls.

3. Transmission Media
A transmission medium is the physical pathway that connects computers and other devices on a network. There are two
categories of transmission media: guided and unguided media.
3.1. Guided Media
Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. They are made up of an internal
conductor (usually copper) bounded by jacket material. They are also called bounded or conducted media. Three
common types of guided media are used for data transmission.
a. Coaxial cable
b. Twisted pair cable
i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
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c. Fiber optic cable

4. Unguided Media
Unguided media do not use physical means to define the path to be taken. They provide a means for transmitting
electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. They are also called unbounded media. Examples of unguided media are
infrared waves, radio waves, microwaves and satellite.
• Communication Satellites. A communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer space. A
microwave signal is transmitted from earth to the satellite which amplifies the signal and sends it back to earth.
The earth station transmits the signal to the satellite on an up-link, on one frequency and the satellite repeats those
signals on a down link which is on another frequency.

5. Peripheral Device Control

a. Buffer
A buffer is an area of memory used to temporarily store data while it is being moved from one place to another. Routers
use buffers to route data packets on the Internet. When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more
intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the required
output line is free, then the packet is forwarded.
b. Interrupt
An interrupt is a signal to the processor emitted by hardware or software indicating an event that needs immediate
attention. An interrupt alerts the processor of a high-priority condition requiring the interruption of the current task the
processor is executing.
c. Polling
Polling is the process by which the central computer or communications controller in a network, "polls" or asks each
device in the network if it has a message to send and then allows each in turn to transmit data. Access and control of
star network typically is maintained by a polling system.
d. Handshaking
Handshaking is the process by which two devices initiate communications. It begins when one device sends a message
to another device indicating that it wants to establish a communications channel. The two devices then send several
messages back and forth that enable them to agree on a communications protocol.

6. Communication Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network communicate. Protocols set message
formats and procedures that allow machines and application programs to exchange information. These rules must be
followed by each machine involved in the communication in order for the receiving host to be able to understand the
message. The need for a protocol is obvious: it allows different computers from different vendors and with different
operating characteristics to ‘speak the same language’. A protocol may be physical or logical.

6.1. Physical Protocols

Physical protocols are concerned with how a device connects to a medium. They ensure that a device connected to a
medium can transmit through the medium. Few examples of physical protocols are 802.11 for Wi-Fi connections and
DSL for broadband.

6.2. Logical Protocols

Logical protocols are concerned with data handling. They ensure that data are in the right format for the application, the
bit rates match at both ends, and the same error correction is used. Examples of logical protocols are TCP/IP, HTTP,
POP3, FTP, SMTP and WAP.
• TCP: stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a connection-based Internet protocol that supports reliable
data transfer connections.
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• IP: stands for Internet Protocol. It specifies the format of packets and the addressing scheme.
• UDP: stands for User Datagram Protocol. It is a connectionless Internet protocol that is designed for network
efficiency and speed at the expense of reliability.
• HTTP: stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is a standard method of publishing information as hypertext in
HTML format on the Internet. In other words, HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted over the
World Wide Web. Web addresses or URLs usually begin with http indicating that the protocol used is HTTP.
• HTTPS: stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. It is the protocol used for accessing a secure web server,
whereby all data transferred are encrypted.
• POP: stands for Post Office Protocol. It is a standard protocol for delivering e-mails to personal computers.
• FTP: stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a standard for transferring files between a server and a client on a
TCP/IP network.
• SMTP: stands for Simple Mail Transmission Protocol. It defines a basic service for electronic mails. It is used for
sending e-mails between servers.
• WAP: stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol which runs on mobile phones and provides a
universal open standard for bringing Internet content to mobile phones and other wireless devices.

No. Layer Name Examples of Protocols

7 Application HTTP, SMTP, FTP,
TELNET
6 Presentation XDR, ANS.1, SMB
5 Session X.225, RPC, NetBIOS,
4 Transport TCP, UDP, SPX,
3 Network IP, X.25
2 Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring, PPP,
ISDN
1 Physical Electricity, Radio, Laser
The OSI reference model

7. Machine Identification and Communication Ports

Every node on a network be it a server or network station has a unique identity. The type of identity a node has is
determined by the protocols running on the network. Two types of addresses exist for identifying a node on a network:
MAC and IP addresses.

7.1. Media Access Control (MAC) Address

Every node on a network has a network interface card or network adapter, which has a media access control address.
MAC address is a built-in number consisting of 12 hexadecimal digits that uniquely and permanently identifies the
network adapter.
For example, 00-14-22-DA-67-15. Under Windows, the MAC address can be displayed by typing ipconfig/all at a
Command prompt.

7.2. IP Address
An IP address is a unique identifying number given to every single computer on a TCP/IP network. All computers,
desktops, laptops, PDAs, phones, tablet PCs connected to the Internet, have IP addresses by which they are identified.
Two versions of IP addresses are available: IPv4 that uses 32 bits and IPv6 that uses 128 bits.
An IPv4 is made up of four sets of numbers separated by periods such as 123.23.168.22. Each of the four numbers
separated by periods can be any number from 0 to 255, making for a total of 4.3 billion potential IPv4 addresses
(i.e. 255 × 255 × 255 × 255).
An IPv6 has eight sets of numbers separated by colons such as 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf.
IP addresses are assigned manually (by an administrator) or automatically (by DHCP or APIPA), unlike MAC addresses
that are assigned during manufacture. MAC addresses are physical addresses while IP addresses are logical addresses.

7.3. Communication Ports

A communication port is a 16-bit number that identifies an application for which the data is intended on the Internet.
Popular Internet application protocols are associated with well-known ports and well-known services. Examples are
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port 80 for accessing the World Wide Web (HTTP), port 21 for file transfer (FTP), port 25 for sending emails (SMTP)
and port 110 for receiving emails (POP).

8. NETWORK SECURITY
Network security deals with the security of information during its transmission from a user on one computer network to
another.
8.1 Network Security Problems Network security problems can be divided roughly into four intertwined areas: secrecy,
authentication, nonrepudiation and integrity control. 1. Secrecy: This is also called confidentiality, and has to do with
keeping information out of the hands of unauthorized users. 2. Authentication: this deal with determining whom you
are talking to before revealing sensitive information or entering into a business deal. 3. Nonrepudiation: This deal with
signatures: How does amazon.ca prove that Musa indeed placed an order for a book, which Musa claims he never
placed? 4. Integrity of service: How does one ensure that the message received was really the one sent, and not
something that a malicious adversary modified in transit or concocted?

8.2 Types of attacks over a network: We will also classify the attacks that compromise network security as passive
attacks and active attacks.
a) Passive Attacks: These attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions. The goal of
the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Passive attacks are very difficult to detect since they do
not involve the alteration of the data. Two types of passive attacks are:
 Release of message contents: where an eavesdropper tries to learn the contents of what is being transmitted. This can
be prevented by encryption.
 Traffic analysis: where the opponent tries to observe the pattern, frequency and length of messages being exchanged
which could be used in guessing the nature of the communication that is taking place.

b) Active Attacks: Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false stream. It is
difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because to do so would require physical protection of all communications
facilities and paths at all times.

8.3 Data compression and data encryption: In other to send data easily through a network, it is required to compress
it in other to reduce space for storage and bandwidth for transmission. Data compression is the process of converting
data from a large format into a smaller format, usually by the means of an algorithm. The data can be expanded back to
its original state, usually by means of decompression algorithm. The procedure for compressing data is known as data
compression techniques or coding schemes. Some popular examples of data compression techniques include:
a) Graphic Interchange Format (GIF): This is a widely used compression format that is used for storing and
transferring graphic images in relatively small files over computer network such as Internet.
b) Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG): This is a popular file compression format for storing and transferring color
photograph and high quality images in relatively small files over computer network such as Internet.
c) Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG): This is a standard file compression format for storing and transferring
digital audio and video (moving images) in relatively small files over computer network.
d) Huffman coding: This is a lossless compression technique in which the characters in a data file are converted to a
binary code, where the most common characters in the file have the shortest binary code, and the least common have
the longest.
e) Run-length encoding: This a compression technique that is designed for compressing, long, repetitive character
strings in a piece of text, as well as compressing byte of a monochrome image file.

An important characteristic feature in any coding scheme is the compression ratio. It is the ratio of a compressed file
to the original uncompressed file. There are two basic form of data compression: lossless compression and lossy
compression.
- Lossless compression is the form of compression in which the original data can be restores exactly. (Ex: zip).
- Lossy compression is the form of compression in which the original data cannot be restored exactly due to loss of
some of its elements (ex: mp3)

Data encryption refers to mathematical calculations and algorithmic schemes that transform plaintext into cypher text,
a form that is non-readable to unauthorized parties. The recipient of an encrypted message uses a key which triggers the
algorithm mechanism to decrypt the data, transforming it to the original plaintext version.

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LESSON 2: THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)
Plan
➢ History
➢ Definition
➢ Internet Access, ISPs and Services offered by the Internet like e-mail
➢ Advantages and Disadvantages
➢ WWW and E-mails
➢ Internet protocols
➢ Collaborative environments
➢ Social networking
➢ Electronic services like e-commerce, e-government, e-learning, e-banking, e-health, and computer assisted learning
(CAL) giving its advantages and disadvantages.

CHAPTER 15: CLASSIFYING COMPUTERS

Introduction
Computers differ in size and shape such that one used in a hospital laboratory is different from that used in an office
and a computer that is used in weather forecasting is different from the two-kind mentioned above.
To facilitate the study and understanding of this machine, they are often divided into groups based on certain criteria
for example; Generation, Purpose, Size and Data representation.

1.Generation
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer was being used. Initially, the generation
term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies but nowadays, generation includes both hardware
and software which together make up an entire computer system. Each generation is characterized by a medium
technological development which radically changed the way computer resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerfully and more efficient machines and they include the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th.
Following are the main five generations of computers:
➢ First Generation: The period of first generation: 1940-1956. Vacuum tube based. And used batch Oss.
Inputs were based on punched cards and paper tape while output was displayed on print out.
➢ Second Generation: The period of second generation: 1952-1964. Transistor based. Still relayed on
punched cards and print outs. In this generation assembly language and high level programming language
like FORTRAN, COBOL was used. They were Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system
used.
➢ Third Generation: The period of third generation: 1964-1972. Integrated Circuit based. Users interacted
with computers using keyboards and monitors. An interface with operating system allowed the device to
run more than one program at a time with a central program monitoring the memory.
➢ Fourth Generation: The period of fourth generation: 1972-1990. Very Large Scale Integrated circuits
(VLSI) microprocessor based. In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating
System were used.
➢ Fifth Generation: The period of fifth generation: 1990-onwards. Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)
microprocessor based. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software.

