電路學 Circuit Theory

Lecture 0
An Overview of This Course

Dr. Yen-Sheng Chen

Electronic Engineering, Taipei Tech
 Information on Circuit Theory

Fall 2022 (Prof. Yen-Sheng Chen)

CIRCUIT THEORY (I)
Office: CB-407-1 ext. 2281
E-mail: yschen@ntut.edu.tw
Office hours: Wed. 13:00-17:00

Main topics:
1. Basic concepts of circuit analysis
2. Advanced techniques for circuit analysis
3. Responses of RL, RC, and RLC Circuits
4. Sinusoidal steady-state analysis

2
 Roadmap of Circuit Theory

Simple
resistive
circuits
(DC source) Circuits
Circuits with
with
L or/and C
periodic
(DC source) Treat a sources
AC circuits large
(Sinusoidal circuit as
source) two-port
Three- networks
phase AC
circuits Use Laplace
transform to
solve ANY
circuit
3
 Texts (111-1)
1. Lecture notes available for download from Taipei Tech i-school Plus
(北科ｉ學園PLUS)
2. James Nilsson and Susan Riedel, Electric Circuits: 11th Edition, Pearson
3. [Online] James M. Fiore, DC Electrical Circuit Analysis: A Practical
Approach, dissidents, 2020. Available:
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/dc-electrical-circuit-
analysis-a-practical-approach-fiore
4. [Online] Chad Davis, AC Circuits, Open Textbook Network Library, 2017.
Available: https://shareok.org/handle/11244/51946

4
 OpenCourseWare of This Course

Full courses can be found here:

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwzTNk6fQHAKjFJnyw6F6Xw
5
 Grading (111-1)

Midterm exam 50% Nov. 5, 2022 (Sat.)

Final exam 50% Jan. 7, 2023 (Sat.)
Bonus: Flipped classroom

1. Cheating results in 0 grade and academic dishonesty charges

2. All grades final unless error in marking proven
3. The two exams will be held in a normal way. There are no on-line exams
unless the pandemic escalates
4. Final scores will be given on Jan. 12 (Thu.), 2023

6
 How Do This Course Curve the Grade?

Original Score Rank Adjustment

95–99 A+ 99
90–95 A 95
80–90 A– 90
70–80 B 80
60–70 C 70
50–60 D 60
Under 50 F 55
No Show X 0

For senior students, 30–60 will be curved as 60

7
Week Topic Detailed Lecture
1 Opening
2 Circuit variables
(L1) Basic Concepts of Circuit Analysis
3 2B method
4 Nodal analysis
5 Mesh analysis
(L2) Advanced Techniques for Circuit
6 Superposition theorems and source transform
Analysis
7 Thevenin’s theorem
8 Maximum power transfer
9 Midterm exam
10 Natural responses of RC and RL circuits
11 Step responses of RC and RL circuits
(L3) Responses of RL, RC, and RLC Circuits
12 Natural responses of RLC circuits
13 Step responses of RLC circuits
14 AC history: The Current War
15 (L4) Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis Phasor transform
16 Circuit analysis by the phasor approach
17 Final exam

8
 Lecture 1

Basic Concepts of Circuit Analysis

1. The circuit variable: voltage, current, and power

2. The circuit element: active elements (especially dependent sources) and
passive elements
3. How to solve a circuit? KCL, KVL, and component models
4. How to apply these techniques to solve simple resistive circuits?
9
 Lecture 2

Advanced Techniques for Circuit Analysis

– vx +

1Ω
+
2Ω 1A 1Ω vo
–

1Ω 1Ω
2Ω More complicated circuits…
2 vx 4A How to solve it?
We need more systematic methods!

