Leading University
Computer Science & Engineering
Final Lab Report
Course Title: Electronic Devices and Circuits Sessional
Course Code: EEE-2122
Submitted To:
Name: Kulsuma Khanum
Designation: Lecturer
Faculty: Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Submitted By:
Name:Jogonnath Das Talukder
Department:Computer Science & Engineering
Batch:62
Id:0182320012101060
Section:B
Submission Date: 20/12/2024
Experiment No: 01
Name of the Experiment: Determination of Characteristics Curve of a Diode.
Objective: The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode give the variation of diode current
with the voltage. This characteristic curve is essential to understand the behavior of a diode when
it is connected to a circuit.
Abstract:
The objective of experiment 1 of the Electronic Devices Lab is to become familiar with
semiconductor diodes. The volt – ampere (I-V) characteristics of a diode give the variation of
diode current with the voltage. This characteristic curve is essential to understand the behavior of
a diode when it is connected to a circuit.
Introduction:
The main objective of the experiment are as it follows:
1. To determine the forward voltage-current (V-I) relationship of a diode.
2. To determine the reverse voltage-current (V-I) relationship of a diode.
3. To identify the threshold voltage and reverse breakdown voltage of the diode.
Apparatus:
1. Bread-board
2. Multimeter
3. Connecting Wire
4. Resistance- 10k (9.69k)
5. Diode
6. DC power supply
Circuit Diagram:
Fig:1-Diode Characteristic
Fig: 2-Diode Characteristics
Experimental Procedure:
1. Measure the actual value of the 10k resistor
2. Connect the components except the power supply in shown fig.1.
3. Turn on the DC power supply and measure the voltage across its two terminals and fix it
at 0V. Now turn off the power supply
4. Connect the power supply in the circuit and turn it on.
5. Vary the supply voltage in a 0.5 V step and measure the voltage across the Diode VD and
the voltage across the resistor and record the result in the table.
6. Calculated Id and filled up the table above.
7. Vd vs Id characteristic curve was plotted for the diode.
8. The “knee voltage” was determined.
Manual Experimental Graph:
Forward Bias:
Fig:3-Output For Manual Data
Reverse Bias:
Fig:4-Output for Manual Data
Discussion:
Understanding the Diode Characteristics Curve
The volt-ampere (I-V) characteristics of a diode are crucial for understanding its behavior
in various circuits. The I-V curve illustrates how the current through the diode varies with
the applied voltage. This relationship is essential for designing and analyzing circuits that
incorporate diodes.
Forward Bias Region
In the forward bias region, the diode allows current to flow once the applied voltage
exceeds a certain threshold, known as the forward voltage (Vf). Initially, the current
increases slowly with the voltage. However, once the threshold is crossed, the current
increases exponentially with a small increase in voltage. This behavior is due to the
reduction in the potential barrier at the p-n junction, allowing charge carriers to move
across the junction more easily.
Reverse Bias Region
In the reverse bias region, the diode blocks current flow up to a certain point. The current
remains very small (leakage current) until the reverse voltage reaches a critical value
known as the breakdown voltage (Vbr). Beyond this point, the diode conducts a large
current, which can potentially damage the diode if not properly controlled. This
phenomenon is utilized in Zener diodes for voltage regulation.
Key Parameters
Threshold Voltage (Vth): The minimum forward voltage at which the diode starts to
conduct significantly.
Forward Current (If): The current through the diode when it is forward biased.
Reverse Breakdown Voltage (Vbr): The voltage at which the diode starts to conduct in
reverse bias.
Leakage Current (Ir): The small current that flows in reverse bias before breakdown.
Practical Implications
Understanding the I-V characteristics of a diode helps in selecting the right diode for
specific applications. For instance, in rectifier circuits, the forward voltage drop and
maximum current rating are critical parameters. In voltage regulation, the breakdown
voltage of Zener diodes is a key factor.
Experimental Observations
From the experiment, the following observations can be made:
● The forward voltage drop (Vf) for the diode used is approximately 0.6V to 0.7V.
● The current increases exponentially after the threshold voltage is reached.
● The reverse current remains negligible until the breakdown voltage is approached.
These observations align with the theoretical expectations of diode behavior, confirming
the accuracy of the experimental setup and measurements.
Experiment No: 02
Name of the Experiment: Study of Half Wave Rectifier
Abstract:
A diode rectifies an AC voltage, so that it can be smoothed and converted into DC voltage.
However, a rectifier can produce a constant or variable DC voltage. A diode rectifier can produce a
constant or variable DC voltage whereas a Silicon controlled rectifier can produce a variable DC
voltage.