2.Size and performance

Based on size, performance or cost, computers can be classified as: super computers, mainframe, midrange and
microcomputers.
a. Super computers
These are the largest, fastest and most expensive computers. A typical super computer deals with very large
quantities of data and can be used simultaneously by thousands of people who can be in different offices or towns who
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have access to it by mean of devices called terminals. Its speed is measured in floating points per second (FLOPS).
These are mostly used where there is heavy demand for processing speed e.g. weather forecasting, creation of military
weapons, space exploration etc. and are mostly found in big universities, research institutions, governmental agencies,
and typically use operating systems such as LINUX and UNICOS.
b. Mainframe computers
This is the second class of largest computers and is similar to super computers in many ways but is generally smaller,
cheaper and slower. They support more simultaneous processes than super computers even though a typical super
computer will perform a single operation faster than it. Just like super computers, several terminals in different
geographical locations can be connected to a mainframe thus making it possible for hundreds of people to use the
computer at the same time. They are mostly used in banks, insurance companies and in the internet as servers. They
usually have a speed measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
c. Midrange computers
They are designed to serve tens of people at a time each sitting on a terminal. Although they may be accessed and
used by the above number of users, these users are usually at proximity of the computers.
d. Microcomputers
These are the smallest, least expensive and slowest type of computers but are however the most diversified,
affordable and least expensive type of computers. They are designed to be used by one person and are usually called
personal computers. A typical microcomputer is fundamentally implemented with a microprocessor, memory, storage,
input and output units.

3.Base on purpose
Here they are grouped as special and general purpose computers:
➢ Special purpose computers: Also called embedded computers, it is designed for a particular job only.
➢ General purpose computers: Also called jack-of-all trade, it is designed to solve multiple problems/tasks.

4.Based on Data Representation

There are 3 main types which are:
➢ Digital computers: It represents information in the form of discrete quantities. E.g. 1, 2, 3, +∞
➢ Analogue computers: They represent data in the form of variable quantities like voltage. Generally, they
are very fast since they can solve a complex question in the time a signal crosses the circuit.
➢ Hybrid Computers: This is a computer made by combining features of digital and analogue computers.

CHAPTER 16: COMPUTER ETHICS AND LEGISLATION

I. Computer Ethics
Introduction
Ethics refers to the principles of right and wrong that individuals acting as free moral agents, use to make choices
that guide their own behavior. It places a value on human acts according to whether they are good or bad.
Note: moral ethics does not depend on the majority, what is good is good even if nobody is doing it and what is
wrong is wrong even if everyone is doing it.
Computer ethics refers to standards of good conduct applied within the use of computers. It defines principles for
judging computing acts whether they are good or bad.
1.Fundamental principles of Ethics
The fundamental principles of ethics formulated by the Computer Ethics Institute (CEI) as the “ten commandments”
of computer ethics are:
1. Thou shall not use a computer to harm other people.
2. Thou shall not interfere with other people’s computer work.
3. Thou shall not snoop around in other people’s files.
4. Thou shall not use a computer to steal.

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5. Thou shall not use a computer to bear false witness.
6. Thou shall not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7. Thou shall not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.
8. Thou shall not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
9. Thou shall think about the social consequences of the program you write or the system you design.
10. Thou shall use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect for your fellow humans.
2.Codes of Ethics and Professional Conduct
A code of ethics and professional conduct sets the standards for what is expected of a professional. They are promises
by professions to regulate themselves in the general interest of the society. Code of ethics for information technology
professionals encourage them to behave ethically and responsibly with the tools and information they have in their
control. Codes of ethics are promulgated by associations such as the British Computing Society (BCS), the
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer (IEEE) etc.
a. The BCS (British Computing Society) Code of Ethics
This code sets out the professional standards required by the society as a condition of membership. It applies to
members of all grades, including students, and affiliates, and also non-members who offer their expertise as part of the
Society’s professional Advice Register.
Within this document, the term ‘relevant authority’ is used to identify the person or organization which has authority over
your activity as an individual. If you are a practicing professional, this is normally an employer or client. If you are a
student, this is normally an academic institution.
❖ The public interest
1) You shall carry out work or study with due care and diligence in accordance with the relevant authority’s
requirements, and the interest of system users. If your professional judgment is overruled, you shall indicate the
likely risks and consequences.
2) In your professional role you shall have regard for the public health, safety and environment.
❖ Duty to relevant authority
3) You shall avoid any situation that may give rise to a conflict of interest between you and your relevant authority.
You shall make full and immediate disclosure to them if any conflict is likely to occur or be seen by a third party
as likely to occur.
4) You shall not disclose or authorize to be disclosed, or use for personal gain or to benefit a third party.
❖ Duty to the profession
5) You shall uphold the reputation and good standing of the BCS in particular, and the profession in general, and
shall seek to improve professional standards through participation in their development, use and enforcement.
6) You shall act with integrity in your relationships with all members of the BCS and with members of other
professions with whom you work in a professional capacity.
❖ Professional competence and integrity
7) You shall seek to upgrade your professional knowledge and skill, and shall maintain awareness of technology
developments, procedures and standards which are relevant to your field, and encourage your subordinates to do
likewise.
8) You shall not claim any level of competence that you do not possess. You shall only offer to do work or provide
a service that is within your professional competence.
9) You shall accept professional responsibility for your work and for the work of colleagues who are defined in a
given context as working under your supervision.
b. The ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) Code of Ethics
1. General Moral Imperatives
As an ACM member I will…
1.1. Contribute to society and human well-being.
1.2. Avoid harm to others.
1.3. Be honest and trustworthy.
1.4. Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
1.5. Honour copyrights and patents.

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1.6. Give proper credit for intellectual property.
1.7. Respect rights to limit access to computing and communication systems.
1.8. Respect the privacy of others.
1.9. Honour confidentiality.

2. More Specific Professional Responsibilities.

As an ACM Computing Professional I will . . .
2.1 Strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness and dignity in both the process and products of
professional work.
2.2. Acquire and maintain professional competence.
2.3. Know and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work.
2.4. Accept and provide appropriate professional review.
2.5. Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their impacts, including analysis
of possible risks.
2.6. Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities.
2.7. Improve public understanding of computing and its consequences.
2.8. Access computing and communications resources only when authorized to do so.
c. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer) code of ethics
It states, we the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in affecting the quality
of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its members and the communities
we serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:
1. To accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to
disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment.
2. To avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected parties when
they do exist.
3. To be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data;
4. To reject bribery in all its forms.
5. To improve the understanding of technology, it’s appropriate application, and potential consequences.
6. To maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological tasks for others only if
qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations.
7. To seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit
properly the contributions of others.
8. To treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender, disability, age, or national origin.
9. To avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action.
_____________________________________
I. Legislation
Legislation is the act of making and passing laws.
1.The Data Protection Act
It is aimed at protecting the rights of the individuals to privacy. Some Data Protection Act rules are:
➢ If an organization holds data on individuals, it must be registered under the act.
➢ Personal data should be processed fairly and lawfully.
➢ Personal data should not be disclosed in anyway other than lawfully and within the registered purpose.
➢ Personal data should be adequate and relevant and not excessive for the required purpose.
➢ Personal data should be kept accurate and kept up to date.
➢ Data must be processed in accordance with the right of the data subject.
➢ Appropriate security measures must be taken against unauthorized access.
2.The Computer Misuse Act
The Act makes it an offence to access any computer to which you do not have an authorized right to use. It introduces
three criminal offences:
(1) Unauthorized access to computer material.
(2) Unauthorized access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further offences.
(3) Unauthorized modification of computer material.

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3.Copyright, Design and Patent Act
This Act is designed to protect all types of intellectual property and ensure that authors or creators of a piece of
work receive both credit and compensation.
➢ Copyright: is a statutory grant that protects original work. Something that is copyrighted is not to be
reproduced, published or copied without permission from the copyright holder. Ideas are not protected by
copyright; only the specific presentation of the idea is copyrightable.
➢ Design: a design is the appearance or construction of something. A design is not immediately protected; it
must be registered with the appropriate institution.
➢ Patent: a patent is a grant to inventors that give them exclusive monopoly over their invention. It gives
them the right to stop others from producing, selling or using their invention. Unlike copyrights, patents
protect the ideas or design of the invention rather than any tangible form of the invention.
4.Health and Safety Act
This act is designed to protect employees. The original Act and its many added regulations cover the range of
hazards an employee may face like handling hazardous material. Some of the regulations that apply to the computing
industry are:
➢ Display Screen Equipment Regulations: it covers the precautions that must be taken when an employee uses
a visual display unit. The regulation covers items such as the chair which must be adjustable, the desk which
must be at the appropriate height, the monitor which must be adjustable and the lighting which must be
appropriate.
➢ Moving and Handling Regulations: these regulations lay down the rules for safe moving of heavy objects. All
employees involved in such activities must receive proper training on avoiding injury when moving heavy
objects.
➢ Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH): these regulations cover the safe storage and use of
hazardous materials. This includes items such as laser printer toners and anyone involved in replacing such
items must be made aware of the potentially toxic nature of toners.
_________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 17: COMPUTER CRIME AND MEASURES TO COMBAT

THEM
Introduction
A computer crime is any illegal act that involves the computer either as the target of the crime or as a tool used in
committing the crime. When the computer is the target of the criminal act, the crime is said to be a computer-related
crime (CRC). When the computer is a tool used to commit the crime, the crime is referred to as a computer-assisted
crime (CAC).

1.Types of Computer Crimes

❖ Identity Theft
Identity theft is the crime of impersonation. It is a form of fraud in which someone pretends to be someone else by
assuming that person's identity, typically in order to access resources or obtain credit and other benefits in that person's
name.
❖ Phishing
Phishing is the criminally fraudulent process of acquiring or attempting to acquire sensitive information such as
usernames, passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an electronic communication.
❖ Software piracy
This is the illegal (unauthorized) reproduction of copyrighted or patented software for personal use, for sale or free
distribution. It is the most widely practiced type of computer crime.
❖ Malware Attacks
Malware attacks include but are not limited to computer virus, worms, and Trojan horse, spyware and logic bombs.
❖ Virus:

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It is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer where it destroys files and disrupts the operation
of the computer. A virus can spread from one computer to another (in some form of executable code) when its host is
taken to the target computer.