1. Node voltage analysis and mesh current analysis

2. How to summarize a large circuit by connecting smaller ones?

10
 Lecture 3

Responses of RL, RC, and RLC Circuits

Capacitor
3 kΩ 4 kΩ
t=0

24 V + 30 V
+ +
5 kΩ
− v (t) 0.5 mF −
–
First-order
Inductor 4Ω i(t) 1H

12 V 2Ω
+
0.5 F
−
t=0

Second-order
1. Now capacitors or inductors exist in your circuit
2. How to solve them? By solving differential equations
3. What’s the difference between 1st and 2 nd order DE?
11
 Lecture 4

Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

(§4.1-§4.4)

Lecture 1-3 Lecture 4

• We consider DC sources • Now we deal with AC sources
• Transient solution + steady- • Steady-state solution
state solution • Such as:
• Such as: vS = 2cos(60t + 30°) V
vS = 12 V, iS = 200e-10t mA iS = Imcos(ωt + φ) A

1. How to solve a circuit with AC sources?

2. If we’d like to know only the steady-state response, is there any more
efficient method to handle it, instead of modeling differential equations?
3. How to calculate the power for AC circuits?
4. Does the AC power have physical meaning?
12
 Information on Network Analysis

Spring 2023 (Prof. Yen-Sheng Chen)

CIRCUIT THEORY (II)
Office: CB-407-1 ext. 2281
E-mail: yschen@ntut.edu.tw
Office hours: Wed. 13:00-17:00

Main topics:
1. Sinusoidal steady-state analysis (balanced three-phase circuits)
2. Two-port network analysis
3. Laplace transform and its application in circuit analysis
4. Frequency selective circuits
5. Fourier series and its application in circuit analysis

13
14
 Texts (111-2)
1. Lecture notes available for download from Taipei Tech i-school Plus
(北科ｉ學園PLUS)
2. James Nilsson and Susan Riedel, Electric Circuits: 11th Edition, Pearson
3. [Online] James M. Fiore, DC Electrical Circuit Analysis: A Practical
Approach, dissidents, 2020. Available:
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/dc-electrical-circuit-
analysis-a-practical-approach-fiore
4. [Online] Chad Davis, AC Circuits, Open Textbook Network Library, 2017.
Available: https://shareok.org/handle/11244/51946

15
 OpenCourseWare of This Course

Full courses can be found here:

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwzTNk6fQHAKjFJnyw6F6Xw
16
 Grading (111-2)

Midterm exam 50%

Final exam 50%

1. Cheating results in 0 grade and academic dishonesty charges

2. Sample questions from previous exams can be found in the startup package
3. All grades final unless error in marking proven

17
 How Do This Course Curve the Grade?

Original Score Rank Adjustment

95–99 A+ 99
90–95 A 95
80–90 A– 90
70–80 B 80
60–70 C 70
50–60 D 60
Under 50 F 55
No Show X 0

For senior students, 30–60 will be curved as 60

18
Week
And You’re
Topic
Going to Study…(106-2)
Detailed Lecture
1 Opening
2 AC power calculation
3 (L4) Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis Three-phase sources and loads
4 Analysis of Y-Y circuits and Y-Δ circuits
5 Two-port parameters
6 (L5) Two-Port Network Analysis Computation of network parameters
7 Special networks
8 Analysis of the terminated two-port circuit
9 Midterm exam
10 Review of Laplace transform
(L6) Laplace Transform and Its Application
11 Circuit analysis in the s domain
in Circuit Analysis
12 Transfer functions
13 Introduction to frequency selective circuits
14 (L7) Frequency Selective Circuits Low-pass filters and high-pass filters
15 Bandpass filters and bandreject filters
16 (L8) Fourier Series and Its Application in Circuit Analysis
17 Final exam
19
 Lecture 4

Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

(§4.5-§4.6)
ZS Zl IaA
a A

Van +
− Vbn ZY
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY
−
+

−
Vcn ZY
Zl
+
ZS c IcC C

1. Why do we need three-phase circuits?

2. Understand the shortcut to calculate the voltage, current, power on
these components
3. How do we calculate the response of a unbalanced three-phase circuit?

