KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

Department of Educational Communication & Technology

ECT303/343 SUBJECT METHOD SPECIAL EDUCATION COURSE
OUTLINE
Contact Hours: 45
Purpose of the course
This course is designed to provide the student teachers with the knowledge, skills and
values of teaching Learners with special needs. An overview of the condition of
specific learning needs in learners will be done. The emphasis will be on disorders in
the basic psychological processes that often underlie learning disabilities and or
special educational needs of learners not living with disabilities but requires special
attention in instruction. Learners will be exposed to the indicators of learning needs
that manifest themselves in skill acquisition, content area achievement and social /
emotional development. Diagnostic, remedial and evaluative strategies as well as
methods of instruction aligned with the Kenya learning standards and adapted for
students with special needs in both the special and inclusive schools.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this course, the students teacher should be able to:
1 Diagnose characteristics of learners with mild, moderate, severe and multiple
disabilities as well as those of gifted and talented students.
2 Enhance their insight and skills in catering for learning in a mixed ability
classroom that includes special needs learners.
3 Serve as special needs advisors to fellow teachers in inclusive education.
4 Demonstrate knowledge in instructional approaches suggested by theory and
research to the education of learners with special needs in the regular and the
special education classroom through discussion of:
(a) content areas as in KICD syllabuses,
(b) a range of educational approaches to meet different special needs,
(c) methods and standards in instructional design for remediation and
enrichment,
(d) the planning of and preparation for teaching special needs , learners
(e) Design and use of assistive/adaptive material and resources in
teaching special needs learners, and
(f) Evaluation techniques in the areas of special education: reading, and
general classroom assessments

Course Content
Planning of and preparation for instruction of learners with special needs, Indicators
of learning needs that manifests themselves in skill acquisition, content area
achievement and social /emotional development, Design and use of material and
resources in the instruction of special needs learners, Diagnostic, remedial and
evaluative strategies for learners with special needs, Range of approaches and
methods of instruction adapted to mixed ability teaching: individual differences;
students with disabilities and those without but requires special attention during
instruction, Evaluation techniques in the areas of special education, in general
classroom assessments.

Instructional Methods
The course is interactive and therefore requires continuous, active and meaningful
engagement by all the students. The mode of delivery is by lecture, tutorial/seminars,
field work, assignments, research, Problem solving, discussion and practical.
Instructional materials and or equipment
Flip charts, Audio visuals, text books, projected materials, assistive technology
devices and software, models, realia, signs, tactile diagrams and Braille. Computers,
Internet Smart board and whiteboards and OER will also be used to support access to
quality learning.
Course Assessment
An overall grade will be awarded to a student based on effort put in both theory and
practical work.
The grade will be derived from:
i) Continuous assessment that will earn 40%
ii) Final examination 60%
iii) Total 100%

Core Reading Material

Print Books

Bateman, B. Lloyd, W. Tankersley, M. (2015). Understanding special education

Issues: Who, where, what, when, how & why. Rutledge Publishers

Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal
design for learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Adeolle, A.O. (2005). Teaching reading to children with learning disabilities. Basic
tips for regular teachers; The Journal of Advocacy and Rehabilitation in Special
Education (HARSE), 3 (3), 17-2-.1

Alper, S. and Raharinirina, S. (2006). Assistive technology for individuals with

disabilities: a review and synthesis of the literature: Journal of Special Education
Technology, 21 (2), 47-64.

Bocconi, S. Benigno, V.&Ott, M., (2007). Inclusive Education: Helping Teachers to

Choose ICT Resources and Use them Effectively. eLearning papers, no.6. ISSN 1887-
1542
E-Books

Denis, D.M., Lynette, K.C. & Kathleen, L. (2012).Integrating Assistive Technology

into Teacher Programs: Trials, Tribulations and Lessons. Falls, 8 (1), 32-47.
Borg, J. Larson, S. Ostergren, p.(2011). The right to assistive technology; for whom,
for what and whom? Disability and society, 26(2) 151-167

Connor, C., Snell, M., Gansneder, B. & Dexter, S. (2010). Special education teachers’
use of assistive technology with students who have severe disabilities. Journal of
Technology and Teachers Education, 18, 369-386.

Connor, C., Snell, M., Gansneder, B. & Dexter, S. (2010). Special education teachers’
use of assistive technology with students who have severe disabilities. Journal of
Technology and Teachers Education, 18, 369-386.

Loeding, B.L. (2002). The use of Educational Technology and Assistive Devices in
Special Education. Rethinking Professional Issues in Special Education. Westport,
USA: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development.(2021) syllabus. Ministry of Education,
secondary education Adapted syllabuses. Kenya Institute of Curriculum
Development.

Scherer, J.M. (1993). Living in the State of Stuck: How Technology Impacts the lives
of People with Disability.

Academic resources
Lead Lecturer Dr. Bernard, C. Mugo

AN OVERVIEW OF THE CONDITIONS OF SPECIFIC

LEARNING NEEDS IN LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

To understand this concept fully, it is perhaps imperative to commence by

indemnifying different types of learners with special needs with focus on disorders in
the basic cognitive and psychological processes. Let us first recognize that learners
with special needs could be grouped into two categories; those with disabilities and
those without disability but still requires special attention in the teaching and
learning situation.

Categories of Learners with Disabilities

Before noting the categories of these learners, perhaps it would be more systematic to
perceive the term disability. Disability is an umbrella term for impairments,
limitations, and participation restrictions. It denotes the negative aspects of the
interaction between an individual (with a health condition) and the individual’s
contextual factors (environmental and personal factors). Impairment on the other
hand is a loss or abnormality in body structure or physiological function (including
mental functions). Abnormally here is used strictly to refer to a significant variation
from established statistical norms (i.e. as a deviation from a population mean within
measured standard norms). Participation restrictions are problems an individual may
experience in involvement in life situations. The presence of a participation restriction
is determined by comparing an individual’s participation to that which is expected of
an individual without disability in that culture or society. limitations are difficulties
an individual may have in executing activities. An activity limitation may range from
a slight to a severe deviation in terms of quality or quantity in executing the activity in
a manner or to the extent that is expected of people without the health condition.

Learners with disability are categorized in three major groups.

i. Those with impairments that are viewed in medical terms as organic disorders
attributable to organic pathologies (e.g., in relation to sensory, motor, or
neurological defects)
ii. Those with difficulties I.e those with behavioural or emotional disorders, or
specific difficulties in learning
iii. The Disadvantages or those with disadvantages arising primarily from socio-
economic, cultural, and/or linguistic factors

The following are specific examples within these these categories.

1. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

 Characteristics: Difficulty with social interactions, repetitive behaviors,

sensitivity to sensory input, and communication challenges.

Identification: Limited eye contact, repetitive speech or actions, difficulty

understanding, emotions or social cues.

2. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

 Characteristics: Inattention, impulsivity, hyperactivity, difficulty following

instructions, and trouble staying focused.

Identification: Constant movement, inability to stay on task, frequent distractions,

and difficulty completing work.

3. Dyslexia

 Characteristics: Difficulty reading, trouble recognizing words, poor spelling,

and problems with reading comprehension.

Identification: Slow reading speed, reversing letters (e.g., b/d, p/q), struggles with
spelling and writing.

4. Dysgraphia

 Characteristics: Difficulty with writing, poor handwriting, trouble organizing

thoughts on paper.
 Identification: Illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, difficulty copying text,
and slow writing speed.

5. Dyscalculia

 Characteristics: Difficulty understanding numbers, struggles with arithmetic

operations, trouble recognizing patterns.

Identification: Poor number sense, difficulty memorizing math facts, struggles

with time and money concepts.

6. Hearing Impairment

 Characteristics: Difficulty hearing conversations, frequent requests for

repetition, delayed speech development.

Identification: Not responding to sounds, relying on lip reading, frequent

misunderstandings, speech difficulties.

7. Visual Impairment

 Characteristics: Blurred vision, difficulty reading, sensitivity to light, poor

coordination.

Identification: Squinting, holding books close to the face, frequent headaches,

difficulty recognizing objects.

8. Intellectual Disability

 Characteristics: Low IQ, difficulty with reasoning and problem-solving,

delayed development, and poor academic performance.

Identification: Trouble following multi-step instructions, slow learning, and

difficulty adapting to new tasks.

9. Cerebral Palsy

 Characteristics: Impaired muscle coordination, difficulty with movement and

balance, involuntary movements.

Identification: Stiff or floppy muscles, difficulty walking, trouble holding objects,

delayed motor skills.

10. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

 Characteristics: Aggressive behavior, withdrawal, anxiety, difficulty forming

relationships.

Identification: Frequent emotional outbursts, trouble following rules, lack of

motivation, social difficulties.
11. Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

 Characteristics: Hostility, defiance toward authority, frequent temper

tantrums.

Identification: Persistent arguing, refusal to follow rules, blaming others,

deliberate annoyance of peers.

12. Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD)

 Characteristics: Struggles in one or more academic areas (e.g., reading,

writing, math) despite normal intelligence.

Identification: Inconsistent performance, trouble processing information,

difficulty remembering lessons.

13. Speech and Language Disorders

 Characteristics: Difficulty with articulation, fluency, or voice modulation,

trouble expressing thoughts.

Identification: Trouble forming sentences, stuttering, mispronouncing words,

difficulty understanding instructions.

14. Tourette Syndrome

 Characteristics: Sudden, repetitive movements or sounds (tics), difficulty

controlling impulses.

Identification: Frequent blinking, throat clearing, head jerking, or sudden vocal

outbursts.

15. Down Syndrome

 Characteristics: Distinct facial features, delayed physical and intellectual

development, speech difficulties.

Identification: Short stature, slanted eyes, slow learning, and poor muscle tone.

16. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

 Characteristics: Memory loss, difficulty concentrating, mood swings,

impaired motor skills.

Identification: Confusion, frequent headaches, trouble recalling information, and

reduced coordination.

17. Seizure Disorders (e.g., Epilepsy)

  Characteristics: Uncontrolled body movements, loss of consciousness,
sudden confusion.

Identification: Blank staring episodes, sudden collapse, involuntary jerking

movements.

18. Multiple Disabilities

 Characteristics: Combination of two or more disabilities that impact learning

and daily functioning.

Identification: Delayed development, difficulty communicating, poor motor

coordination.

19. Orthopedic Impairment

 Characteristics: Limited mobility, difficulty with fine or gross motor tasks,

physical deformities.

Identification: Use of assistive devices (e.g., wheelchair, crutches), difficulty

performing daily activities.

20. Deaf-Blindness

 Characteristics: Combined hearing and vision loss, difficulty communicating,

reliance on tactile learning.

Identification: Inability to respond to visual or auditory stimuli, need for sign

language or Braille.

Among those living with advisability there are those that are very common in the
schools and in the society. Although they exist they are not easily noticed. These
includes the following.

Some of these learners, and specifically those with mild impairments are not quickly
identifiable and could be very common in the schools and in the society. They are
known as high incident disabilities. The following are examples.

Examples of High incident disability

Bipolar and momopolar Disorder:

o Mood swings ranging from extreme highs (mania) to extreme lows

(depression).
o Periods of high energy, impulsivity, and reduced need for sleep.
o Phases of sadness, fatigue, and hopelessness.
o Difficulty maintaining focus and completing tasks.
o Unpredictable behavior and emotional instability.
Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, and Dysgraphia:

o Dyslexia: Difficulty reading, spelling, and decoding words; struggles

with reading comprehension.
o Dyscalculia: Challenges with understanding numbers, mathematical
concepts, and performing calculations.
o Dysgraphia: Poor handwriting, trouble organizing thoughts on paper,
and difficulty with spelling and grammar.
o Students may appear capable but struggle with academic performance.

ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder):

o Inattention: Easily distracted, forgetful, and struggles to focus.

o Hyperactivity: Restlessness, constant movement, and difficulty sitting
still.
o Impulsivity: Interrupts others, acts without thinking, and struggles with
self-control.
o May perform well in certain tasks but struggle with consistency.

Mild Trauma (Brain Injury):

o Memory difficulties and forgetfulness.

o Trouble concentrating and slower information processing.
o Emotional instability, mood swings, and irritability.
o Difficulties with problem-solving and decision-making.
o May appear “normal,” but cognitive challenges affect learning.

Intellectual Disabilities ("Time Takers"):

o Slower development of academic and life skills.

o Difficulty with abstract thinking, problem-solving, and understanding
complex concepts.
o Takes longer to complete tasks and grasp new information.
o May require repetition and step-by-step instructions.
o Can blend in with peers but require more time and support.

Depression:

o Persistent sadness, fatigue, and lack of interest in activities.

o Difficulty concentrating and making decisions.
o Changes in sleep and appetite patterns.
o Social withdrawal and feelings of worthlessness.
o Performance may fluctuate; students may appear disengaged or
unmotivated.

Mild Autism (High-Functioning Autism/Asperger’s Syndrome):

o Difficulties with social interactions and non-verbal cues.

o Rigid routines and resistance to change.
 o Special interests or focus on specific topics.
o Sensory sensitivities (e.g., to noise, light, textures).
o May excel in certain subjects but struggle with group work and social
expectations.