Introduction:
Objective:
The main objective of the experiment are as it follows:
⮚ To construct a half-wave rectifier circuit and analyze its output.
⮚ To learn how to construct a circuit using relevant components.
Theory:
Diode
A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for current. It allows
current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current from flowing in the opposite
direction.Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current (AC) into
pulsating direct current (DC). Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and current
capacity.
Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum
tube diodes, mercury are valves and other components.
Half-Wave rectifier
In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed while the
other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output and it is very
inefficient if used for power transfer.
Working principle of half wave rectifier
The half-wave rectifier takes an alternating current (AC) input signal as its source. This input signal
alternates between positive and negative half cycles. The heart of the half-wave rectifier is a
semiconductor diode. A diode allows the flow of current in one direction only, blocking it in the
opposite direction. When the diode is forward-biased (meaning the positive terminal of the AC
source is connected to the anode of the diode and the negative terminal is connected to the
cathode), current can flow through the diode. During the positive half-cycle of the AC input signal,
the diode is forward-biased, allowing current to flow through it and appear across the load (usually
a resistor). This results in a positive half-cycle of the input signal being present across the load.
During the negative half-cycle of the AC input signal, the diode becomes reverse-biased, blocking
the flow of current. As a result, no current flows through the load during the negative half-cycle,
effectively eliminating it from the output. The output across the load consists of only the positive
half-cycles of the input AC signal. However, it's important to note that the output is not pure DC; it
is a pulsating DC waveform with the peaks corresponding to the peaks of the input AC signal.
Apparatus:
1. Breadboard
2. AC power supply/ Signal generator
3. Connecting wires
4. Diode(1N4007)
5. ResistorOscilloscope
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.01: Circuit Diagram of Manual Experiment
Experimental Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the fig.01.
2. By using a function generator, set the supply to 9V p-p sinusoidal wave with the frequency
of 400 Hz.
3. Place the oscilloscope probes at the function generator to input the waveform of alternating
current.
4. Put the oscilloscope probes one in the back of the diode and in the front of the diode to see
both input and output waves at the same time and compare between them.
5. The input wave will complete a full cycle as it is AC and the output wave will be the
positive half cycle because the diode converts the AC current into DC .
Result of Experiment:
Input Figure:
Forward Bios Output Figure:
Reverse Bios Output Figure:
Discussion:
Principle of Operation:
A half wave rectifier uses a single diode to convert AC to DC. It conducts current during the
positive half-cycle of the AC input, allowing only the positive half of the waveform to pass
through, while blocking the negative half.
Waveform Analysis:
The output is a pulsating DC with only positive half-cycles, resulting in significant AC ripple.
Efficiency:
The efficiency is low, around 40.6%, as it only utilizes half of the input waveform.
Ripple Factor:
The ripple factor is approximately 1.21, indicating high AC content in the output.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
The diode must withstand a PIV equal to the peak AC voltage to prevent breakdown.
Applications:
Used in low-power applications where efficiency is not critical, such as signal demodulation.
Limitations:
Low efficiency and high ripple make it unsuitable for high-power applications.
Improvements:
Full wave or bridge rectifiers can be used for higher efficiency and lower ripple by utilizing both
halves of the input waveform.
Experimental Observations:
The output voltage was about half of the input AC voltage, confirming theoretical predictions. The
oscilloscope showed a pulsating DC output.
Conclusion:
By using a function generator, set the supply to 9V p-p sinusoidal wave with the frequency of 400
Hz.
The experiment demonstrated basic AC to DC conversion using a diode. While not the most
efficient, it provides a foundational understanding of rectification.
Experiment No: 03
Name of the Experiment: Study of Full Wave Rectifier
Abstract:
This experiment investigates the design and performance analysis of a full-wave bridge rectifier
circuit, constructed using four diodes in a bridge arrangement. A function generator serves as the
AC input source, simulating the power supply. The objective is to study the rectifier's behavior,
examine its output waveform, and calculate key performance metrics such as the ripple factor and
average output voltage. By demonstrating the conversion of AC to DC, the experiment highlights
the full-wave rectifier's efficiency in reducing ripple compared to a half-wave rectifier, even in the
absence of a traditional AC power supply.
Introduction:
Rectifiers play a crucial role in electronic circuits by converting alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). A full-wave rectifier leverages both halves of the AC signal, ensuring higher
efficiency and a smoother DC output. This experiment replaces the conventional AC power source
with a function generator to simulate the AC input for a full-wave bridge rectifier. The primary
objective is to analyze the rectifier's performance, focusing on its ability to reduce ripple and its
efficiency in converting AC into DC.