20
 Lecture 5

Two-Port Network Analysis

10 Ω

i1
1. We have known how to
5Ω 2Ω 10 nH a i2
summarize a large one-port
+ +
vS
v1 4Ω 6Ω 5 pF v2 RL circuit: Thévenin equivalent
– b – circuit
2. How do we summarize a
5Ω i1 a i2 large two-port circuit and
+ Two-port network + apply new parameters to
vS v1 more practical situations?
Parameters: You are going to v2 RL
– learn in this chapter b –

21
 Lecture 6

Laplace Transform and Its Application in Circuit Analysis

Time domain Phasor domain s domain (Laplace transform)

R L R jωL

+
i(t) +
I
−
C − Circuit diagram ?
V0cos(ωt + θ) V0∠θ −j/ωC

d 2i ( t ) di ( t ) 1   1  Formulation ?
L +R + i (t )  jω L + R +  − j  I
dt 2 dt C   ωC  
= −ωV0 sin (ωt + θ ) = V0 ∠θ 1. Arbitrary source
(Differential equation) (Algebraic equation) 2. Complete solutions

An important technique: transfer function

22
 Lecture 7

Frequency Selective Circuits

R
1. We have known how to analyze AC circuits, the
+ source frequency of which is held constant
+
vo(t) C
− 2. In this lecture, we analyze the effect of varying
–
source frequency on circuit voltages and
currents
vi(t) = V0cos(ωt + θ) 3. We’ll learn about 4 categories of frequency
selective circuits:

vi(t) vo(t) • Low-pass filters (RC/RL circuits)

• High-pass filters (RC/RL circuits)
• Bandpass filters (RLC circuits)
ω ω • Bandreject filters (RLC circuits)
ωc

23
 Lecture 8

Fourier Series and Its Application in Circuit Analysis

+
vs(t) +
−
vo(t) C
–
Full-wave rectification Half-wave rectification

vs(t) 1. We have known how to treat dc sources and

Vm sinusoidal sources
… …
2. How about square periodic sources?
T T t
2 Triangular sources? Any arbitrary periodic
sources?
−Vm
3. How to calculate the voltage, current, power
for these kinds of sources?
24
 電路學 Circuit Theory
Lecture 1
Basic Concepts of Circuit Analysis

Dr. Yen-Sheng Chen

Electronic Engineering, Taipei Tech
 Contents
Lecture 1:
Basic Concepts of Circuit Analysis
1.1 Circuit Variables
1.2 Circuit Components: Active Components
1.3 Circuit Components: Passive Components
1.4 How to Solve a Circuit?
1.5 Simple Resistive Circuits

2
Acknowledgment: Prof. Ching-Tsai Pan and his slides of Electric Circuits course.
Contents

1.1 Circuit Variables

3
 What Are We Going to Do in This Course?
Midterm: 13 7個元件
5 4Ω 10 V

f
2Ω

+
−
2Ω 6Ω
vs = 10 V
+
a b
30
5V +
−
− 1Ω 5Ω

40
3Ω
4Ω 8Ω

每個元件
Final: 囖
5 mF i (t)
kaih熬
Ǜponene
9 kΩ t=0 80 Ω
L 嘴 特性国
80 V + 100 V
+ +
−
15 kΩ 2 F vC (t) −
–

Give you a circuit and ask you to solve the voltage, current,
and power at some components
4
 Why do You Learn Circuit Theory?

The areas of EE:

Communication systems
Signal-processing systems
Computer systems
Control systems
Power systems
Electromagnetic devices
Integrated circuits
…

Whether all of these branches have anything in common?

YES!!
—Electric circuit theory!
5
Example Circuit Theory in EE

Power systems:
Zl
Sources a A Loads • A power distribution circuit
+ • The objective is to calculate the cost
Van
− Vbn Zl ZY Load
ZY of consuming power on Load

Load
b B
• How?
−
+

−
Vcn + Load
ZY
c Zl C

Integrated circuits:

• The input source and the required

output voltage are assigned
Intermediate circuit vo • The objective is to design a proper Intermediate
circuit

• How?

6
 The First Thing in This Course

1Ω What are we dealing with?

2Ω 1A 1Ω We are going to solve a circuit
In order to solve a problem, the
problem must have some unknowns
1Ω 1Ω
The unknowns = The circuit variables
2Ω
2 vx 4A

The circuit variables in this course:

Voltage We’d like to find these 4 quantities on circuit components.

Current Why?
• Power systems: Power ⟹ Revenue
Power
• Electronic analysis: Voltage and current ⟹ Interesting responses
Energy
• Communication systems: Voltage and current ⟹ Signals

7
 Presumptions in Circuit Analysis

甄 纓 喊立
腓
No Time Delay Time delay leads to transmission line theory
What is a more practical model of “short circuit”?