In the categories of the learners with special needs, there are learners without
impairments but still requires special attention in the teaching and leaning situations.
The following are examples.
 Those from marginalized areas e.g. Normand, internally displeased and refugees
etc
 Those suffering from terminal diseases e.g Cancer, HIV & AID, Hypertension
etc.
 Economically poor e,g those living in slums etc.
 Those from disintegrated families e.g families with toxic relationship etc

PLANNING OF AND PREPARATION FOR INSTRUCTION OF LEARNERS

WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Before getting into the teaching process, the teacher of learners with special needs
must prepare thoroughly. The teacher must be first psychologically and socially
prepared. The psycho-social preparation has to do with how the teacher view the
learners and how willing the teacher is in helping the learners to learn. The teacher
just like the learners comes from the society and therefore he/she might curry from the
society some aspects that could value or devalue the learners with special needs
speciality those with impairment. It is therefore imperative to scrutinize how we as he
teachers should view these learners. The society and even the schools view these
learners in two major lenses. The Medical lense and the Social lense.

Medical lense: in this lense, the principle is that the leaner especially those with
impairment should be identified, diagnosed, labeled and then treated medically. In
case the impairment is not averted medically, then the person and in this case the
learner should be restricted from performing some tasks especially the task that could
be viewed as posing danger to them. The problem with this lense is that it might
disable or even handicap the learner because the tasks that could pose danger are not
well defined and alternative tasks that are within the demand of the learners to learn
are not fully outlined. This then denies the learner an opportunity to learn to the best
of their abilities.

Social Lense: the principle here is that the learners should be given support to
perform whatever tasks they feel they can. They should never be labeled or restricted
in any way whatsoever. The belief here is that the society handicaps the learner.

Apartment question a teacher might ask is; which of these lenses is better than the
other in the teaching and learning process.
What the teacher should put in mind is that both the lenses are important in that the
learners need to be identified, diagnosed and referred for treatment in case an organ or
some body organs requires this. Further, for the purpose of the necessary services and
specialized instruction i.e accommodation, medical lense is essential. The teacher
should however give equal learning opportunity to all learners regardless of their
impairment or special needs and therefore the social lense in this case ins imperative.
In other words the teacher must carefully balance the two lenses. In essence, the
teacher must do all what it takes to help the learners to access themselves and the
environment fully, be self directed, problem solvers and active participating
members of the society in their lives after school.

The teacher must also prepared him/herself technically in order to to teach these
learners effectively, it is perhaps imperative to note that effective teaching requires
competence, determination and willingness to support the learners to learn. In this
sense, to begin with the teacher should be well conversant with the content, the
material and resources to support the delivery of the content (instructional
technology), and must be well versed with approaches and methods of teaching the
learners.

Specifically, the teacher should prepare the content and the media in adverse and
when necessary share with the learners ahead of the class. For instance, in the case
where the teacher is teaching in an inclusive classroom and expect some discussion or
some research or even performing of complex tasks I the lesson. The teachers should
share the resources and material the cleaners with the special needs at least an hour in
advance. This is to allow the learners to familiarize with the these so that they will be
at per with their peers during the lesson.

The teacher must put into consideration the Individualized Education Program (IEP)
in the preparation of teaching especially foe the ensnares with disabilities. The
supportive strategies in the IEP will assist the teacher in adapting the content, media
and planning for accommodation during the lesson. In order to achieve equality in the
learning process, the teacher must design the lesson in a way that the learners will
access information and participate actively in the lesson just like their peers without
special needs.

For the teacher to be successful in achieving the lesson outcomes, He/she need to be
aware of indicators in learning needs especially in disability that apparent themselves
in the acquisition of knew knowledge , skills ad values (experiences).

INDICATORS OF LEARNING NEEDS IN DISABILITY THAT MANIFESTS

THEMSELVES IN THE ACQUISITION OF NEW DISPOSITIONS

Common indicators of learning disabilities that manifest themselves in acquisition of

new dispositions include the following:

 Difficulty with reading and/or writing

 Problems with math skills
 Difficulty remembering
 Problems paying attention
 Trouble following directions
 Poor coordination
 Difficulty with concepts related to time
  Problems staying organized

The most critical indicators in the learning situation are those that are cognitive in
nature. Let us look at some of these cognitive problems facing different learners.

Cognitive Problems Facing Learners with Disabilities

Normally, the understanding of information and application of the lessons derived

from the information requires a developed cognitive ability. Some of the learners with
disabilities face difficulties in this aspect.

Learners with Visual Challenges

It is observed through research that the learners who are blind are faced by major
cognitive problems.
The first of the cognitive problems is related to the difference between the
simultaneous character of visual perception and the successive character of tactile
perception. The second problem stems from the fact that the process of concept
formation in learners who are blind is dominated by two extremes: (i) extremely
abstract verbal notions that have little support in the learners' experience, and (ii)
extremely concrete tactile images of every-day life objects that possess little potential
for generalization. As a result, the everyday concepts that possess a certain degree of
generality are under-represented in the cognitive repertoire of the learners who are
blind. The third cognitive problem is directly related to the predominant methods of
education for the learners who are blind that almost completely exclude two-
dimensional schematic representations of objects and processes such as diagrams,
charts, plans and maps (tactile graphics). As a result many of the cognitive tools used
by sighted students remain underdeveloped in the learners who are blind and those
who are visually impaired.

Home work; find out the cognitive challenges facing other categories of learners with
special needs as indicated herein.

Learners with hearing impairment

Learners with orthopedic impairment

Learners with emotional and behavioural disorder

Learners with intellectual disability

Learners with mental disoder

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Speech and Language Disorders

Due to the aforementioned instructional practices and learner’s cognition problems, it
is observed that productivity for these special needs learners often suffers and lags
behind their peers the learning situation. The long-term effect of this is the apparent
lack of employment of the graduates who are impaired which has for a long time been
invariably blamed on lack of relevant and quality education and the skills required in
the labour market This eventually leads to social inequality; increased dependence,
lack of security, inequality of opportunity and low quality of life for these learners.

The teacher should be familiar with the a wind range of reproaches and instructional
methodologies in order to help the learners to overcome the aforementioned problems
in the teaching and learning situation. Let us look at some them.

RANGE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS ADAPTED FOR

THE INSTRUCTION OF LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Multi-sensory/Multi-model Approach

Comparison between Sensory Channels and their various Modalities

Considering the scenario in which the teachers facilitate learning to their students with
special needs, it is imperative to attend to the sensory channels commonly used in
facilitating the acquisition of new dispositions by the learners. Even though the
learners with impairments lack the one or more sensory ability, to make a precise
comparison in the way the sensory channels transmit information it is an obvious act
to access the benefits each channel. In addition, it is important to analyze the
implication of lack of a channel by the students with disabilities.