❖ Worm
It is a self-replicating malicious program which uses a computer network to send copies of it to other computers
(nodes) on the network and it may do so without any user intervention. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself
to an existing program. Worms cause harm to the network by consuming bandwidth whereas viruses corrupt or modify
files on a targeted computer.
❖ Trojan horse
It is malware that appears to perform a desirable function for the user prior to run or install but instead facilitates
unauthorized access of the user's computer system. Once a Trojan horse has been installed on a target computer system,
a hacker may have access to the computer remotely and perform various operations, limited by user privileges on the
target computer system and the design of the Trojan horse.
❖ Spyware
It is software that monitors a computer user’s activity without their knowledge and reports it to a central location.
The purpose of spyware ranges from purportedly benign (enforcing copyrights, displaying targeted advertisements) to
very malicious (stealing passwords and credit card numbers).The most common way to get spyware on your computer
is to install it yourself when you are tricked into installing free software.
❖ Logic bomb
Also known as slag code, is a piece of computer code that executes a malicious task such as clearing a hard drive
or deleting specific files when it is triggered by a specific event. It is secretly inserted into the code of a computer's
existing software, where it lies dormant until that event occurs. This event may be a specific date and time or failure to
input a command at a certain time.
❖ Software Key loggers
It is software that record keystrokes entered by a user, usually to secretly monitor and/or maliciously use this
information. They can record instant messages, email, passwords and any other information you type at any time using
your keyboard. Software key loggers may also be embedded in spyware, allowing your information to be transmitted to
an unknown third party over the Internet.
❖ Denial or Degradation of Service (DoS) Attack
It is an attack to a computer system that puts it out of action by overloading it with data in a way that the system
was never prepared to handle. A DoS attack makes the system unavailable to its intended users.
❖ Social Engineering
It refers to a non-technical kind of intrusion that relies heavily on human interaction and often involves tricking
other people to break normal security procedures. A person using social engineering to break into a computer network
might try to gain the confidence of an authorized user and get them to reveal information that compromises the network's
security. Social engineers often rely on the natural helpfulness of people as well as on their weaknesses.
❖ Cyber stalking Cyber bullying
It is a crime in which the attacker harasses a victim using electronic communication, such as e-mail or instant
messaging (IM), or messages posted to a web site or a discussion group. Cyber stalking messages differ from ordinary
spam in that a cyber-stalker targets a specific victim with often threatening messages, while the spammer targets a
multitude of recipients with simply annoying messages.
❖ Cyber terrorism
Cyber terrorism can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer
resources. As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be
considered cyber terrorism.
❖ Spamming
This is the act of sending unwanted bulk of e-mail for commercial purposes.
Other types of computer crime are: scamming, theft of computer equipment, pharming, spoofing, social engineering
and phreaking.
2.Measures to Combat Computer Crimes
➢ Install strong doors and locks to computer rooms to prevent computer equipment theft.
➢ Use access control mechanisms that will ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability.
➢ Encrypt confidential data stored in computers or transmitted over communication networks.
➢ Install anti-virus software and update them regularly.
➢ Install intrusion detection systems to help detect any unauthorized access to the system.

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➢ Install firewalls to prevent unauthorized access to local networks.
3.Computer Security
Computer security is the process of preventing and detecting the unauthorized use of computer systems from
accidental or intentional harm by unauthorized users. Prevention helps stop unauthorized users from accessing any part
of the computer system by controlling access to the system, while detection helps determine whether or not someone
attempted to break into the system, if they were successful, and what they may have done. Computer security has three
main goals, confidentiality, integrity and availability, which can be conveniently summarized by the acronym "CIA":
➢ Confidentiality ensures that information is not accessed by unauthorized persons.
➢ Integrity ensures that information is not altered by unauthorized persons in a way that is not detectable by
authorized users.
➢ Availability ensures that the system is running and reachable.
Different mechanisms are used to ensure the security of computer systems.
a. Authentication
Authentication is the process of determining if someone is who they declare to be. Three basic authentication
strategies are:
➢ something the user knows (password)
➢ something the user has (smartcard)
➢ something the user is (biometrics)

❖ Passwords
When authentication is done through the use of a password, knowledge of the password is assumed to guarantee
that the user is authentic. Passwords can be guessed or "cracked" and so if you are using a password to protect your
system, the following guidelines will help make them more secure:
➢ Keep your password secret.
➢ Change your password regularly.
➢ Make your password at least eight characters long.
➢ Do not use proper words of phrases - these can be found using a dictionary cracker.
➢ Use a mixture of upper and lower case letters and numbers.
➢ They should be different for each system that is used.
➢ The number of attempts to enter a correct password should be limited so as to frustrate intruders or hackers.

❖ Smart Card
A smart card is a small card that holds user authentication information. When the card is inserted into a card reader,
electrical fingers wipe against the card. The information in the card is read and used to authenticate the person. Cards
can be stolen and so are not as reliable as biometrics.

❖ Biometric
Biometrics is the science and technology of measuring and analyzing biological data. In computer security, biometrics
refers to the use of measurable biological characteristics such as fingerprints, eye retinas, iris patterns, facial patterns,
voice patterns or hand measurements, to identify a person. It is the safest authentication technique.
b. Encryption
Encryption is the process of transforming data or information using an algorithm into a form unreadable by anyone
except the intended recipient. The original message is known as plaintext, the algorithm is cipher and the encrypted text
is the cipher text. To read an encrypted data, one must have access to a secret key or password that enables you to
decrypt it. The original data is known as plain text, the algorithm is cipher and the encrypted data is cipher text. The
reverse process is referred to as decryption.
c. Firewall
A firewall is a computer program or a device designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.
Firewalls are implemented in either hardware or software form, or a combination of both. They prevent unauthorized
Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet. All messages entering or leaving the network
must pass through the firewall which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security
criteria. Some Operating Systems like Windows XP, 7, 8, Mac OS X, and more have built-in firewalls.
d. Intrusion Detection
Intrusion detection is the art and science of sensing when a system or network is being used inappropriately or
without authorization. An intrusion-detection system (IDS) monitors system and network resources and activities and,
using information gathered from these sources, notifies the authorities when it identifies a possible intrusion.

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e. Digital Signatures
A digital signature is basically a way to ensure that an electronic document is authentic. Authentic means that you
know who created the document, and you know that it has not been altered in any way since that person created it. A
digital signature is a computed digest of the text that is encrypted and sent with the text message. The recipient decrypts
the signature and compares it with the received text. If they match, the message is authenticated and proved intact from
the sender.

Remark: Physical security

Physical security measures are tangible defenses that can protect your facility, equipment, and information from
theft, tampering, careless misuse, and natural disasters. In some ways, physical security is the easiest and the most
rewarding type of security. The following are some hazard and basic measures to prevent or protect your system.
➢ Thieves
Your computer should be in the room or office that has locks and alarms so only authorized people can get access
to it to prevent your storage media or the hole computer from thieve.
➢ Fire and smoke
• Install smoke detectors near your equipment and check them periodically.
• Keep fire extinguishers in and near your and be sure that everyone knows they are there.
➢ Climate
• Keep all rooms containing computers at reasonable temperatures (approximately 50-80 degrees Fahrenheit
or 10-26 degrees Celsius) and keep the humidity level at 20-80 percent.
• Install gauges and alarms that warn you if the temperature or humidity is getting out of range.
➢ Water
• If your computer does get wet, let it dry thoroughly before you attempt to turn it on again.
• Remember that the presence of water increases the likelihood of electrical shock. Use greater caution in the
case of flooding emergencies in equipment areas of a smoke alarm.
• Install a water sensor where appropriate. Simple ones are available for the price.
➢ Electricity
• Your computer will suffer if it gets too much or too little electricity.
• For best results, install an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). It will absorb surges and provide extra
voltage during brownouts, and if power fails completely blackout, it will provide power until you're able to
shut down the system. Note that surge protection won't work unless your electrical system is well grounded.
______________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF COMPUTERS

Introduction
In as much as the computer is a very vital tool for every daily use, it can also be a very harmful tool if poorly used. For
this reason, users must ensure that they follow health measures and apply safety precautions as they use the computer.
The widespread use of computers has affected people and organizations in many ways. Information Technology has
completely broken distance and time barriers, transforming the world into a global village that is a community whereby
communication on a world scale has been reduce to communication on a village scale. Information Technology which
is the embodiment of computer technology, communication technology, and digital technology has given rise to
phenomena like information society, digital revolution, digital economy, and information age.
➢ Information society: it is a society in which the acquisition, manipulation, and distribution of information plays
a central role in most sectors of life (e.g. social, cultural, economic, and political). Such a society is usually
integrated by complex communication networks.
➢ Digital revolution: it is the marking feature of the information age.
➢ Digital economy is a term for all the economic processes, transactions, interactions, and activities that are based
on digital technologies mainly the computer. These activities could be carried with or without the use of Internet
connectivity.
➢ Information age: it is the name given to the present era in which we live. This era began when digital computers
and related technologies were developed in the second-half of the 20th century.

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These computers or computer-related technologies take up new roles in various forms. Some people say these
technologies have made life easier and more convenient. Others say they have made life more complex and stressful.
Some of the impacts of computers include:
1.Positive impacts
ICT has impacted the world positively in several ways. The following are some of the benefits of ICT to mankind:
(1) Fostering of globalization: ICT has allowed different regions of the world not only to interact with one another but
also to be interdependent on one another. These regions share information quickly and efficiently in many different
areas, for example, governments, education, technology, commerce, medicine, and culture.
(2) Cost effectiveness of businesses: the computerization of business processes has rendered the business more cost
effective.
(3) Faster and cheaper communication: with the help of ICT, communication has also become faster, cheaper, and
more efficient.
(4) Job creation: one of the greatest advantages of IT is the creation of new and interesting jobs. Database
administration, computer programmers, system analysts, hardware developers, software developers, web designers,
and computer technicians, etc. etc.
(5) Unlimited working hours: it is now possible with the help of ICT for companies all round the world to open their
doors all day making purchase from other parts of the world easier and more convenient.
(6) Faster and easier operation on data: a computer allows a user to manipulate data easily and quickly for example
downloading information from the Internet, sending text and images over the Internet.
(7) Broader market for sellers and buyers, faster and less-problematic bookings, advancement of science and
technology, improvement of security systems.
2.Negative impacts
(1) Unemployment and Reliability is not guaranteed i.e. insecurity like privacy concerns, phone call interceptions, e-
mail hacking, stealing of personal information, etc. etc. is the order of the day with IT.
(2) Dominant culture: ICT has contributed to some cultures dominating others. The United States for example is a
country whose culture is known to influence cultures in other countries. Languages too have become overshadowed
with English becoming the principal communication language for business and many other things.
(3) Health problems: extended use of computers may cause finger and eyesight disorders such as repetitive strain
injury (RSI) and carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). RSI refers to an injury to muscles and tendons caused by
continuous repetitive use of particular muscles especially by using a keyboard. CTS refers to a painful disorder
caused by compression of a nerve in the carpal tunnel; characterized by discomfort and weakness in the hands and
fingers and by sensations of burning or numbness. Other examples of ICT-related health problems are: visual strain,
headache etc.
(4) Lack of human abilities: computers are unable to reason, learn, or decide. They cannot understand and don’t have
emotions. They cannot adapt to unexpected circumstances. Consequently, they are incapable of doing some of the
things that human beings would normally do.
(5) Addiction: games, chat rooms, search engines, shopping sites that can keep users occupied for hours and days have
cause some people to forgo their basic daily duties because of their strong commitment to these exciting Internet
services.
(6) Electronic waste (E-waste): computer and related devices usually generate e-waste. E-waste is the collective
name for all electronic devices that are no longer useful as originally indented. E.g. computers, TV, DVD players,
photocopiers are examples of e-waste. These wastes can be recycled. It is the fastest growing segments of the
world’s waste stream.
(7) Digital divide: It is the gap between those with regular effective access to digital technologies and those without
i.e. the use of IT widens the gap between the developed (rich) countries and the developing (poor) countries. Many
developing countries do not have the expertise or the money to invest on IT and these countries consequently tend
to become poorer and poorer. Developed countries on the other hand become richer and richer. Hence IT fosters
digital divide.
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IMPACTS OF SOCIAL NETWORKS
The use of social networking has become increasingly relevant today. Smartphones have added great potential by
enabling an increase in the use of social networking and in the number of hours spent on such sites. Being online for a
long time and being able to access different information from different sources at the same time could cause information
overload. People also could face problems in filtering the information they receive and they might find it difficult to
decide which sources they can trust and, therefore, which to select.
Social networking can be defined as “the relationship that exists between networks of peoples”. Online social
networks give people the ability to communicate and share their interests with others over long distances. However,
social networking sites provide information for a group of people who share common interests. Overall, the term ‘social
media’ is broader than ‘social networking sites.
Some of the positive impacts of social networking are highlighted as follows:
➢ It enables easy access to a vast quantity of materials related to ones need.
➢ It makes peoples more sociable.
➢ Individual identity and self-expression.
➢ Creativity.
➢ Sense of belonging and collective identity.
➢ It improves the academic experience in general.
➢ It is useful for clarification of news.
➢ It is useful to keep in touch with family and friends.
➢ It is useful for sharing tutorials.