鬱鬱

i
No Radiation Radiation loss utntntu.io
榮
磁 Is radiation important for circuit analysis?
yji
A 幅射 湮
磁

Linearity Linear components throughout this course

Does a resistance remain constant in high-power
A scenarios?

8
 Is the Assumption in Circuit Reasonable?
收有完美9短路
短路 處處等電位 a 型 ru a'

+
脈衝 Pulse
R
voltage
−

b b’

The voltage source gives an impulse signal

The impulse arrives at the load immediately

Is this assumption reasonable?

Signal transmission has a number of delay
But if the size of the circuity is small enough,
such a delay is omitted

9
 Equivalent Circuits of the Whole Line
8 訊 影傳遞需要time
Ideal: short circuit Real: capacitor and inductor
not
嘉處皆是串聯電桿並聊電

Voltage and current are Voltage and current are different

equivalent everywhere everywhere

理想 電磁學
Q
Charges on the conductors ∝ the potential difference C=
v
Magnetic flux around the loop ∝ the current on conductor L= m

i
C = Shunt capacitance per unit length, in F/m Distributed-parameter
L = Series inductance per unit length in H/m network
10
 Static Electric and Magnetic Fields

The scenarios that DO NOT produce radiation:

Charges are not moving Charges are moving with

constant velocity

r’: source position

r: field position

Only producing static E-field Only producing static magnetic

field
1 Q I r−r
E(r ) = 2
rˆ B (r ) = 0
3
dl
4 0 r 4 r−r
必歐 沙伐 11
Wikipedia. [Online] Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge
Radiation from Simple Sources

12
 Current 電流是 切 根本

Definition: Electric current is the rate of charge flow

SI unit: ampere (A)
i

i
谰是mA
dq +
i= v
dt瞬時通過0電荷 −
i = the current in amperes
q = the charge in coulombs
t = the time in seconds

Current is the motion of charge that creates an electric fluid

Although currents consist of discrete electrons, we consider them
as one smoothly flowing entity
The current has a sign; it indicates the direction of current flow

13
 Voltage

Definition: Voltage is the energy per unit charge created by

charge separation
SI unit: volt (V) i
9
dw 所對應位能變化 +
v= v
dq 單位電荷 −
v = the voltage in volts b
Ruk由電壓def可知
w = the energy in joules 電所估 7 Duǎǎ 短路表 沒有通過元件改有
變化
位能

q = the charge in coulombs 處處等電位

②㔭相對物理量有極性 向
③功率是絕對9值 必須清楚差 新燙爛
It is the electric potential difference between two points
v = vB − v A
The voltage has polarity; it implies the voltage drop or voltage rise

14
 The Sign of Voltage and Current

Voltage:

+ vo – If vo is the unknown, and in your expressions

somehow you find that vb va = 3 V

a b How would you write down your solution?

vo = ?

Current:

io
If io is the unknown, and in your
expression somehow you find that iba = 2 A
a b How would you write down your solution?
io = ?

15
 But When We Deal With Power…

Case 1:
i
Given
source +
v
Interested Interested
element element

If we choose voltage polarity reference… The current must go this way

Case 2:
i
Given
source +
v
Interested − Interested
element element

If we choose current direction reference… The voltage must have such a polarity

16
 Power

Definition: from the notations of v and i:

dw dw dq
p= = = vi
dt dq dt SI unit: watt (W)

Rmki規範功 為到 向
i
p = the power in watts
v = the voltage in volts 中 脺
3 只543 15w
X +
i = the current in amperes v
5Xl3 −
1 v.nl i iswv
Why do we calculate power?
• It represents the “cost” in power systems
• Practical devices have limitations on the amount of power that they can handle
• The output capacity of an electrical system is often expressed in terms of power
or energy
17
 Passive Sign Convention 規範

㥊 Passive sign convention:

Whenever the reference direction for the current in an element is in
the direction of the reference voltage drop across the element
消耗 Pi
Rmk 藉由PassN Sign count in 7才能得元件之供能 提供 Rivo
2A • The power = 3 × 2 = 6 W
• If the power p = vi > 0, then the power is dissipated in
the component
消耗功率 被動元件 及
a + 3V – b • The component doesn’t generate power, so we call it a
passive component

2A 修正 • The power = 3 × (−2) = −6 W

7 2A • If the power p = vi < 0, then the power is extracted from

the component
提供功率for外部電路
a + 3V – b • Such a component do generate power, so we call it an
active component
主動元件
18
 Energy

Energy is calculated by integrating the associated power:

w = p dt
SI unit: Joule (J)

p = the power in watts

w = the energy in joules
t = the time in seconds

With this definition, we can calculate the consuming energy of

a passive component or the generating energy of an active
component
①區間能量3555or 1個週期
Wabfbpctjdt
能量在特定時刻
②瞬時
Wifplidi
雙數代挨
19
Ex. 1.1 Calculation of Power and Energy

Assume the element in the figure has terminal voltage and

terminal current likes: i
+
v = 0, i = 0, t<0 v
v = 10e 5000t kV, i = 20e 5000t A, t 0
−
1. Calculate the power supplied to the element at 1 ms
2. Calculate the total energy (in J) delivered to the circuit element

20
Ex. 1.2 Calculation of Power and Energy

The voltage and current at the terminals of the element are

i

v = 250 cos800 t V +
v
i = 8sin 800 t A
−
1. Find the maximum value of the power being delivered to the
element
2. Find the maximum value of the power being extracted from the
element
3. Find the average value of p in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.5 ms
4. Find the average value of p in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 15.625 ms

21
Contents

1.2 Circuit Components:

Active Components

22
 How to Describe a Component?

元件模型 i
A component is defined by the voltage and current at its terminal
+
Even though two components are physically different, if they have
the same relationship between terminal voltage and current, they v
are identical in circuit analysis −

it 特性 圉
i i i

v v v

Component 1 Component 2 Component 3

電阻及 電流源
23
 Ideal Basic Circuit Component

i
+
v
−

Definition of ideal basic circuit component:

1. Only two terminals, which are points of connection to other circuit components
2. Described mathematically in terms of current and/or voltage
3. Cannot be subdivided into other elements

A component, or an element, will be named as a “branch” in the following lectures:

They are ideal models; they do not exist in real world
They are basic circuit elements; they construct circuit model, and they can’t
be modeled with any other types of element

24
 Mathematical Model of Circuit Component

All physical components are transformed into mathematical representation

Physical world Mathematical model More realistic model

Power
理想 元件
+

−
+
supply −

Resistor

Capacitor

Inductor

25
 Component Models

Circuit component

Active component: Passive component:

• Independent voltage source • Resistor
• Independent current source • Inductor
飄
• Dependent voltage source • Capacitor
• Dependent current source • Mutual inductor
互盛

Component model:
• Only one degree of freedom is set as a variable
• For example, if you set a voltage as the variable, then the current must be
written as the function of the voltage
• All the active components and passive components have their own
component models
26
 Ideal Independent Voltage Source

Symbol Model

模型 嗎定值i 電流是唯 9 係 喇
i
i i = 10 A
+
vs + vs i=0A
− v
− i = −10 A
i=−

It maintains a prescribed voltage regardless of the current across the

device
In other words, the current is the function of the connected circuit
What is the meaning that we turn off the independent voltage source?

27
 Ideal Independent Current Source

Symbol Model

咦定值
i 1電壓是 v唯 未知數

is v=5V
−
is v v
v=0V
+ v = −20 V
v=−

It maintains a prescribed current regardless of the voltage across the

device
In other words, the voltage is the function of the connected circuit
What is the meaning that we turn off the independent current source?