The first phenomenon to be considered in this case is probably the rate of

transmission characteristic of the visual, tactile and the audio channels. These
channels are major in acquisition of new dispositions. To begin with,in the real sense,
the visual channel in most of its modalities has a transmission rate that is receiver
determined. A person who is pictorially literate can read pictures with a considerable
speed understand diagrams at a glance and thereby grasp fairly abstract and very
concrete communication at a very high speed. A person who has a well-developed
literacy skill can, by reading take in ideas at rate of 300 to 400 words per minutes and
may have learnt to scan texts for ideas even faster. Contrary to this, the other sensory
channels and especially the hearing and touch channel transmit at a rate determined
by the sender. Or if they are determined by the receiver, such as in reading Braille, the
rate is much slower. Braille readers can take in ideas at a rate of 90 to 120 words per
minutes. Although it is technically possible for touch readers to “read” pictures and
diagrams that are tactile and feel special Braille text layout, in most developing
countries this basic literacy education does not feature the development of these skills
significantly.

The second phenomenon that attracts attention in the teaching/learning situation is

the permanency of learning stimulus. In considering the permanency of the visual
stimulus for example, we refer to the fact that in the context of instructional
technology most of visual aids are potentially lasting stimuli to the learners. For
example, when the teacher displays a map or a diagram or even draws a sketch on the
chalkboard, this visual aid stays on display throughout the lesson and keeps working
as a stimulus to the learner. With the fast growing human reliance on visual symbols,
the tactile channel which tends to imitate the visual channel should be enhanced in
order to bridge the spatial concepts that come about due to lack of sight. The tactile
channel tends to have much more permanency compared to audio channel. However,
the tactile Chanel is linear in that a touch reader can touch only one spot at a time. It is
therefore difficult for the touch reader to rapidly get a comprehensive understanding
of pictorial presentations. Compared to other sensory channels, the auditory channel
tends to generate fleeting stimuli with little permanency.

Another phenomenon that can be highlighted in the use of sensory channels in the
teaching-learning situation is the comprehensiveness or linearity characteristic of the
processing of messages. The visual channel for example is capable of presenting
information in both linear and comprehensive way. For example, the visual symbol
channel and the audio symbol channel are tied to the linear approach whereas the
visual realia, visual picture and the visual diagram channels are capable of seeing a
comprehensive picture instantly. The tactile channel could be made to mimic picture
and diagrams hence presenting a comprehensive picture, but the fingers are only
capable of touching one detail at a time. In this case the comprehensive view is not
instant but has elements of linearity. It is important to realize that in most learning
situations we constantly move from the general to the particular (deduction) and from
particular to general (induction). In essence, we keep alternating between linear
approach and general picture. We can then conclude that visually impaired students
have no problem with the linear approach but are at serious disadvantage regarding
the comprehensive picture.

Capacity for abstraction is another characteristic of the sensory channels that should
be highlighted. Words lend themselves to abstraction while realia for example tend to
be the opposite. To be precise, let us rank the four modalities of these channels from
concrete to abstract. Realia refers to the phenomena and events that we observe and
experience in life. They are concrete and give rise to direct experience. Pictures
represent these real concrete things by resemblance. Actually the closest resemblance
we get is from photographs which are very accurate record of reality. Diagrams
certainly are really abstract representation of reality although they still have elements
of resemblance. Diagrams can be made tactile and can also be labeled. Actually visual
practice in use of diagrams is that parts of diagrams are labeled. This means that the
diagram modality and the symbol modality are combined. Note that the diagrams
designed for the visually impaired learners are less detailed compared to those
designed for the sighted because Braille characters take bigger space compared to
regular lettering. Perhaps the last modality to attend to in this concept is symbol
modality. Symbols are the most abstract ways of representing reality. They represent
reality by pure convention. It is not typical of symbols that there is such physical
resemblance they represent. This means one has to learn to read and write the symbols
and the level of mastery will obviously determine the rate at which one can process
messages with them. Tactile sense having less physical capacity in taking in
information as compared to visual channel, One can then conclude that learners who
are blind or visually impaired are left at a disadvantage.
In considering public transmission capacity of communication of the sensory
channels, both sound and visuals lend themselves to public transmission. The tactile
channel is different. Tactile picture, diagrams and even Braille text can be mass
produced but the reception of such communication is an individual affair. Although
computer technology is currently able to combine tactile presentations with sound and
thus gearing them towards public transmission/reception, the problem in this
technology is the rapidly growing number of new symbols that have no Braille
equivalents.

The last perspective we could highlight is attention option available in different

channels. The attention option largely depends on the physical capacity of the various
channels. For example, the sense of sight has the physical capacity of taking in three
million bits per second from the 180 degree angle that is physically visible in the
environment. A person is not able to process the enormous amount of information and
therefore focuses the attention or attends to some details. This means that the person
with sight has more options to choose from. We learn more and accurately master
skills and information by paying attention to a particular thing and inclining to think
of all the other options as potential distracters. The physical capacity of the ears to
take in information is not even one percent of that of the visual sense. This means
there are far fewer options to choose from and fewer distractions. More so, the
physical capacity of tactile sense is only a fraction of that of the sense of hearing. One
can then conclude that persons who are visually impaired though having the same
capacity to process information have fewer options compared to the sighted when it
comes to choosing to attend to specific things. Also, the person has fewer distractions.

Perceptive Based Approach

Research shows that despite many decades of worthy and charitable intentions, poor
education and rampant unemployment continue to leave most people with disabilities
without the skills and resources to emerge from isolation, poverty, and restriction.
Educational approaches for these persons should therefore be designed to put a
decisive end to the dependence. The students should be helped to become active, self-
directed and productive participants in the world. Perhaps it would be possible to do
this if the teachers of the learners with disabilities strive to improve the quality of
interaction between these students by facilitating equal access to the world's resources
and opportunities. The teachers’ interest in this case should be more than meeting the
minimum requirements for functioning and life satisfaction. They should believe in
mutual respect, consideration, and accommodation of the special needs people by the
society. The educational approaches should see the students with special needs
population rise to levels of productive participation and achievement to equal that of
sighted people. There is therefore a need to develop and demonstrate the effectiveness
of a modern, holistic approach the special needs based on knowledge of human
perception, and a philosophy of No Limits.