Objective:
The main objective of the experiment are as it follows:
1. Build and test a full-wave bridge rectifier using four diodes.
2. Observe and analyze the rectified output when powered by a simulated AC waveform.
3. Measure the ripple factor and average output voltage.
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of full-wave rectification in reducing ripple compared to other
rectification methods.
Apparatus:
● Four Diodes(1N4007)
● Resistor(load)
● Function generator(to create AC wave form)
● Oscilloscope
● Multimeter
● Breadboard and connecting wire
● Capacitor
Circuit Diagram:
D2 D1
D3
D4
Experimental Procedure:
1. Connect four diodes in a bridge configuration—two diodes for the positive half cycle
and two for the negative half cycle, with the AC input connected to two opposite
corners of the bridge.
2. Place a resistor between the positive and negative output terminals of the bridge
rectifier to serve as the load for current flow.
3. Connect a DC power supply to the input of the bridge rectifier to simulate the AC
signal, ensuring the voltage is constant.
4. Use a multimeter to measure the DC output voltage across the load resistor. The output
will be a pulsating DC voltage due to the rectification process.
5. Then place a capacitor across the load resistor to smooth the rectified output and reduce
ripples in the DC voltage.
Result of Experiment:
Input signal:
Output signal:
Forward Bias:
Reverse Bias:
Pure DC: (After implementing capacitor)
Discussion:
In this experiment, we studied the operation and characteristics of a full-wave rectifier. A
full-wave rectifier converts an AC signal into a pulsating DC signal by utilizing both halves of
the input waveform. This is achieved using a bridge rectifier configuration or a center-tapped
transformer with two diodes.
The output of the full-wave rectifier demonstrates a significant advantage over half-wave
rectification by providing a higher average DC output voltage and reduced ripple factor. The
the ripple frequency in the output is twice the input frequency, which simplifies filtering.
Key observations from the experiment include:
1. The rectified output voltage is smoother than in half-wave rectification.
2. The use of a capacitor as a filter significantly reduces the ripple and improves the DC
output.
3. Efficiency of the full-wave rectifier is approximately double that of a half-wave rectifier.
This study highlights the practical importance of full-wave rectifiers in power supplies and other
electronic circuits where a stable DC voltage is required.
Experiment No: 04
Name of the Experiment: Study of Clipper Circuit
Abstract:
This study investigates the behavior of a clipper circuit, which is used to limit voltage levels in
electronic systems. The experiment explores the circuit's response to varying input voltages,
focusing on its ability to clip the output voltage when it exceeds a set threshold. Different
configurations of clipper circuits, including series and parallel, are tested to evaluate their
performance. The results highlight the impact of input voltage, diode orientation, and resistor
values on the clipping action, providing a practical understanding of the circuit's role in voltage
regulation.
Introduction:
A clipper circuit is designed to limit or "clip" the voltage to a specified range, protecting electronic
components from excessive voltage. It typically uses diodes and resistors to control the output
when the input exceeds a threshold. This experiment investigates the behavior of the clipper circuit
under varying conditions, such as changes in input voltage, diode orientation, and resistor values.
The goal is to understand how these factors influence the circuit's performance in limiting voltage
and its applications in electronic systems for voltage regulation and protection.
Types of Clipper Circuits:
1. Positive Clipper Circuit
2. Negative Clipper Circuit
3. Biased Clipper Circuit
4. Combination Clipper Circuit
Objective:
1. To observe the clipping effect on an input waveform and analyze the behavior of different types
of clipper circuits.
2. To learn how to build Positive, Negative and Biased clipper circuit using appropriate
components.
Apparatus:
1. Breadboard
2. DC power supply/Battery
3. Function generator
4. Connecting wires
5. Diode (1N4007)
6. Resistor
7. Oscilloscope
Circuit Diagram:
Fig-01: Positive Clipper Circuit
Fig-02: Negative Clipper Circuit
Positive Biased clipper circuit Negative Biased clipper circuit
Fig-03: Biased Clipper Circuit
Fig-04: Combination Clipper Circuit
Experimental Procedures:
1. Measure the load resistance as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Do not turn on the function generator or the AC power source before the circuit is constructed.
3. Construct the circuit as shown in the Circuit Diagram.
4. Connect two channels of the oscilloscope, one in the back of the diode and another in the back of
the load resistance to see both input and output waves at the same time and compare between them.