28
 Ideal Dependent Voltage Source
Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
• vx: controlling parameter;
it comes from the voltage of other component
• Express vx first
倍數 then we can express the source voltage
then we may calculate the source current

Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)

• ix: controlling parameter;
it comes from the current of other component
• Express ix first
轉阻 then we can express the source voltage
ivi 是 then we may calculate the source current
Example: 轉爽D

in 嚇
䨊
9 Vsmt由Ux控制Ns
vseianox控制 29
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Ideal Dependent Current Source
Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
• vx: controlling parameter;
it comes from the voltage of other component

贔 • Express vx first
then we can express the source current
then we may calculate the source voltage

Current-controlled current source (CCCS)

• ix: controlling parameter;
it comes from the current of other component
• Express ix first
屭 then we can express the source current
then we may calculate the source voltage
Example: 3Ω

ix 1Ω 4Ω
Dependent Independent
3A
2Ω
source source
2 ix
30
 Another Viewpoint for “Ideal” Components

Ideal sources are convenient for modeling transistors,

but they don’t exist in reality

v
vs If R 0, then i = , and v vs , so p = vi
R v R
(But the power cannot be infinite!)

viss If R then v = iR , and i is , so p = vi

R v
(But the power cannot be infinite!)

31
 DC vs. AC

DC source AC source
vs(t) direct current Alternating current
Voltage source

供有個和
熊 vs(t) 兩種壯
能交捯

t
vs(t) t

is(t)
Current source

is(t)

t
is(t) t

32
 Time-Invariant vs. Time-Variant

Time-Invariant Time-variant

v(t) 非時變 vs(t)

Voltage source

t
V V vsv(t)s vs(t)

t
t
is(t)
i(t)
Current source

vIs I vs
is(t) t
is(t)

t t

33
Contents

1.3 Circuit Components:

Passive Components

34
 重要
經驗斷 歐姆定律 Li i

不 i
I c t
i Resistance 電荷囉正比
Qovl
姒 榮
Voi嚦汰成正比 Ǚifǜsiicudi iii think
ui 電阻on
a

ja 䲜
if I ōy
Re寺
eresistivityam電阻
率
Ti i 觀 __
Q CV.ci法 比
displacementcurrent

流
樂 id
磁通量 冲 ai
Ǘ
aconductivity 率
導電 ipermittiuitycè
NP Lf LEMXNXÈ
的㵊 懿真到 移项
蠿
出品 繭禮烯以辯最 材料 8的 嗞
幾 咚咎 in
u permeability導磁率 笳
台劇 Mo 4 7吆
以iouuitsiiciu
特性 Er噝
䵼 E 玻璃Dewu
为瞬間的
電阻9Vli 皆 ìi
䶠
dieeetricconstant

jg 鸞鸞
hi R.is 特性
icsiG.us 電容9Viti非瞬間具有記憶性 比 喂 甇
Usimttsiikidz 龘邈邈通量 嚇要壓
移项
比
喊幾ufiiuu
find 5些 di
家炭 煎 5些 dt
 Resistor

Symbol Model

i
i Ohm’s Law

+ v = Ri
v v
− i = Gv

R: resistance (ohms, Ω)
G: conductance (siemens, S)

Resistance: The capacity of materials to impede the flow of current

Resistor: The circuit element used to model this behavior
Why is resistor a passive component?

35
 Capacitor

Symbol Model

i
i

+ dv dv
v i=C
dt dt
−

C: capacitance (Farad, F)

Capacitor: The electrical element which consists of two conductors

separated by an insulator or dielectric material
Capacitance: A linear circuit parameter that relates the current induced
by a time-varying electric field to the voltage producing the field
Why is capacitor a passive component?
36
 Inductor

Symbol Model
v
i

+ di
v dt
−
di
v=L
L: inductance (Henry, H) dt

Inductor: The electrical element which is composed of a coil of wire

wound around a supporting core
Inductance: A linear circuit parameter that relates the voltage induced
by a time-varying magnetic field to the current producing the field
Why is inductor a passive component?
37
Contents

1.4 How to Solve a

Circuit?