It is important to note that the key to effective living is how well we adapt to
maximize our access to ourselves and our environment. The first duty of the teachers
of the learners with special needs is therefore to help foster students' ability to gain
fully functional and esthetic access to their environment. To do this, the teachers
should usethe perception based instruction so as to focus on a student's ability to
perceive the environment more completely, process what is perceived with more
sophistication, and act on the environment with greater facility. It is through the
optimized perception these students can be most aware of their options, and be able to
exercise them to maximum effect. With this in mind, it is correct to assert that
instructional practice for the special needs students should be fused with the following
principals:

1. Respectful Commitment to the Need of All Students

Perception based program should not be tailored according to the "specific" or

"individualized" needs of students but on the belief that all students have the same
basic needs - to gain full access to their environment in order to participate fully and
in a self-directed manner in society, within cultural imperatives. Traditionally the
individualization requirement of educational and rehabilitation legislation has
been misunderstood to mean that different students have different basic needs. These
individualized needs are often determined by assessments, and written into
individualized plans as outcomes. This interpretation leaves huge margins for
allowing "needs" and "outcomes" to be determined according to variables not related
to the student - administrative imperatives, budget, personnel availability, and teacher
qualifications. By this interpretation, it can be decided that some students just don't
"need" as much access to the world as others, or that meeting this need is too much
trouble for some. It is unfortunate that sufficient instruction, technology, and support
required to meet these basic needs has become confused with the basic needs
themselves. The individualized planning process has become a method of determining
what supports to provide based on individual student need, rather than ensuring the
provision of supports to meet basic needs which should be considered sovereign to all
contributing members of society. Yet, focus on the true need, access, is often lost.

The best approach is to begin with the assertion that all students have the need to
participate equally in society at all levels, according to informed choice. These needs
are broken down according to access to the physical, symbolic, social, psychological,
and physiological environments. Full access to these environments optimizes self-
directed participation in society, and quality of life. The goals and objectives of
teaching approaches should not be about what a student needs, because the needs are
already self-evident. The goals and objectives should be about strategies for meeting
these needs. It could be assumed that these needs can be met for all students who are
conscious, motivated, and capable of learning, regardless of their extent of their
impairment, given the appropriate strategies. It can be further assumed that most
students are capable of learning when the learning style is understood, and that the
motivation of most students can be encouraged or triggered by a respectful
recognition of the student's potential, and commitment to their need for full access.
When we maintain sight of the basic need, our strategies remain true to those needs,
and are not obscured by factors irrelevant to the student.

2. Self-Directed Discovery

Effective teaching is about helping a student develop a dynamic means of establishing

a relationship with the world for themselves based on their direct awareness of the
environment through their own senses. In this way, they form their own
comprehension of what is correct, what is effective, what is adaptive, what gives them
the best access to what they want and need.
 This experience based teaching process necessitates facing students with situations
that are uncomfortable. Challenging situations typically are uncomfortable. This is
because the nervous system undergoes a period of disequilibrium when facing a novel
situation until the new information is assimilated, and the individual becomes familiar
with the factors of the challenge - bringing it back into equilibrium. This brings us to
a third principle.

3. Good Rapport

There is a necessity for rapport based on trust, respect, and amiability. This is
imperative, because this provides the student with the security to help them face
challenges with improved adaptation. There is a difference between tension and
stress. The healthy tension of facing challenge can help us access the psychological
and physiological resources to assimilate new information in order to meet challenges.
Stress or distress can impede access to these same resources. In other words, a
distressed organism tends not to be able to adapt to a novel situation and regain
equilibrium. When there is good rapport, the student can tune into the relative stability
of the teacher, and learn to access these resources by a kind of empathic modeling.
The teacher can also scaffold the discovery process and provide reassurance where
appropriate. By providing a kind of security through camaraderie, the teacher frees the
student to engage the equilibration process to face the challenge more constructively.
While it is certainly necessary at times for the teacher to take the lead in the
instructional process, possibly facing students with challenges against
strong disinclination, this is always done with a solid respect for the increasing quality
of the student's access to the world.

4. Teachers Are Learners First

The best teachers are the most willing learners. One way to help maintain respect for
the student's learning process is to see ourselves always as learners first, and to open
ourselves to learning from our students as much as we teach. We remain always
engaged in the discovery process with our students, rather than conducting the process
for them. We believe that if we are not learning as much as we think we're teaching,
then we may not be teaching as much as we think.

Differentiated Instruction Approach

Human being function differently and have different experiences of the world they
live in. in the same way, not all learners are alike. In this sense it would be correct to
say that these learners have their individualized or different ways to take in
information, make sense out of that information and utilize their information in their
real lives situations. This calls for instructional approaches that offer multiple
opportunities for acquisition of knowledge, skills and values for these learners.
Differentiated instruction as a teaching theory ensures the multiple opportunities in
the instruction. According to Tomlinson, (2000), the theory is based on the premise
that instructional approaches are varied and are adapted in relation to individual and
to the diverse students in classrooms. In essence, following this theory, teachers are
supposed to be flexible in their teaching approaches, adjust the curriculum and
presentations of contents or information to their learners. This helps the learner to
learn well than when the learner is expected to adapt to the already fixed curriculum
and instructions.

This theory intersects well with the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) for it
considers the onset designing of the information and presentation and hence ensures
flexibility and decreases the barriers that in many occasions limit access to materials
and learning in classroom (Rose and Meyer, 2000). The UDL calls for the design of
the curricular with the need of all students in mind so that methods, materials and
assessment are usable by all. The proponents of the differentiated learning claims that
UDL is a framework that tells teachers what to teach while differentiated instruction
theory tells the teacher how to teach. Indeed differentiated instruction combines with
the principles and practices of UDL to provide teachers with both theory and practice
to appropriately challenge the barriers faced by the broad scope of students in the
conventional classrooms.

Differentiated instruction recognizes students varying background knowledge,

readiness, language, presences in learning and interests. The endeavor is to react
positively to maximize each student’s growth and individual success in the learning
process. The theory of differentiation emerged from Vygostky (1980) as he discussed
about the social context and the interaction of the student with that social context. He
argued that the social context plays a vital role in the acquisition of knowledge. Those
students in their “zone of proximal development” can, with assistance, resolve a
problem that they could not have resolved alone and move on to another level of
knowledge. Following this, differentiated theory for teaching argues that when
teachers provide dynamic, flexible and clear instructions while scaffolding students
and monitoring them through collaborative work they learn better. This stems from
the fact that as the students work together in a social context they exchange
information and use different strategies of learning.

Additionally, just as it is in with the UDL multisensory and multi-methodology

instruction is emphasized in this theory to ensure that information is accessible to all
learners.

Teachers can differentiate one or a number of the following elements in any

classroom learning situation:
(i)The content or what the students are going to learn

(ii) The processes or activities and the procedures that the teacher is going to engage
students in should be flexible and variable,

(iii)The products or the practice and accomplishment that follow the learning period
and the ongoing assessment to the students’ progress by assessing them before
delivering the content, while delivering the content and after the completion of the
learning process.