On the other hand, the negative impacts of social networks are:

➢ It distracts users’ attention.
➢ It presents privacy issues for individuals.
➢ It can be very time-consuming, and such time could be better utilized.
➢ Sometimes students neglect their responsibility for studying because of social networking.

________________________________________________________________
TYPES OF COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS
➢ Cloud computing: It is a collective use of software and hardware to deliver services over a network especially the
Internet. It works by giving users data and information on a cloud available to have access to anywhere, anytime.
Its categorized into cloud computing networks as follows; public, private, community and hybrid networks and
provides its services in three ways; infrastructure, platform and software as a service.
Advantages:
• Less cost.
• Available 24/7 anywhere on any computer related device.
• Flexible in capacity.
• Automated updates on software.
• High security and easily managed.

Disadvantages
• Lack of personnel’s
• Difficult to fix what you can’t see.
• Lack of options.

➢ Time sharing environment: This type of computing allows multiple users to share the system simultaneously.
Each user is provided a time slice and the processor switches rapidly among the users according to it.
➢ Client server environment: Here the client requests a resource and the server provides that resource.
A server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is in contact with only one server.
➢ Personal computing environment: Here there is a single computer system where all the processing is done.

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➢ Distributed computing environment: It contains multiple nodes that are physically separate but linked together
using the network. All the nodes in this system communicate with each other and handle processes in tandem.
Each of these nodes contains a small part of the distributed OS.
➢ Cluster computing environment: It is similar to parallel computing as they both have multiple CPU’s.
however, a major difference is that clustered systems are created by two or more individual computer systems
merge together which then work parallel to each other.
_________________________________________________________________

PRACTICAL: WORD PROCESSING, SPREADSHEET, POWERPOINT

PRESENTATION, and PUBLISHER
I.WORD PROCESSOR APPLICATIONS the case of MICROSOFT WORD
Definition of word processing: It is the act of using the computer as a tool to type, edit, format, save, and print
documents. A piece of software that is used for this purpose is called a word processing program or word processor.
A typical word processor acts very similar to a typewriter with some very advanced features. For example, instead
of hitting the ―Return‖ key at the end of a line to begin typing a new line, word processors have a ―word wrapround‖
feature. This means that you continue to type and as soon as your text reaches the end of a line, the word that would
not fit is moved in its entirety to the next line. This also means that when you change margin widths, the text will fit
itself inside its new boundaries. The main advantage of word processors is that, they can easily change what has
been done. Some of the most commonly used word processors are Microsoft Word, Wordpad, NotePad, and
WordPerfect.
Characteristic feature of Word Processors
Word processors have some similarities with other application packages. However, there are several features which
make word processors different from these software applications.
Some of these characteristic features of word processing program include:
1. Typeface: The type face or font allows different styles to be used in a document.
2. Cut, Copy & Paste: The cut facility allow text to be cut off from a document. This could be discarded or
pasted back in the document at a different point. Copying allows a copy of the text to be pasted into other
parts of the document. The cut, copy and paste facilities also apply to graphics which have been placed in
the document.
3. Word-wrap: This means you that when typing you do not have to press enter at the end of each line to
start a new line as the computer automatically starts a new line when one is needed. Pressing the enter key
is used to start new paragraphs.
4. Find and Replace: Find allows you to search a document for all occurrences of word or phrase. Replace
allows the occurrences found to be replaced with another word or phrase. For example, a secretary could
use find and replace to change Mr. Smith with Miss Jones so that a letter can be used again but sent to a
different person.
5. Line spacing: Line spacing is used to change the amount of space between lines of text. Normal text is
single line space. This can be altered to 1.5 times or double or a number of points
6. Spell Checker: This uses a built-in dictionary to check all the text in the document.
7. Alignment: It is use to position the text on the page. We the left alignment, center alignment, right
alignment and justified text.

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More on how to work with MS Word (in the computer laboratory)

II.SPREADSHEET APPLICATIONS the case of MICROSOFT EXCEL

Definition of spreadsheet: It is application software that allows the user to work with numbers, performs
calculations, and creates graphs. It consists of a workbook which have one sheet by default and the sheets can be
added to so many sheets arranged in the form of a grid made up of vertical columns labelled by letters (A, B, C,
D...) and horizontal rows labelled by numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,...) that manipulate, analyse, and display numerical
character data. The boxes at the intersection of the column and row is called a cell. A cell therefore is a position on
the grid where a row and a column intersect e.g. A1, D41.
It is applicable in areas such as student ‘s records (report cards), charts and graphs, accounting, budgeting,
forecast, reports, etc. One of its great ability is that it can change figures and words in the cell without the user
having to do anything once a formula is introduced automatically.
Vocabulary: Our study focuses on the type of spreadsheet called Microsoft Excel.
1. An Excel file is also called a Workbook.
- Default title is Book1 but can be renamed to the name of your choice.
2. Ribbon broken into Tabs (Home, Insert, Page Layout, formulas, data, review, view, and the helper “tell me what
you want”).
Tabs are broken into groups (Clipboard, Font, Alignment)
3. Name box (left) and formula bar (right) : Name box shows address of current cell; Formula bar shows contents
of current cell.
4. Columns Headings are Lettered, Rows Headings
are numbered.
5. Worksheet navigation buttons, Worksheet
tabs.: default Sheet1 but can be increased to so
many.
6. Status bar : Excel behaves differently depending
on the current "mode"
❖ Types of spreadsheet Applications.
MS. Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Lotus Symphony,
Quattro Pro, Google sheets, VisiCalc, Open Office,
Zoho Sheet (web-based spreadsheet), IWork
numbers (Apple)), Libre Office.
❖ Characteristics of a cell in MS Excel
A cell can contain any of the three types of data:
- Labels: labels consist of text.
- Value: the second type of data a cell can contain is a numerical value which is moved to the right of the cell.
- Formula: the third and most powerful data a cell can take is a formula. A formula instructs the computer to
mathematically calculate the value to be displayed in the cell. To enter a formula or function in MS Excel, you
most first begin with an equality sign (=).
❖ Cell referencing: Formulas in an Excel worksheet usually involve functions performed on the values
contained in one or more other cells on the worksheet (or on another worksheet). A reference that you make
in a formula to the contents of a worksheet cell is either a relative reference, an absolute reference, or a
mixed reference. Absolute and Mixed cell referencing can be obtained with the F4 key.
➢ A relative reference to a cell takes the form A1. When you copy or fill a formula from the original cell to
other cells, a relative reference changes to maintain the relationship between the cell containing the formula
and the referenced cell. For example, copying a formula that refers to cell A1 one row down changes the A1
reference to A2; copying the formula one column to the right changes the A1 reference to B1.

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➢ An absolute reference takes the form $A$1; $A indicates an absolute reference to column A, and $1
indicates an absolute reference to row 1. When you copy or fill a formula from the original cell to other
cells, an absolute reference will not change — regardless of the relationship to the referenced cell, the
reference stays the same.
➢ A mixed reference refers absolutely to either the column or row and relatively to the other. The mixed
reference A$1 always refers to row 1, and $A1 always refers to column A. You can reference cells in other
worksheets within the workbook.

Merge cells: This option merges the cells across the selected rows and columns and maintains default alignment
for the data type of the first cell of the merged cells.
To merge selected cells ➜ On the Home tab, in the Alignment group, display the Merge & Center list, and then
click Merge Cells to merge the entire selection, maintaining the horizontal alignment of the data type in the first
cell.
❖ Working with multiple sheets
By default, a new workbook includes only one worksheet. You can add blank worksheets to the workbook or copy
or move worksheets from another workbook.
To insert a new worksheet
➜ Click the New sheet button at the right end of the worksheet tab section.
➜ On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click the Insert arrow, and then click Insert Sheet. To rename a
worksheet.
● Right-click the worksheet tab and then click Rename.
● Enter the new worksheet name and then press Enter.
Excel allows you to build formulas and functions that reference data stored on different worksheets within the
same workbook. So you can be on worksheet3 and refer back to a cell worksheet1.when referring to a cell on a
different worksheet, you type the name of the worksheet followed by an exclamation sign (!) and then the column
letter and the row number. If you are on worksheet2 in cell D9 and want to refer back to cell C4 on
worksheet1, the reference would look like this: D9 =worksheet1!C4.
If you are on a worksheet named March, and you want to refer back to cell C7 on a sheet name January, the
reference would look like this: =January!C7. If you want to make that an absolute reference, it would look
like this: =January!$C$7.
Excel also allows you to reference data stored in a different workbook i.e. a different Excel file. A cell reference to a
different excel workbook (file) would look like this: [workbook name]worksheet name cell name, e.g.
=[workbook1]worksheet1!N10. If its absolute then it would look like this: =[workbook1]worksheet1!$N$10