38
 Three Laws in Circuit Analysis

A
Circuit
analysis

KCL Component models

是
• Nodal analysis
(next lecture)
KVL • Voltage source
• Current source
• Resistor
• Mesh analysis • Inductor
(next lecture)
• Capacitor
39
 Node, Branch, Loop, and Mesh
Node: A point where two or more components join RMKM B IN 1
Branch: A single two-terminal component or element
所以電路0法則
Loop: A closed path in a circuit without passing through any intermediate
node more than once
再分新迴圈
Mesh: A loop that does not enclose any other loops 不能
g
Node: 镞 䩉䬛㒮咬点

I
R6 • a, b, c, d, e, f
• 6 nodes
R1 v2 Branch:元件數
c
a e • v1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6
• 8 branches
做
v1 R3 R4 Loop:迴圈
•
Ǔá
bacdb, dcefd, ecae, baefdb
R2 R5 • There are many other loops,
b f but only 3 meshes exist
d
40
Ex
節奌數 列 kd
kclim
213 my Mesh
列 KVL
fku
Component model 13 5 元 件數
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
由電荷守恆 來 流入9電荷數 3不出 Qe
KCL: rtlghtev 舉 舉
The algebraic sum of all the currents leaving any liloauhg he eoēi
zèetzcèē 0
node in a circuit equals zero
Eie 规则
N AXN 為主 總 流出 i1 i2 品類主

in = 0, for any node i3

n =1

N: number of elements connected to this node

in: the nth element current leaving this node

KCL is based on the law of conservation of

charge
KCL can be applied to a “super node”

41
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Other Forms of KCL

The algebraic sum of all the current entering any node in a

circuit equals zero

N
( −in ) = 0, for any node
n =1

The sum of all the current entering the node = The sum of all
the current leaving the node

il = ( −ie ), for any node

L E

L : set of l with il leaving this node

E: set of e with ie entering this node

42
 Ex. 1.3 KCL

癒
iii
CROSS

rj a.it _is
1. Write down the KCL equations at each node
與
離開餱 㖶 䧆和列
剛好是N 1條 LTIǕǏÉǙǛǗ citst Dtidtibf

可 a b 湊出 d tisituia tic 三0
A結論 k 峓 節英 1條 程式 43
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
由位能守恆 EWR Eun 最 以 次了 D
KVL:
in
㠭赏 背 互以 0 規則
The algebraic sum of all the element voltage drops
around any loop in a circuit equals zero
+ v1 –
M 縫壓降夷主
+ +
vm = 0, for any loop v4
–
v2
–
m =1
+ v3 –
M: number of elements located in this loop
vm: the voltage drops of the mth element around the loop

KVL is based on the law of conservation of energy

44
 Other Forms of KVL

The algebraic sum of all the element voltage rises around any
loop in a circuit equals zero

M
( −vm ) = 0, for any loop
m =1

The sum of all the voltage drops around the loop = The sum of
all the voltage rises around the loop

vd = ( −vr ), for any loop

D R

D : set of d with vd drops around this loop

R: set of r with vr rises around this loop

45
Ex. 1.4 KVL
看餱數 有N1條
1. Write down the KVL around the loop a-b-c-d-e-f-a fkd
kut看 中元件數 有
13

lpo 元件數這幾项 v1

Rmk
B 6
如 幽幽地 吉
薛
tfhj
v2 v3
a tfhi b
c
壓降 壓升

i I
v4 v5 v6

f d
e

cjlgthst
v7 v8
修正成壓 降 46
 Ex. 1.5 Basic Approach to Solve a Circuit

1. Use Kirchhoff’s Laws and Ohm’s Law to find i0 in the above circuit
2. Test the solution for iO by verifying that the total power generated
equals the total power dissipated

47
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
213法

Step Is 分析 4個元件 8個未知數

Agytidf V2
in
li
恥 V3i
it
i了
V4 i4

2 2 4 13 符合 8保式
gtepz 三 原則
lu 側 國 M個 及
4因元件
KVL 1 與 esh component model 元雦
Kd 三個 餱 總壓降
流出節知總合 壓降下 巒货 以 吼
V2 iz
_utvztV3 D
V3 50i3
Aiiitiz D
a_ 以 比
i4 A 設定 i41題 7
4 電流源改 鰦 阿
只簽
eiii
不到 7只要 叫 條 KL
V1 lzov i.in Pli3GW
秏

f
ypizts.is V2 ˇ is
的 Gov
_izti
7 i53 5
is 的 13 450W
了 V4 15
i4 6A P4 9 Wt 供
 Solving a Circuit More Systematically!