The Role of the Teacher in a Differentiated Classroom Presentation

 When teachers differentiate instruction, they move away from seeing themselves
as keepers and dispensers of knowledge and move toward seeing themselves as
organizers of learning opportunities. Focus less on knowing all the answers, and
focus more on leading their students. Teachers who differentiate instruction focus
on their role as a coach or mentor, give students as much responsibility for
learning as they can handle, and teach them to handle a little bit more.
 Teachers grow in their ability to (1) assess student readiness through a variety of
means (2) “read” and interpret student clues about interests and learning
preferences (3) create a variety of ways student can gather information and ideas
(4) develop varied ways students can explore and “own” ideas (5) present varied
channels through which students can express and expand understanding.
 Best Practice Accounts for Varied Learners Recall daily that no practice is truly
best practice unless it works for the individual learner. Most of us who teach know
that a lesson that “hooks” students has many merits. Differentiation affirms that
principle but reminds us that what “hook” one student might as well puzzle, bore,
or irritate others.
 Learning to Lead a Differentiated Classroom This is a learned skill, since all of us
are still learners
 Rules of Thumb for Differentiating Instruction (1) Be clear on the key concepts
and generalizations or principles that give meaning and structure to the topic,
chapter, unit, or less you are planning. (2) Think of assessment as a road map for
your thinking and planning (3) Lessons for all students should emphasize critical
and creative thinking (4) Lessons for all students should be engaging (even
though you may not always achieve this goal, but something you strive for (5) In
a differentiated classroom, there should be a balance between student-selected
and teacher- assigned tasks and working arrangements.

Principles of UDL

.Universal Design for learning is a pedagogical theory which has the following
principals

Principle 1:Multiple Means of presentation

Provide options for perception, language and symbols, and
comprehension.
 Principle 2:Multiple Means of Expression
Provide options for physical action, expressive skills and fluency,
and executive functions.
Principle 3:Multiple Means of Engagement
Provide options for recruiting interest, effort and persistence, and
self-regulation.

Read the write up by Rose and Meyer (Search this in google and read more
about UDL)

BEST PRACTICES IN THE INSTRUCTION OF SNE

The following teaching and learning innovations have been found to lead to improved
performance.
 Teaching for Understanding. This effort encompasses activities oriented toward
higher-order thinking skills. These skills are evidenced by problem solving and
creating instead of simply reproducing knowledge, greater use of interdisciplinary
curriculums and cooperative learning, and assessment on samples of work that
illustrate understanding and application rather than memorization and reproduction.
 Use of Technology. Technology use is reflected by the ability to use the tools of the
future workplace—in particular, a greater emphasis on the use of technology as a tool
for learning and producing. It includes such computer tasks as math calculations,
writing, and searching the Internet for background information.
 Educating All Students. Reforms in this direction include individualized
instruction, nongraded classrooms, and mainstreaming of students with special needs.
 Integrated Services. Efforts in this area encompass internal integration through
team teaching, that is, teams of teachers taking responsibility for a larger portion of
the learning of a defined group of students. External integration is evidenced by the
development of links to the community for educational purposes along with links to
other relevant community services, such as agencies providing social and medical
services.

TEACHING STRATEGIES IN AN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM

As any good teacher knows, all students do not learn in the same way. In addition, it
is common for a class of students to be at a variety of levels in any particular subject.
Teachers need to use different teaching methods in order to reach all students
effectively. A variety of teaching strategies, knowledge of student levels, and
implementation of strategies best for particular students can help teachers to know
which teaching methods will be most effective for their class. It is also imperative for
the teacher to find out the learning styles of his/her learners.

Learning Style

Learning styles refer to the different ways that different people are best able to learn
new information. The idea of different learning styles has come from extensive
psychological research, determining how people receive new information, code that
information mentally for
storage, and then recall that stored information at a later time. While traditional forms
of education have only focused on one or two different learning styles, newer
approaches to education have introduced a greater focus on utilizing multiple learning
styles to ensure that different students can learn as effectively as possible.
Though different schools of thought may consider different learning styles, there are
five general styles, with two other social styles, that people commonly fall into. The
five major styles are visual, aural, verbal, physical, and logical. Along with these five
styles, there are also social and solitary learning styles as well. These are not
necessarily mutually exclusive styles, and people commonly learn in multiple ways
within these different styles.
Visual, or spatial, learning refers to people who learn most effectively through what
they can see. People who are visual learners often prefer to be toward the front of a
classroom so their view is unobstructed, and seeing the facial expressions and body
language of a teacher can also be important to their learning. Visual learners also
typically benefit a great deal from visual aids such as graphs, charts, pictures, and
diagrams.
Aural, or auditory-musical, learners are best able to learn through hearing material.
These types of learners benefit from oral lectures and often read aloud to themselves
when covering material in a textbook.
Verbal, or linguistic, learners typically learn best through language, both through
listening and reading. These types of learners benefit a great deal from language and
often excel in classes where language is stressed, such as English and reading.
Physical, or kinesthetic, learners often learn best through doing things physically.
These types of learners may do well in science classes with a great deal of lab work,
or in sports and other physical activities. Physical learners also tend to learn well
while moving, and little movements such as tapping a pencil, tapping their toes, or
shifting in their seat can sometimes enhance their learning.
Logical, or mathematical, learners tend to learn through logical understanding of how
things work and relate. These types of learners often make lists and tend to excel at
math and science; in other subjects they may often ask how things are connected or
relate to each other.
Social learners learn well in groups, either in full class or small group discussions.
Solitary learners tend to learn best through self-study or by working alone.
The use of multiple teaching techniques and approaches that take advantage of the
various learning styles can be important for a teacher to effectively reach all the
students in a classroom and help them learn the material.

Some specific Teaching Methods which can be used

for Learners with Special Needs
Once you have assessed your students, you need to plan for different teaching
methods. The following is a brief description of some of these methods.

Direct instruction

Direct instruction is the most common form of instruction. This is the lecturing
method of teaching. Many teachers use this teaching method almost exclusively, as it
is considered the simplest, and you can cover large amounts of material in a short
period of time. However, this is not the most effective teaching method to reach all
students, especially younger ones, who often need a more engaging, hands-on strategy
in order to learn effectively. In addition, it is hard for teachers to tailor instruction to
students at different levels.

Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method which is rapidly gaining popularity in

the world. This teaching method can be used for virtually all subjects. Using inquiry-
based learning takes a lot of time, energy, and planning, but it is often very effective.
Students practice problem solving and critical thinking skills to arrive at a conclusion.
This teaching method is extremely student-centered and student-directed, and can be
modified for students at any level, reaching them where they are. Teachers will
generally need to start by modeling the process to the students.

Problem solving & Critical thinking

Problem solving is a complex cognitive process where people identify problems and
develop methods for resolving them. While humans are known for being problem
solvers, many animals are capable of this process as well, at least on some level.
Learning about the level of ability a person has can provide more information about
cognition and higher-order thinking processes. People use problem solving skills on a
daily basis and in a variety of settings.