❖ Functions
Spreadsheets usually include some built-in formulas called functions which are used for performing predefined
operations using the operations keyword. E.g. =SUM(D2:D15) is a function with the keyword “sum” and
this =D2+D3+D4+D5 is a formula.
Different calculations: The following are some of the many other functions for performing mathematical
calculations on spreadsheet.
- Copy a formula: to copy in a spreadsheet is just like in MS Word, click on the start cell and drag until you reach
the desired cell, then right click and chose copy.
The following are mathematical functions (sum, product, average, division (keyword is quotient),
subtraction (uses only a formula). Other advanced functions.
➢ Exponents: D4^B2,
➢ Square root : =SQRT(D4),
➢ Minimum : =MIN(D2:D10),
➢ Maximum : =MAX(D2:D10),
➢ ROUND() to round a set a values to a specified number of decimal places,
➢ TODAY () to show the current date,
➢ Rank: =RANK(D2,D$2:D$10,O or 1). 0 is decreasing order and 1 is increasing,
➢ COUNT: =COUNT(D2:D10) returns the number of cells that contents numeric value,
➢ Count-if: =COUNTIF(D2:D10, “condition”),
➢ The SUM-IF: =SUMIF(D2:D10, “condition”),
➢ IF: =IF(logic test, “condition if true”, “condition if false”),
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➢ Nested if: it is the use of more than one IF function in a function e.g. =if (logic test, “condition”, if (logic test,
“condition”, if (logic test, “condition”, if (logic test, “condition”)))). Mostly used to give grades to students‘
scores like A grade, B grade, C grade etc.
➢ Concatenation: the function concatenate is used to relate up to 255 chain of text in a single chain. The elements
to be related can be text, numbers, and cell reference of cells or a combination of all. For example if in the
worksheet the surname of a person is in cell A1 and the name is in cell B1, these two elements can be combined
in one value in another cell with the help of this function.
Syntax: =concatenate (text1, text2, text3, …) OR concatenate (A1, B1, C1, ..) Which relates the texts
or contents of the cells without a space.
=concatenate(A1, “ ”,B1). Relates the contents of the cells with a space i.e. a space between the contents of A1
and that of B1. NB: the next argument is a space.
Remark: you can equally use the ampersand or character “&” like the operator to replace the concatenation
function with a formula. E.g. =A1 & B1 which is equivalent to the function =CONCATENATION(A1, “&”
,B1).
➢ COUNTA: =COUNTA(D2 :D10) Returns the number of cells that contain any content (are not empty).
➢ COUNTBLANK: =COUNTBLANK(D2 :D10) Returns the number of empty cells.
To hide selected rows or columns.
1. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, display the Format list.
2. In the Visibility section of the Format list, point to Hide & Unhide, and then click Hide Rows to hide the selected
row(s) or Hide Columns to hide the selected column(s).
To find hidden rows or columns in a worksheet
Open the Go To Special dialog box, click Visible cells only, and then click OK. In the highlighted content, cells
adjacent to hidden cells have a thin white border.
To unhide rows or columns.
1. Select the columns or rows on both sides of the hidden column(s) or row(s).
2. Right-click the selection, and then click Unhide.
Or
1. Select the rows or columns on both sides of the hidden rows or columns.
2. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, display the Format list.
3. In the Visibility section of the Format list, point to Hide & Unhide, and then click Unhide Rows to display the
hidden row(s) or Unhide Columns to display the hidden column(s).
To hide a worksheet
➜ Right-click the worksheet tab, and then click Hide. To display a hidden worksheet
1. Right-click any visible worksheet tab, and then click Unhide.
2. In the Unhide dialog box, select the worksheet you want to display, and then click OK.
Error Types: Certain types of errors happen in excel because of one of the following reasons.
Type When It Happens
#DIV/0! When you divide by ZERO
#N/A! When a formula or a function inside a formula cannot find the referenced data
#NAME? When the text in a formula is not recognized.
#NULL! When a space was used instead of a comma in formulas that reference multiple ranges. A
comma is necessary to separate range references
#NUM! When a formula has numeric data
#REF! When a reference is invalid
#VALUE! When the wrong type of operand or function argument is used

########### When a number too big

___________________ MORE IN THE COMPUTER LABORATOR ________________

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FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION (GCE) BOARD
General Certificate of Education Examination

0595 COMPUTER SCIENCE 1

JUNE 2021 ORDINARY LEVEL
Centre Name
Candidate Identification No.
Candidate Name
Mobile phones or calculators are NOT allowed in the examination room.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION PAPER
One and a half hours

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
Read the following instructions carefully before you start answering the question in this paper. Make sure you have
a soft HB pencil and an eraser for this examination.
1. USE A SOFT HB PENCIL THROUGHOUT THE EXAMINATION.
2. DO NOT OPEN THIS BOOKLET UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO.
Before the examination begins:
3. Check that this question booklet is headed “Ordinary Level -0795 Computer Science 1 ”.
4. Fill in the information required in the spaces above.
5. Fill in the information required in the spaces provided on the answer sheet using your HB pencil: Candidate
Name, Exam Session, Subject code and Candidate Identification Number.
Take care that you do not crease or fold the answer sheet or make any marks on it other than those asked
for in these instructions.

How to answer the questions in this examination

6. Answer ALL the 50 questions in this Examination. All questions carry equal marks
7. Each question has FOUR suggested answers: A, B, C and D. Decide which answer is appropriate. Find the
number of the question on the Answer Sheet and draw a horizontal line across the letter to join the square brackets
for the answer you have chosen.
For example, if C is your correct answer, mark C as shown below:
[A] [B] [C] [D]
8. Mark only one answer for each question. If you mark more than one answer, you will score a zero for that question.
If you change your mind about the answer, erase the first mark carefully, then mark your new answer.
9. Avoid spending too much time on any one question. If you find a question difficult, move on to the next question.
You can come back to this question later.
10. Calculator are NOT allowed.
11. Do all rough work in this booklet using the blank spaces in the question booklet.
12. At the end of the examination, the invigilator shall collect the answer sheet first and then the question
booklet. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO LEAVE THE EXAMINATION HALL WITH IT

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FORM FIVE NOTES FULL 2024/2025
1. Which of the following software does not A Repeated Strain Injure
display graphics? B Repetitive Stress Injury
A Text editor C Repetitive Strain Injury
B Word processor D Repeated Strain Injury
C Desktop publishers ___________________________________________
D Presentation 9. What characteristic of RAM makes it not
___________________________________________ suitable for permanent storage?
2. The correct arrangement in increasing order of A It is slow
time unit is: B It is volatile
A Nanoseconds, Picoseconds, C It is the main memory
Microseconds D It is often in use by the CPU
B Microseconds, Picoseconds, ___________________________________________
Nanoseconds 10. When a computer is switch on, the operating
C Nanoseconds, Microseconds, system is loaded in a process called
Picoseconds A Compiling
D Picoseconds, Nanoseconds, B Formatting
Microseconds C Booting
___________________________________________ D Debugging
3. __deals with the design of equipment and the ___________________________________________
workplace to ensure safety and comfort. 11. The main use of defragmentation utility program
is to
A Biometrics A Reduce data access
B Ergonomics B Increase the free disk space
C Stylistics C Delete any unused data and files
D Modeling D Delete and eliminate viruses
___________________________________________ ___________________________________________
4. Having unauthorized access to a computer system 12. Software is said to be user friendly if:
and collecting sensitive data from it is called: A It is easy to use and makes friends
A Copy rights B It is easy to learn and use
B Bridging C The user can use it for other things
C Plagiarism D It contains mainly pictures
D Cracking ___________________________________________
___________________________________________ 13. The result of the binary operation 1101-1010 is:
5. Which of the following has the fasted access A 101
speed? B 011
A RAM C 100
B Registers D 010
C Hard drive ___________________________________________
D CD/DVD 14. An application software designed to perform a
___________________________________________ wide range of tasks and can be used by a variety
6. The file extension .avi holds what type of files? of users is known as;
A Sound A Specialized software
B Graphics B Bespoke software
C Video C Integrated software
D Text D Generic software
___________________________________________ ___________________________________________
7. One application of infrared signals is in ____ 15. A data type in which data items can only have
A Bluetooth one of two possible values is a(n)
B Traffic lights A Record
C Remote controller B String
D Wireless networks C Array
___________________________________________ D Boolean
___________________________________________

16. A communication mode where data is transmitted

in one direction at a time is referred to as
8. The health concern RSI stands for?
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FORM FIVE NOTES FULL 2024/2025
A Simplex A Internet
B Duplex B Intranet
C Half duplex C Extranet
D Half Simplex D Firewall
_____________________________________________ ___________________________________________
17. A collection of rules for the transmission of 25. A logic gate whose functionality is the reverse of
signals across networks is referred to as: an OR gate is:
A Topologies A OR
B Protocol B XOR
C Hypertext C NOR
D Procedure D AND
___________________________________________ ___________________________________________
26. How many combinations of input values in a
18. Input, processing, output and storage are
two- input OR gate result in an output of 1?
collectively referred to as the:
A 3
A System unit cycle
B 1
B System operation cycle
C 4
C Communication link cycle
D 8
D Information processing cycle
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
27. The binary equivalent of the decimal 133 is
19. Which of the following is NOT a database?
A 10000101
A An address book
B 11000101
B A telephone directory
C 10011001
C A class list of form 5 students
D 11100101
D A list of 3 names.
___________________________________________
___________________________________________ 28. In a flow chart, the symbol below represents:
20. Which of the following means the same thing
as a row of data in a relation or table in a
database is? A Decision
A Tuple B A process
B Attribute C An output
C Field D A stop
D File ___________________________________________
___________________________________________ 29. A printer whose printing mechanism involves
21. What name is given to a column in a relation or pressing the characters against an inked ribbon
table in a database? on to a paper is:
A Tuple A Non-impact printer
B Attribute B Impact printer
C Entity C Inkjet printer
D File D Laser Printer
___________________________________________
22. The use of the computers to create, store, revise ___________________________________________
and produce text is known as: 30. ______ is a transmission mode in which data is
A Tele processing transmitted one bit at a time.
B Voice processing A Parallel transmission
C Word processing B Serial transmission
D Data processing C Duplex transmission
___________________________________________ D Half duplex transmission
23. A device capable of converting analog signal to ___________________________________________
digital signal and vice versa:
A Multiplexers
B Demultiplexers
C Modem
D Coaxial cable
31. Which of the following network topologies
uses a token?
24. A Company network that allows only controlled A Mesh topology
access from the outside and for specific purposes B Bus topology
is called C Star topology
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FORM FIVE NOTES FULL 2024/2025
D Ring topology __________________________________________
_________________________________________ 38. What value of y is printed when x is 4?
32. A network hardware device that connects two A 4
dissimilar networks is a : B 6
A Modem C 8
B Hub D 10
C Router __________________________________________
D Bridge 39. The input to a compiler is known as:
_________________________________________ A Source code
33. Computers in offices in the school B Object code
administrative block are connected so they can C Instruction code
share resources. D Program code
What type of network is most likely used? __________________________________________
A PAN 40. A communication medium in which messages
B WAN are transmitted as light pulses.
C LAN A Coaxial cable
D MAN B Twisted pair
__________________________________________ C Optic fibre
34. A hard disk in divided into tracks which are D System bus
further divided into: _________________________________________
A Clusters 41. _______ enables a wireless network to be
B Sectors connected to a wired network
C Heads A Hub
D Sub tracks B Switch
__________________________________________ C Access point
35. The performance of a computer system is D Network interface card
affected by all except: ________________________________________
A The clock speed 42. A barcode reader is an example of
B The RAM size _______input technology:
C The Hard disk size A OCR
D its power rating B OMR
____________________________________________ C MICR
Question 36 to 38 are based on the following algorithm: D Biometric
_______________________________________
1. Start 43. Uploading and downloading data to or from a
2. Input x remote computer is done using?
3. If (x mod 2 = 0) then A File transfer protocol
3.1 set y to x B Inter relay chat
3.2 set counter to 1 C Download manager.
3.3 while counter <= 3 do
set y to y+2
D Data transmission
Increment counter by 1 _______________________________________
Endwhile 44. A technique of developing a miniature of
3.4 print y system with all functional components is
Else called:
3.5 print x A Systems Development life cycle
Endif B Stepwise refinement
4. Stop C Modeling
36. In what form has the algorithm been represented? D Prototyping
A Flowchart _________________________________________
B Pseudo code
C Source code
D Machine code
____________________________________________
37. What construct is used in line 3.3?
A Looping
B Selection 45. In a PERT chart, tasks are represented using:
C Sequence A Nodes
D Branch B Numbers
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FORM FIVE NOTES FULL 2024/2025
C Letter
D Arrows.
________________________________________
46. A task that must be completed before another
task can begin is called a:
A Dummy task
B Milestone task
C Predecessor task
D Critical task
______________________________________
47. Which of these software is suitable for storing,
retrieving and manipulating very large
quantities of data?
A Spreadsheet
B Database Management system
C Decision Support System
D General Purpose software
______________________________________