5. The input will be AC alternating current and the output wave will be the voltage that is permitted
by the clipper circuits (positive, negative and biased clipper circuit).
Simulation Circuit, Input and Output Waveform:
Fig 04: Positive Clipped Waveform
Fig 05: Negative Clipped Waveform
Fig 05: Positive Biased Clipped Waveform
Fig 06: Negative Biased Clipped Waveform
Discussion:
Short Discussion on the Study of Clipper Circuit
The experiment demonstrated the functionality of clipper circuits, which modify input
waveforms by removing or "clipping" portions of the signal above or below a certain voltage
level. This was achieved using diodes and bias voltages, enabling precise control over the
clipping threshold.
We observed how positive, negative, and biased clippers selectively altered the waveform,
maintaining the rest of the signal's integrity. These circuits are widely used in electronics for
signal conditioning, waveform shaping, and protecting components from voltage spikes.
Overall, the study highlighted the practical utility of clipper circuits in designing reliable and
efficient electronic systems.
Experiment No: 05
Name of the Experiment: Study of Clamper Circuit
Introduction:
The following experiment investigates the principles and applications of clamper circuits in
electronics. The clamper circuit is a fundamental electronic circuit used for changing the level of
DC in a signal while the AC component remains unchanged. In this experiment, different
configurations of clamper circuits will be built using diodes and resistors, among other
components, and then tested and analyzed. Results show the fundamental principles behind
clamper circuits and also their practical applications. This study will especially look into the
ways in which diodes affect the output waveform, while considering both positive and negative
clamper configurations.
Theory:
A clamper is an electronic circuit that shifts the voltage level of an AC signal by adding a DC
component without altering its shape. It moves the whole signal either up or down about the
reference level.
Type of Clampers
The clamper circuit can be designed in the following types.
1. Positive clamper: In a positive clamper circuit, the input waveform is shifted upward above
the 0v reference line.
2. Negative clamper: The negative clamper shifts the whole input waveform downward.
Working Principle:
The idea behind the clamper circuit is to add the DC component to shift the waveform above the
0v line or subtract the DC component to shift the waveform below the –v line. This DC
component is introduced into the circuit by utilizing a capacitor (which is the main component of
a clamper circuit apart from diode and resistor). The capacitor store the charge in one half-cycle
and discharges in another half cycle where it adds to the input signal and shifts the DC level of
the whole signal.
Objective:
1. To construct clamper circuits using relevant components.
2. To verify the application and action of diode as a clamper; positive clamper and negative
clamper and negative clamper with positive bias and observe the waveforms.
Apparatus:
1. Diode – 1N4007
2. Resistor – 10K
3. DC Voltage Source
4. Signal Generator
5. Capacitor
6. Ground
7. Digital Oscilloscope
8. Connecting Wires
Circuit Diagram:
Fig-01: Positive Clamper Circuit
Fi
g-02: Negative Clamper Circuit
Experimental Procedures:
1. Measure the load resistance as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Do not turn on the function generator or the AC power source before the circuit is constructed.
3. Construct the circuit as shown in the Circuit Diagram.
4. Connect two channels of the oscilloscope, to monitor the input AC wave and to observe the
output voltage after it has passed through the clamper circuit.
5. The input will be AC alternating current and the output shown the signal after being shifted by
the clamping action of the diode and capacitor.
Simulation Circuit, Input and Output Waveform:
Fig 03: Positive Clamper Circuit
Fig 04: Positive Clamper Waveform
Fig 05: Negative Clamper Circuit
Fig 06: Negative Clamper Wavefor
Discussion:
Clamper circuits are electronic circuits used to shift the DC level of a waveform without altering
its shape. These circuits are widely utilized in signal processing, communication systems, and
waveform generation to ensure signals align with specific voltage levels required by subsequent
stages of operation.
In the experiment, various clamper circuits, such as positive and negative clampers, were studied
using diodes, capacitors, and resistors. The results demonstrated that the waveform's DC level
could be effectively shifted depending on the configuration of the clamper. For example, a
positive clamper added a positive DC offset to the waveform, while a negative clamper added a
negative offset.
Key observations include:
● The choice of capacitor value affects the time constant and the effectiveness of clamping
at higher frequencies.
● The diode's orientation determines whether the waveform is shifted upward or
downward.
● Proper selection of resistive and capacitive components ensures minimal distortion and
efficient clamping.
These findings underscore the importance of clamper circuits in practical applications where
precise waveform positioning is required. Understanding these circuits enables better design and
optimization in electronic systems.