Cognition

Simply stated, cognition is the ability to think. It goes beyond the recollection of facts
to consider how a person learns and then uses his or her knowledge. Cognition
enables the individual to make sense of what he or she sees, hears and feels so that he
or she can react appropriately, plan ahead and learn from his or her mistakes. For
example, if a man touches an electric fence, he will instinctively avoid that area unless
he needs to pass through it for an important reason, such as to save someone. In that
case, his cognitive abilities will enable him to make a plan to attempt to safely bypass
the fence and reach the person.
Cognition can be broken down into three critical elements: the ability to identify
salient features in a situation, the organization of past experience or new information
into a plan or idea and the ability to make decisions, evaluations or judgments. Each
of these features builds upon the previous. This means that judgments and decisions
are often based on either past experience or a careful analysis of the situation — or
both — and a person's perceptions of the past experience are based on his or her
memory of important elements.
The first step in cognition is awareness and the ability to focus on the key features in a
situation. For example, at a busy street corner, a woman might need to decide which
elements are the most important to focus on: the traffic light, the movement of cars,
her ringing cell phone or the pain in her left foot. All of these might be very
important, but prioritizing them is an essential cognitive task if she is to cross the
street safely. Awareness is a very early developmental task because further cognitive
development depends on it. When a person is aware, the ability to focus becomes
essential in order for that person to gather and process information.
After a person chooses the elements on which to focus, he or she uses that information
to form a plan or outline an idea. The person might assemble new information into a
solution for a problem, such as using new data to propose a new medicine, or he or
she might use the ability to focus to analyze a situation and see where a problem
exists. In either case, formulating the plan is dependent on the person's ability to
accurately select the salient features in the situation and to decide which data points to
combine to create a solution or which elements in a situation might be problematic.
Making a decision or critically analyzing a situation or idea often provides the final
cognitive step. Although a decision might be the final outcome, the thought process
for many people is fluid. As a result, the critical analysis part of cognition often
includes reevaluation of salient features and adjustments to the proposed plan of
action. Ultimately, cognition is a dynamic process in which individuals continually
assess and evaluate new information, decide whether action is necessary, evaluate that
action and then reassess as needed.
A “problem” can be anything from a set of equations on someone's math homework
to a challenge in the workplace. The first step in problem solving involves identifying,
describing, and exploring the problem to learn more about it. Young children may
require more time to do this, as their brains have not yet learned to recognize common
patterns they might encounter in life. As the problem is analyzed, people can start to
explore solution methods that may be effective, eventually developing a plan of action
for attacking the problem. If the plan is not successful, a new plan needs to be
developed.
This particular cognitive ability can require diverse skill sets, depending on the type
of problem. Analytical reasoning skills are important, as are things like pattern
recognition and matching and memory recall. Some approaches to education involve
presenting people with problems and encouraging them to solve them, with the goal
of teaching students while developing cognitive abilities.
Some cognitive, intellectual, and developmental disabilities can interfere with
problem solving. People may have problems with executive function, finding it hard
to organize their thoughts for the purpose of managing a problem. Others may not be
able to acquire new skills, or could have trouble retaining and developing skills to
handle more complex problems. These individuals will be able to resolve issues up to
a certain point, but may not experience an increase in their abilities as they grow
older.

Critical thinking
Critical thinking is the ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar ideas,
opinions, and situations. Thinking critically involves seeing things in an open-minded
way and examining an idea or concept from as many angles as possible. This
important skill allows people to look past their own views of the world and to better
understand the opinions of others. It is often used in debates, to form more cogent and
well-rounded arguments, and in science.

Open-Minded Approach
The ability to think critically is essential, as it creates new possibilities in problem
solving. Being "open-minded" is a large part of critical thinking, allowing a person to not
only seeks out all possible answers to a problem, but to also accept an answer that is
different from what was originally expected. Open-minded thinking requires that a person
does not assume that his or her way of approaching a situation is always best, or even
right. A scientist, for example, must be open to the idea that the results of an experiment
will not be what is expected; such results, though challenging, often lead to tremendous
and meaningful discoveries.

Rational Considerations
Another aspect of critical thinking is the ability to approach a problem or situation
rationally. Rationality requires analyzing all known information, and making judgments
or analyses based on fact or evidence, rather than opinion or emotion. An honest approach
to reasoning requires a thinker to acknowledge personal goals, motives, and emotions that
might color his or her opinions or thought processes. Rational thought involves
identifying and eliminating prejudices, so that someone can have a fresh and objective
approach to a problem.

Empathy
Critical thinking often relies on the ability to view the world in a way that does not focus
on the self. Empathizing with a person usually involves a thinker trying to put himself or
herself in the place of someone else. This is often done by students of history, for
example, in an attempt to see the world as someone would have while living in an ancient
civilization or during a violent conflict. Communication skills, teamwork, and
cooperation are typically improved through empathy, which makes it valuable in many
professional fields.
How to Apply It
Effective critical thinking often begins with a thinker analyzing what he or she knows
about a subject, with extra effort made to recognize what he or she does not know about
it. This forms an initial knowledge base for consideration. The thinker can then look at
what research has been done on the subject, and identify what he or she can learn simply
by looking over such work. This approach is often used in science, as it allows a scientist
to determine what people do not yet know or understand, and then look for ways to
discover this information through experimentation.
When someone applies this approach to his or her own life, he or she often places more
emphasis on finding prejudices and preconceived notions he or she holds. This lets the
thinker strive to eliminate or avoid these opinions, to come to a more honest or objective
view of an issue. Someone struggling with a fear of heights, for example, might strive to
determine the cause of this fear in a rational way. By doing so, he or she might be better
able to deal with the root cause directly and avoid emotional responses that could prevent
self-improvement.