48. On typing a document, instead of typing 456 the

typist types 457. What king of error is this?
A Transposition error
B Range check error
C Data type error
D Transcription error
____________________________________________
49. Digital signals are stepwise and discrete while
analog signals are:
A Square and continuous
B Stepwise and synchronous
C Smooth and continuous
D Discrete and continuous
____________________________________________
50. In computer programming, what is a semantic
error?
A An error that occurs in the execution
of a program
B A compilation mistake.
C A mistake due to use of the wrong
instruction
D A mistake due to an instruction not having
the right form
____________________________________________

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WRITTEN BY MR. TAKU ARREY CLOVETTE (MR.TK) 671085471
FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION (GCE) BOARD
General Certificate of Education Examination
Computer Science 2
0595

JUNE 2021 ORDINARY LEVEL

Subject Title Computer Science
Paper No. 2
Subject Code No. 0595

Two Hours
Answer any FIVE questions

All questions carry 20 marks each. For your guidance, the approximate mark for each part of question is indicated
in the brackets

You are reminded of the necessity for good English and orderly presentation in your answers.

In calculations, you are advised to show the steps in your working, giving your answer at each stage.

Calculators are NOT allowed.

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 FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
1. (a) (i) Write the following acronyms in full as used in computing:
SDLC, RAM, CPU, BIOS, POST (5 marks)
(ii) What is a port? (2 marks)
(iii) Name three (03) computer ports and state a device that can be connected
to each port you name. (6 marks)
(b)(i) State what you understand by ‘network topology’ (1 mark)
(ii) Draw labelled diagrams for a Star network topology and a Bus network topology. (4 marks)
(iii) State a difference between a star topology and a ring topology. (2 marks)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. (a) Study the following algorithm about student test marks and answer the questions that follow.
1. Start
2. Get Test 1 and Test 2 marks
3. If (Test 1 mark < 0 OR Test 2 mark < 0 ) THEN
3.1.1 Display ‘A mark cannot be negative’
3.1.2 Get Test 1 and Test 2 marks
3.1.3 Go back to Line 3
END IF
3.2.1 Average = (Test 1 + Test 2) /2
3.2.2 Display Test 1, Test 2, Average
4 Stop
(i) What is the algorithm expected to compute? (2 marks)
(ii)State the line numbers with statements that constitute a loop. (2 marks)
(iii)
Using symbols T1 for Test 1, T2 for Test 2, Avg for Average, represent the algorithm as a flowchart.
(6 marks)
(iv) State the expected output for the following pairs of marks inputs. Give a reasons for each of your
answers.
Test 1 = 15, Test 2 = 9
Test 1 = 8, Test 2 = -4
(4 marks)
(b) Name and explain the function of the three types of computer system buses. (6 marks)
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. (a) Namondo wants to purchase a printer for her office computer to print hard copies of her photographs.
She wants to know which printer type is cheaper: Impact or non-impact. She is advised that although impact
printers are cheaper, the most important things to consider in buying a printer are
print quality, and the cost and rate of consumption of ink.
(i) Which printer is she likely to select? Justify your answer. (3 marks)
(ii) What do you understand by the terms?
- Hard copy
- Impact printer
- Non-impact printer
- Print quality (6 marks)
(iii) State a difference between impact and non-impact printer in terms of their print technology.
(2 marks)
Consider the logic circuit diagram in Figure 1 below:

X A
P
Y
R

B
Q

Figure 1

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(i) State the names of the logic gates labeled A, B and C. (3 marks)
(ii) Based on Figure 1, copy and complete the truth table in Figure 2.

X Y P Q R
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Figure 2
(3 marks)
(iii) Write the logic equations for outputs P, Q and R in terms of X and Y. (3 marks)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
4. (a) A team of system developers has identified six tasks described in the table below:
Task No. Task Description Task Constraints Duration
(in days)
A System specification None 3
B Try software Starts after system specification 2
C Customize Test software Starts after software trial 4
D Purchase of Test hardware Starts after system specification 3
E Install software Starts after Hardware Testing 2
F Train staff Starts after software customization 1

(i) What is use of Gantt charts in projects (2 marks)

(ii) Copy and complete Table 2 below to produce a Gantt chart. (6 marks)

Table 2
Days
Tasks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A
B
C
D
E
F

(iii) Define the terms lag time and critical path as used in project development. (2 marks)
(iv) State the critical path of the project above and hence determine the project duration. (2 marks)
(b) A school’s computer resource center has stand-alone computers. The school has row decided to
connect the computers into a local network and to the internet.
(i) State what you understand by the network terms ISP and protocol. (2 marks)
(ii) Give the name of a protocol that
- governs the movement of data across the internet.
- is used to access pages on a web server. (2 marks)
(iii) Briefly explain the following database concepts :
- Primary key
- Field
- File
- Query
(4 marks)

5. (a) In computer security,

(i) What is the meaning of the term hacking? (2 marks)
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 FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
(ii) State three measures that can be implemented to prevent hacking (3 marks)
(iii) List three problems that can result from unethical hacking. (2 marks)

(b) Showing all steps in solving the following number representation problems.
(i) Convert the hexadecimal number 2C into a binary number. (2 marks)
(ii) Convert the octal number 67 into hexadecimal. (3 marks)
(iii) Perform the binary addition 10112 + 11012 (3 marks)

(c) (i)
State what you understand by backup and give one characteristic of a backup storage device
(ii)
Briefly explain the term portability in relation to:
- Storage devices
- Software (2 marks)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
6. (a) (i) With the aid of diagrams, distinguish between serial and parallel data transmission. (5 marks)
(ii) Briefly describe the following modes of transmission giving an example in each case where they are used :
Simplex, half duplex, full duplex. (6 marks)

(b) (i) Name and briefly explain the function of the three main parts of the CPU. (6 marks)
(ii) State three main stages of the machine cycle. (3 marks)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. (a) (i) State the main technological feature that distinguished each of the following computer classifications:
- 1st generation
- 2nd generation
- 3rd generation
- 4th generation (4 marks)

(ii) In computer programming:

- What are mnemonics? (2 marks)
- State two disadvantages of using machine code. (2 marks)
- State two difference between a compiler and an interpreter. (2 marks)
(b) One of the health hazard of using computers is RSI.
(i) What is RSI in full. (1 mark)
(ii) State two body parts that are likely to be affected by RSI. (2 marks)
(ii) What should we do in order to prevent RSI? (1 mark)

(c) (i) State two advantages and two disadvantages of using electronic mail as a means of communication.
(4 marks)
(ii) State a difference between intranet and extranet. (2 marks)

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FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025

REGISTRATION CENTRE NUMBER CENTRE NAME

CANDIDATE’S FULL NAMES

FO
CANDIDATE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER SUBJECT CODE PAPER NUMBER
0595 3 Group Three HE

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

(Candidate Random Code):

GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION (GCE) BOARD

ORDINARY LEVEL EXAMINATION
SUBJECT TITLE SUBJECT CODE PAPER NUMBER
COMPUTER SCIENCE 0595 3 Group Three
EXAMINATION DATE: JUNE 2021

Two and a Half hours

Enter the information required in the shaded boxes.

For your guidance, the approximate mark for each part of question is indicated in the brackets
You are reminded of the necessity for good English and orderly presentation in your answers.

In calculations, you are advised to show the steps in your working, giving your answer at each stage.

Calculators are NOT allowed.

_______________________________________________________________________ Turn Over

FOR EXAMINERS’ USE ONLY

SCORE
Marked by: ………………………………………..................................

Signature: ……………………… Date …………………

Checked by: ……………………………………………………………

Signature: ……………………………………. Date …………………

Do all tasks (Task 1, Task 2 and Task 3) specified in this question paper.

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MR. TAKU ARREY 671085471
FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
TASK 1 (20 marks)

Examine the text below and answer the questions that follow.

Prevalence of ICT’s in Bangoh District

The spread and adoption of information and communication technonlogies (ICT’s) throughout the country was
phenomenal in the early 2000’s and Bangoh District was not left behind. More people than ever are today using
the following ICTS :
Radio
Smart phones
Television, etc.
However, only relatively few people have reliable access to the internet because of the high costs. Even with this
limitation, mobile phone technology is revolutionizing the technology landscape and today, is by far the fastest
growing ICT in the country.
Smart Telecoms was the first mobile provider in with a fair coverage in /bangoh. New Way Telecoms and Big
Brains Communications followed later, and all three are currently doing well in terms of coverage and stability.
Formerly, TV signals were only possible via satellite. But today many antennas have been raised around the
community and TV signals are available both terrestrially and by satellite. Even cable TV operators are doing good
business.
The table below indicates the level of usage of ICT tools in Bangoh District.
ICT Tools Radio Television Smart phones Internet
Usage 60% 70% 65% 20%

1. Launch a word processor. Set the page orientation to portrait, and the page size to A4. Type the given
passage.
You are not required to place a border around the passage. (8 marks)
2. Format the heading of the passage as follows: (4 marks)
a. Font size: 18
b. Font name: Arial
c. Alignment: Centre
d. Case: Upper case
3. Format the rest of the text as follows: (4 marks)
a. Font size: 13
b. Line spacing: 1.5
c. Alignment: Full justification
d. Font name: Times New Roman
4. Format the table as follows: (2 marks)

a. Centre all table contents

b. Bold the row headings, i.e “ICT Tools” and “Usage”

5. Use bullets to itemsize the list of ICT tools in the passage. (2 marks)

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MR. TAKU ARREY 671085471
FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
6. Save your work as Task 1
7. Print Task 1.

______________________________________________________________________________________

TASK II (20 marks)

The worksheet below shows the prices of various items in local supermarkets. Study it and answer the questions
that follow.
A B C D E F G
2 Supermarkets
3 Lowcost PicknPay GreenShop Rainbow
4 Milk 1400 1200 1250 1150
Items

5 Chocolate 1450 1560 1500 1500

6 Honey 900 1000 1210 1200
7
8
9
1. Launch your spreadsheet software. Enter and format the data as shown. (4 marks)
2. Select the range containing prices and format them to display numbers as currency. (2 marks)
3. Format the fonts in the merged cells as follows: Times New Roman, bold, and 16 point size. (2 marks)
4. Type the lable “Total” in cell B7. Them insert a formula to calculate the total amount for sales by
LowCost Supermarket in Cell B7. Copy the formula to corresponding adjacent cells to compute
the total sales for the order three supermarkets. (2 marks)
5. Write in the space below, the formula in cell F7 after the copy procedure above is done. (1 mark)

___________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Type the label “Average” in cell G3. Then insert a formula to calculate the average cost of milk in Cell G4
Copy the formula to the cells in the range G5:G7. (2 marks)
7. Write in the space below, the formula in cell G7 after the copy procedure above is done. (1 mark)

__________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Select the range B3:G7, and format the cells in the range to have single borders. (2 marks)
9. Create a column chart using the entries in the range B3:F6, with prices on vertical axis and
supermakets in the horizontal axis. For each supermarket, a separate vertical bar shoul be draw for
each food item. (4 marks)
10. Save your work as Task 2
11. Print Task 2.

TASK 3 (10 marks)

In modular arithmetic, when we divide two whole numbers, the result is a whole number (the dividend) and
another whole number (the remainder). For example, 7/3 gives a dividend of 2 and a remainder of 1. In
programming, two operators are used to do the division (e.g., “/” and “%” in C; and “div” and “mod” in pascal).
Examples

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 FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
C Pascal
7 / 3= 2 7 div 3 = 2
7%3=1 7 mod 3 = 1

The C and Pascal programs below perform the same task using modular arithmetic. Select any one of them and
answer the questions that follow.

C Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main (void) {
int i, m , km, num ;
i=1;
while (i <= 3 ) {
printf ( "i = %d\n" , i) ;
printf ("Enter number of metres : ") ;
scanf("%d", &num) ;
km = num / 1000 ;
m = num % 1000 ;
printf ( "%d m is equivalent to %dkm and %dm\n\n", num, km, m) ;
i = i+1 ;
}
char c = getchar( ) ;
}

Pascal program

Program Numbers ;
var i, m , km, num : integer ;
BEGIN
i := 1 ;
while (i <= 3 ) do
begin
writeln ( ‘i = " , i) ;
write (‘Enter number of metres : ‘) ;
readln (num) ;
km := num div 1000 ;
m := num mod 1000 ;
writeln ( num, ‘m is equivalent to ’, km, ‘km and ’, m, ‘m’) ;
writeln ;
i : = i+1 ;
end ;
readln ;
END.

1. Launch either a C or Pascal program development environment, and key in the corresponding programs, compile
the program. If any errors, keep correcting and compiling until all the errors are corrected. Save as Task 3.
(2 marks)
2. Run the program and provide 25, 300, and 4500 when prompted for a number, pressing the <Enter> key after
each number is entered. Write the output you observe. (3 marks)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

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 FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. State what the program is designed to do. (3 marks)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The keyword “while”, which is used in the program is the program is an example of which programming construct?
Explain how the stated programming construct works. (2 marks)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Programming construct :
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Explantation :
___________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Save your work as Task 2.
6. Print your work.

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FORM FIVE FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
1. Transmission of signals between the monitor D Fetch-decode-execute
and the system unit is done through the: 9. What is an email mailbox?
A Parallel cable. A A folder/directory in an email server that
B Power cable. holds all user’s messages.
C Video cable B A computer that stores all user’s email
D Digital cable. messages.
_________________________________________ C A folder/directory in an email server
2. The equivalence of the number 10010000012 in that holds a particular user’s messages
the octal scale is: D A folder/directory in the user’s computer
A 1101. into which his/her email messages are
B 441. downloaded.
C 373. _________________________________________
D 31. 10. A company uses ‘What-if-analysis’ as a guide to
__________________________________________ business management. This is an example of:
3. A(n) ______ is software used to create and A monitoring
modify text files. B modeling.
A Binary file editor. C simulation.
B Equation editor. D control.
C Text editor. _________________________________________
D File editor. 11. A measure that will protect files against
__________________________________________ accidental damage is
4. A system installed in a factory turns on a A access privileges.
heater if the temperature drops below 0oC and B backup.
turns on a cooler if the temperature rises above C passwords.
30oC. This is an example of a : D encryption
A monitoring system. _________________________________________
B control system. 12. ___ is a network topology in which each network
C relay system. device is connected to a main cable.
D regulatory system. A Star
__________________________________________ B Mesh
5. The spreadsheet cell range C2:E7 has ______ C Bus
cells. D Tree
A 6 ___________________________________________
B 7 13. Software that can be used to improve the
C 18 performance of a computer system is:
D 21 A Desktop publishing software.
___________________________________________ B Programming software.
6. At what stage in the system development life C Bespoke software.
cycle is a decision made on what type of input D utility software
methods to use? ___________________________________________
A Analysis. 14. There are _______ nibbles in 2 bytes
B Design. A 4
C Implementation. B 8
D Maintenance C 16
___________________________________________ D 32
7. The rate of data is transmission along a data path ___________________________________________
is measured in: 15. The term software is best described as:
A bits per cycle A electronic copy.
B bits per second. B computer output.
C cycles per second C photocopy.
D micro seconds. D soft paper copy
___________________________________________ ___________________________________________
8. Which of the following is in the correct order 16. Modification on an installed system is done at
in the machine instruction cycle? ____ stage of the system life cycle.
A Decode- execute- fetch. A feasibility
B Decode-fetch-execute. B analysis
C Fetch-execute-decode. C maintenance
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D design 24. Sending a file from your computer to a
17. A device that selects the best path for a data packet server is referred to as:
from one network to another is: A downloading.
A switch. B reading.
B bridge. C writing.
C router. D uploading.
D hub. ___________________________________________
______________________________________ 25. ________ is a technology that can be used to locate
18. The abbreviation ASCII stands for: an elephant remotely in a forest.
A American Standard Commission for A Geographic Information System
Information Interchange. B Location Information System
B American Standard Code for Information C Transmitter
Interchange. D Geographic Positioning system
C American Storage Code for Information ___________________________________________
Interchange. 26. Communication on cell phone is an example of
D American Storage Code for Internal ______ communication.
Interchange. A multiplex
_______________________________________ B simplex
19. Which one of the following features can be C half duplex
used in a biometric system? D full duplex
A Height. ___________________________________________
B Fingerprint 27. The binary code for ASCII characterbis,
C Blood pressure. 01100010. What is the binary code for ASCII
D Weight. character d?
________________________________________ A 01101101.
20. The set of rules that govern the transmission of B 01101010.
data across a network is called: C 01101100.
A topology. D 01100100.
B protocol. ___________________________________________
C controller. 28. In a typical Client-Server network:
D transceiver. A the server computer initiates all
_________________________________________ communication.
21. The attribute of software stating that it does not B the client computer makes request for
waste resources when running is referred to as: resources.
A portability C the server computer makes request for
B reliability resources.
C efficiency. D the client computer provides needed
D usability resources.
_________________________________________ ___________________________________________
22. Convert 50millioseconds to seconds _______ 29. The abbreviation FTP stands for:
1 A File Transfer Protection.
A . B File Transfer Protocol.
200
1 C File Transmission protection.
B 20
. D File Transferable Protocol.
C 20. ___________________________________________
D 200. 30. One of the functions of an operating system
_________________________________________ in a computer is to manage processes. The term
23. Software is referred to as free and open source if process refers to a:
it has: A program stored in the hard disk.
A No commercial license and cannot be B program loaded in main memory.
altered . C program executing in the CPU.
B A commercial license and can be altered D compiled program ready for running.
C No commercial license and can be ___________________________________________
altered
D A commercial license and cannot be
altered.
____________________________________________
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31. The HTML open and close tags <ul> --- </ul> 38. In system implementation, parallel conversion
are used to generate: means:
A Numbered list. A running the new system alongside the
B Bulleted list. old system.
C Underlined text. B running some parts of the new system
D Unified list of numbers. alongside the old system.
_________________________________________ C replacing parts of the old system with parts
32. The abbreviation USB stands for: of the new system.
A Unit Storage Bus. D running the new system while the old
B Universal Standard Bus lone is shut down.
C Unified storage Bus. ___________________________________________
D Universal Serial Bus. 39. When an email message is sent from John to
_________________________________________ Mary, copies of the message are found in:
33. A system designed to track daily sales and A John’s sent folder and Mary’s inbox
purchases of a company is a(n) _____system. folder.
A transaction processing B John’s sent folder and his inbox to Mary
B management information on a server.
C decision support C Mary’s sent folder and John’s inbox
D Executive information folder.
_________________________________________ D a folder’s inbox folder and Mary sent
34. Which of the following is true about user folder on a server.
name and passwords in an information ____________________________________________
system? 40. The file extension .pdf stands for:
A Users can have the same user name, but A Printable document format.
their passwords must be different. B Popular document format.
B Users can have the same password, but C Portable document format.
their user names must be different. D Picture document format.
C Users are able to change their user _________________________________________
names and still have access to their 41. Flash memory is an example of a(n) ______
account. storage device.
D When users change their passwords, they A Optical
must also change their user names. B solid state
_________________________________________ C chip
35. Which one of the following is NOT a D magnetic
component of an information system? ________________________________________
A User. 42. Disk compression software is a type of:
B Data. A application software.
C Computer table. B server software.
D Computer hardware C utility software.
____________________________________________ D device driver software.
36. ______ is a programming paradigm that _______________________________________
specifies a problem to be solved but does not 43. Which of the following is NOT an example
specify how to solve it. of a storage devices
A Object-oriented A Flash memory
B Declarative B ROM chip
C Procedural C Hard disk
D Imperative D CPU.
____________________________________________ _______________________________________
37. ____ is usually described as a knowledge- 44. Software that enables an operating system to
based system communicate effectively with a given
A Control system peripheral device is known as:
B Monitoring system A Firewall.
C Expert system B Driver.
D Management information system C Bespoke.
__________________________________________ D Widget.
_________________________________________