Cooperative learning
Cooperative learning (CL) is a type of education strategy that is gaining in popularity
and can be successfully used in a variety of learning environments. Instead of each
student learning without aid from other students, much of the classwork in a
cooperative learning situation is done in small group settings. This doesn’t usually
mean that students very occasionally work on a group project together. Instead it
means that students regularly work on assignments together and may have a specific
group to which they belong for a given school year.
Proponents of cooperative learning say they are many benefits to this type of learning
environment. Students don’t only learn the material, but they may learn better because
they have more time to contribute and discuss the material. Shy students may feel
more at ease in sharing thoughts and ideas in small groups than they would with a
whole class. Successful groupings of students can foster more social and cooperative
behavior, which is a very useful skill in many real life situations.
There are a few ways that teachers may help build cooperative learning environments
that are successful. Since individual accountability is still important, teachers may
choose to give both team and individual tests. Grading that can be partly based on
group work and partly based on individual performance can help allay the fears of
students who would typically perform better outside of a group. This includes some
gifted students, who may not always benefit in cooperative learning situations, and
may feel that lower levels of academic performance on the part of the group will
negatively impact grade.
Teachers also need to be aware of the potential pitfalls of students who may not be
able to perform at the level of most other students due to learning disabilities or to
behavioral problems. In a cooperative learning situation, it should not be the group’s
responsibility to police other members of the group on a regular basis. A person who
cannot make a significant contribution to the group may need a different learning
environment. One person’s failure to stay on pace with the group can sink a whole
team if most grades are based on team performance. This doesn’t mean that a child
with learning disabilities can’t work well in cooperative learning classes, but teachers
need to consider how to best place these students so that they will contribute rather
than detract from other learners.
There can be great benefit to CL instruction. There is much to be said for the idea that
students may make excellent teachers to each other. Clearly defining the tasks of a
group help to reinforce this. If students can’t leave an activity until all group members
comprehend it, this may be an incredibly effective method for reinforcing class
material. Students do have to care how they and their group members perform, and
this may be achieved by receiving group grades on certain projects.
Some teachers utilize cooperative learning at all times and others use it on an
occasional basis. In high schools and middle schools, there are even some courses
where students have the option to take a CL class or one that is more traditional in
model. Giving this option may prove helpful because students will be less likely to be
involved in the CL setting unless they really enjoy it. Meanwhile students that benefit
from more traditional methods of teaching will be able to pursue their education in a
way that best fits them.

Information Processing Strategies

One more common teaching method is to teach information processing strategies.
While it is often advisable to have students really understand the teaching methods
and not just memorize facts, there are some cases when facts need to be memorized.
Facts and concepts may also need to be grouped or organized in order to facilitate
better understanding. Teachers can use various teaching methods to help students with
memorization, or they can use graphic organizers, mind maps, story webs, or other
ways to represent information visually.

Note that there are many, many more teaching methods, but these are the most
common. If the teacher finds the best teaching method for a particular group of
students, the students are likely to learn more quickly and be more engaged. In
addition, using a variety of teaching methods will keep children from being bored,
and help them encounter the information in new and exciting ways.

Differentiated Instruction: Guiding Questions and Checklist

To check that assessment and instruction are varied to:

•• suit diverse learning styles and preferences;
•• engage students with diverse interests;
•• support students who are at different stages in their readiness to learn and provide
scaffolding, emotional support, and opportunity for practice.

Guiding questions
•• How can I set up the classroom to support differentiated instruction?
•• What elements of the learning environment can I differentiate to help allof my
students learn?
•• How can I differentiate the ways in which I help students learn new concepts?
•• What sorts of questions can I pose in order to stimulate thinking among all of my
students?
•• How can I differentiate the strategies and tools I use to assess students’ progress
towards their learning goals in a way that enables each student to demonstrate his or
her learning?

A checklist to guide classroom practice

Differentiate Content
❏Vary content (e.g., provide content at different levels of difficulty; enable students
to extend knowledge and skills) to suit student readiness, interests, motivational
needs, and learning styles.
❏Unpack the big ideas of the curriculum to create achievable learning goals.
❏Introduce new learning and pose open questions as appropriate to the student’s zone
of proximal development (ZPD).

Differentiate Process
❏❏Use various assessment strategies to match students’ strengths, learning style
preferences, interests, and readiness.
❏❏Use various types of learning activities and various grouping strategies to draw
on students’ strengths and provide support in areas that need improvement.
❏❏Use a variety of instructional and management strategies that engage all
modalities.
❏❏Provide students with opportunities to choose from an array of activities and
projects that involve differentiated processes.
❏❏Monitor students’ response to the differentiated strategies used, and assess their
progress on a regular basis.
❏❏Provide the accommodations and/or modifications that are specified in the IEPs
of students who have special education needs.

Differentiate Product
❏❏Gather achievement data through various assessment tools.
❏❏Engage students’ interest by involving them in various different types of projects
and problem-solving activities.
❏❏Foster students’ awareness of their strengths in learning, and their sense of
ownership of their learning, by allowing them to choose the products they will create
and the formats or modes of presentation they will use.

NOTE
The teacher teaching in an inclusive set up should consider strategies, such as the
following:
•• taking into account the background and experiences of all students to meet their
diverse interests, aptitudes, and learning needs;
•• varying the form of assessment and instructional materials (e.g., printed text, visual
or auditory representations);
•• using various types of media;
•• providing opportunities for different kinds of activities and different means of
demonstrating learning;
•• providing a safe and supportive environment that enhances students’ ability to
learn.
The Teacher should use many instructional approaches in their classrooms, including
the cooperative learning,project-based approaches, problem-based approaches, and
explicit instruction.

ADAPTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS FOR SNE

i. Improve on audio presentation/ lecture by:

 Creating an overall a mental picture (schemata) by first telling the learners what
you are about to tell them, then telling them and then telling them what you have
already told them.

 explaining the content vividly with help of clear and real life examples

 use of variety of learning aids

 Making the lesson interesting to the learners by involving them and considering
their interests in learning.

Give breaks where necessary

(ii) Questionng technique

Steps in questioning technique.

Pose a question to the learners precisely

Pause for a while to allow the learners reorganize their answers

Point at a learner to answer the question

Reinforce respond by reacting to the answer given positively

(iii) Discussion method

 Consider mixed ability groups (each group to select a leade/preseter)

 Communicate the task clearly
 Visit every group assisting where necessary (don’t be too quick to give the
answer instead re-direct through scaffolding and asking rhetoric questions).
 Allow every group to present their work
 Comment on the common mistakes made and re-direct accordingly,

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNER WITH SNE

Steps the teacher should consider for effective assessment in the instructions for
learners with special needs

Steps the teacher of special needs should consider.

i. Ensure the examination room is appropriate depending on the types and levels
of disabilities. The room should have appropriate light, ventilation and seats
and tables appropriately arranged.
ii. Provide the necessary devices, personnel and any other necessary resources to
the learners
iii. Present the test in appropriate mode depending on each learner’s demands or
disabilities and give clear instructions.
iv. Allow appropriate time for the students and even brakes when necessary.
v. Ensure that the students respond to the questions in flexible way. This could
be written or orally.
vi. Marks should he exam based on the mode in which the exam was presented.
Oral presentation should be marked instantly.

References

National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum (NCAC) (2001) Differentiated

Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation Effective Classroom Practices
Report By Tracey Hall, Nicole Strangman, and Anne Meyer

Rose, D., & Dolan, R. P., (2000). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor’s
Column. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(4), 47-51.

Tomlinson, C. A., (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability

classrooms.(2nd Ed.) Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Groenewegen, T .G. (2005). Visually Handicapped Learners Learning from Sighted

Teachers: A conceptual Framework for Research into Special Instructional
Technology. African Journal of Education Studies.Nairobi: Kenyatta
University.
Mugo B. C (2013). Assistive Technology And Access To Quality-instruction For
Blind And Visually Impaired Students