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45. _____system enables people who are geographically

dispersed to have an online meeting that looks like a
real life situation.
A Electronic Marketing
B Videoconferencing
C Multimedia Message Service
D Teleworking
________________________________________
46. In project management, lag time means a
delay between:
A a predecessor and a successor task
B two predecessor tasks.
C two successor tasks.
D two dummy tasks.
______________________________________
47. _____ is a class of computers that is most
suitable for weaponry and weather
forecasting.
A Minicomputer
B Microcomputer
C Supercomputer
D Laptop computer
______________________________________
48. Communication between a hand held remote
controller and a television set is an example
of_____communication.
A radio wave
B bluetooth
C microwave
D infared
____________________________________________
49. Convert 2 seconds to microseconds
A 2000 Microseconds.
B 2000 000 Microseconds.
C 0.002 Microseconds.
D 0.000002 Microseconds.
____________________________________________
50. Ergonomics is concerned about:
A the economies of writing and displaying
characters.
B the design of pictures and word art
C the design and placement of equipment in
a computer workplace.
D speed and accuracy of a computer user.
___________________________________________

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 FORM 5 FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
GCE 2020 PAPER 2
1. (a) (i) Give the role of each of the following types of system buses:
(ii) Address bus (2 marks)
(iii) Control bus (2 marks)
(iv) Data bus (2 marks)
(b) Briefly describe the characteristics of a compact disc (CD) in terms of:
(i) How data is stored (3 marks)
(ii) The physical layout of tracks and sectors on the CD. (2 marks)
(c) (i) Sketch and label a block diagram of a simplified computer system, that shows the stages of
information processing. (3 marks)
(ii) Describe the main activity of each stage and give one example of a device used. (6 marks)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. (a) State the main difference between
(i) A Server and a Client in a Client-Server network. (2 marks)
(ii) Synchronous and asynchronous data transmission. (2 marks)
(iii) Parallel and serial data transmission. (2 marks)
(c) Give the main role of the following network devices:
(i) Repeater (2 marks)
(ii) Bridge (2 marks)
(iii) Router (2 marks)
(iv) Modem (2 marks)
(d) Convert the following numbers to the indicated bases showing clearly the steps involved:
(i) FD16 to binary (3 marks)
(ii) 3958 to hexadecimal (3 marks)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. (a) Differentiate between system software and application software. Name an example in each case.
(4 marks)
(b) Explain the following features of a word processor:
(i) Editing
(ii) Mail merging
(iii) Cropping
(iv) Formatting (4 marks)
(c) (i) Briefly describe the differences between Manual Information System and an Automated
Information System. (4 marks)
(ii) Give two examples of Computerised Information Systems. (2 marks)

(d) (i) Name any four components of a Data Transmission System. (4 marks)
(ii) Briefly describe the role of any two of the components listed above. (2 marks)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
4. (a) Study the line of codes written in HTML below and answer the question that follow:
1. <html>
2. <head>
3. <title> Computer Science </title> </head>
4. <body>
5. <marquee><font size = “16” color = “red”><q><u> THANK YOU
</u></q></font></marquee>
6. <br>
7. <hr size = 16 width “50%” align = “center” color = “blue”>
8. <ol type = “I” start = “3”>
9. <li> English Language </li>
10. <li> Computer Science </li>
11. <li> Arithmetic </li>
12. </ol>
13. </body>
14. </html>

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 FORM 5 FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
(i) State the role of the HTML code in relation to the webpage (2 marks)
(ii) Give the general name of software commonly used to interpret codes written in HTML. (1 mark)

Briefly explain the output

(iii) In lines 8 to 12 (4 marks)
(iv) In line 7 (5 marks)
(v) Write HTML code that will generate a hyperlink to a web page called CSC595. (3 marks)
(b) Evaluate the following in binary arithmetic:
(i) 11010112 + 101112 (2 marks)
(ii) 1011002 - 1112 (3 marks)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. (a) Table 1 is used to register student’s information in a certain school.
Table 1
ADMISSION NAME OF
DATE OF BIRTH CLASS FEES PAID
NUMBER STUDENT

(i) What do you understand by the term key field? (2 marks)

(ii) Which of the fields in Table 1 is suitable to used as a key field? Give a reason for
your answer. (2 marks)
(iii) Give appropriate data types for the entries in the following fields: ADMISSION NUMBER,
NAME OF STUDENT, DATE OF BIRTH, CLASS. (4 marks)

(b) Briefly explain what you understand by each of the following:

(i) Bootstrap (2 marks)
(ii) Ergonomics (2 marks)
(iii) A milestone in project management (2 marks)
(iv) A biometric system (2 marks)
(c) Distinguish briefly between data verification and data validation. (4 marks)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6. (a) (i) What do you understand by the term social media? (2 marks)
(ii) Briefly explain one positive and one negative impact of social media in the Cameroon Education sector.
(4 marks)
(iii) Give two examples of social media platforms. (2 marks)
(b) Briefly explain two ways by which
(i) a computer can be affected by a virus
(ii) a computer can be protected against viruses
(iii) a computer system that may malfunction when infected by a virus
(6 marks)
(c) Determine the logic expression that corresponds to the output P, R and Q, in terms of A and B, on the logic circuit
in Figure 1:
A P
B R
Q
Figure 1
(6 marks)
______________________________________________________________________________________________

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 FORM 5 FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025
8. (a) You are requested by a Principal to make recommendations for types and specifications of computers for the school
computer laboratory
(i) Name three characteristics of system unit you will recommend and say how these
are important for proper functioning of the library. (6 marks)
(ii) Name one characteristic of the monitor you will recommend and say how this is important for the
laboratory. (2 marks)

(b) A student gets up a 5:30 AM and performs the following activities shown in Table 2 within the indicated duration,
in order to get to school.

Table 2
No. Activity Duration
In Minutes
1. Facial clean-up 10
2. Heat water for shower 15
3. Prepare breakfast 10
4. Take a shower 15
5. Clean shoes 5
6. Dress up 15
7. Take breakfast 10
8. Walk to school 15

Assuming that activities 2 and 3 can start at the same time, as well as activities 5 and 6,
(i) Draw a Gantt chart for the above activities. (6 marks)
(ii) What do you understand by the terms:
- Critical path
- Slack time (4 marks)
(iii) Determine the critical path for these activities. (2 marks)

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FORM 5 FULL NOTES NEW 2024/2025

GCE PAPER 3 2020

Do all tasks (Task 1, Task 2 and Task 3) specified in this question paper.

TASK 1 (20 marks)

Figure 1 shows a story typed and enclosed in a frame. Your task is to type, edit and format the text as requested.

The Cunning Fox and the Clever Stock

Once upon a time, there lived a very cunning and mischievous fox. He used to speak to other
animals sweetly and gain their trust, before playing tricks on them. One day the fox met a stork. He
befriended the stork and acted like a very good friend. Soon, he invited the stork to have a feast with him.
The stork happily accepted the invitation.
The day of the feast came, and the stork went to the fox’s house. To her surprise and disappointment,
the fox said that he could not make a big feast as promised, and just offered some soup. When he brought
the soup out of the kitchen, the stork saw that it was in a shallow bowl ! The poor stork could not have any
soup with its long bill, but the fox easily licked the soup from the plate …
The day arrived and the fox reached the stork’s place. After exchanging pleasantries, the stork
served souup for both of them, in a narrow jar with a long neck. She was able to have the soup very easily
with her long bill, but the fox obviously could not. After finishing hers, the stork asked the fox if he was
enjoying the soup. The fox remembered the feast he himself had given the stork, and felt very ashamed. He
stammered, "I …I’d better leave now. I have a tummy ache." Humiliated, he left the place running.
Morale : One bad turn begets another.
Source https://www.kidsworldfun.com/shortstories_foxandstork.php

Figure 1
1. State the name(s) of the word processor(s) installed in your PC.
______________________________________________________________________________ (1 mark)
2. Launch a word processor program from your PC and type the text of Figure 1.
Justify the three paragraphs. (10 marks)

3. For the title, Bold, Center, underline, and apply a font size of 16. (1 mark)

4. Add a light blue background colour to the title. (1 mark)

5. Select the body text and apply a serif font of size 12. (2 marks)

6. Insert the image called ‘foxandstork’ (found on the desktop) at the left of the first paragraph
and wrap text to its light. (2 marks)

7. Insert page number as header. (2 marks)

8. Insert a footer with the text ‘One bad turn begets another’ at bottom left. (1 mark)
9. Save your work as Task 1 in your working directory.
10. Print copy of task 1.

TASK 2 (20 marks)

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An excerpt of a worksheet in Figure 2 shows mock examination results of 10 students in Form 5. All marks on 20

Figure 2
1. Create a workbook called Task 2 and enter the worksheet data exactly as provided. (5 marks)

2. a) Use a bold font size 14 for the title. (1 mark)

b) Use a bold font of size 12 for column headers. (1 mark)
c) Auto fit all data columns. (1 mark)
d) Merge cells A1 to I1 and center the title. (1 mark)

3. Add the following three column headers to the right of column I: SubSat, Avge and Rank. (1 mark)

4. For the first student Njie Fabian, use the suitable spreadsheet functions (or formulas) to calculate:
a) number of subjects sat, (2 marks)
b) average (correct to 2 decimal places ) and (2 marks)
c) rank (2 marks)
d) Hence, calculate similar values for the other students. (2 marks)
5. Save your work as Task 2 in your working directory.
6. Print a copy of Task 2.

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TASK 3 (10 marks)

The C and Pascal programs below perform the same task. Select any one of them and answer the questions that follow

C Program

#include <stdio.h>
int main (void) {
int num ;
printf ( "Enter a number : ") ;
scanf("%d", &num) ;
while (num < 5 ) {
printf ( "%d " , num) ;
num = num+1 ;
}
getchar( ) ;
}

Pascal program
program Numbers ;
var num : integer ;
BEGIN
write (‘Enter a number: ‘) ;
readln (num) ;
while num < 5 do
begin
write( num, ‘ ’) ;
num := num + 1 ;

end ;
readln ;
END.

1. Launch either a C or Pascal program development environment, and key in the corresponding programs, compile the
program. If any errors, keep correcting and compiling until all the errors are corrected.
(2 marks)
2. Run the program and enter -2 when prompted for a number. Write the output you observe in the space below.
Write NONE if there is no output. (1 mark)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Run the program again but this time, enter 10 when prompted for a number. Write the output you observe in the space
below. Write NONE if there is no output. (1 mark)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

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4. Explain what the program is designed to do. (3 marks)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. The keyword “while”, which is used in the program is the program is an example of which programming construct?
Explain how the stated programming construct works. (3 marks)
(a) Programming construct ___________________________________________________________________

(b) Explantation :___________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

6. Save your work as Task 3.

7. Print your work.

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