2B Method:
It is a very systematic method
More importantly, it is a programmable method

What are we interested in a given circuit?

The number of unknowns: 2B
The number of equations:

• The number of KCL equations: N

• The number of KVL equations: B N
• The number of component model: B
• So there are 2B equations for solving 2B unknowns!

48
 Ex. 1.6 Basic Approach to Solve a Circuit

ix ix

1. Find the current ix ( A)

2. Find the voltage v (V)
3. Find the total power generated
4. Find the total power absorbed

49
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
Contents

1.5 Simple Resistive

Circuits

50
 Equivalent Resistance for Series Connection

i A R1 R2 R3 i A
…
+ + v1 – + v2 – + v3 – + +
v vN RN v Req
– – –

B B

v = v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + vN v = Req i
= R1i + R2i + R3i + ... + RN i
= ( R1 + R2 + R3 ... + RN ) i

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + RN

51
 Equivalent Resistance for Parallel Connection

i A i A

+ i1 i2 i3 iN +
v R1 R2 R3 … RN v Req
– –

i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ... + iN 1
i = v
v v v v Req
= + + + ... +
R1 R2 R3 RN Gt Gzt Gs
1 1 1 1 
=  + + .. + v
 R1 R2 R3 RN  V7 Special case: for two parallel-
connected resistance
1 1 1 1 R1 R2
= + + ... + Req =
Req R1 R2 RN R1 + R2
52
 Voltage-Divider Circuit

ByKVL
+ R1
R1 v1 v1 = vs
– R1 + R2
+
vs −
+ R2
R2 v2 v2 = vs
– R1 + R2

The voltage across the series combination of resistors is divided

up between the individual resistors in a predictable way
This circuit demonstrates the principle of voltage division, and
the circuit is called a voltage divider

53
 Generalized Voltage Divider

+ v1 – + v2 –

R1 R2 +
+ vj
vs Rj
−
+ vn – + vn-1 – –

Rn Rn-1 Req
n
Equivalent resistance: Req =R1 + R2 +  + Rn = Rj
j =1
Loop current:
vs v
i= = s (By KVL)
R1 + R2 +  + Rn Req
Rj
Voltage on Rj: v j = iR j = vs
Req
54
 Application of Voltage Divider

Loading effect of voltage-divider circuit:

Load: an element (or combination of elements) that draw power from
the circuit
Req
The output voltage: vo = vs
R1 + Req

R1 R2 RL
Req can be computed as Req =
a R2 +RL
+
vs − Substituting it into vo:
+
R2 vo RL R2
vo = vs
–  R2 
R1 1 +  + R2
 RL 
b
This is where a voltmeter comes
Req from

55
 Current-Divider Circuit

+ 別 7
R2 R1
is v R1 R2 i1 = is , i2 = is
– R1 + R2 R1 + R2
i1 i2

The circuit is called a current-divider circuit because it divides

the source current
The current of the source divides between resistors R1 and R2 in
proportional to their conductance values

56
 Generalized Current Divider

+
is v R1 R2 …… Rj …… Rn
–
i1 i2 ij in
Req

Equivalent resistance: Req =R1 || R2 ||  || Rn

The voltage v is given by component model: v = is Req

Component model on Rj:

v Req
ij = = is
Rj Rj

57
 Ex. 1.7 Voltage Divider & Current Divider

in in
O
1
等效成Rea
yqim Req 5 1 113011f 1

i___
1. Use voltage division to determine the voltage v0 across the 40 Ω
resistor 的
7 XGV 202
2. Use v0 to determine the current through the 40 Ω resistor, and use
this current and current division to calculate the current in the 30 Ω
resistor i
05x_Éi 167A並 電導管踨
聊
3. How much power is absorbed by the 50 Ω resistor?

58
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Δ-Y Equivalent Circuits

Objective of this section:

By changing the topology of a circuit, the analysis procedure can
be simplified

Find the current supplied by

the 40 V source

59
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Δ Circuits or π Circuits

Δ Circuits Circuits

The Δ can be shaped into a without disturbing the

electrical equivalence of the two configurations

60
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Y Circuits or T Circuits

Y Circuits T Circuits

The Y can be shaped into a T without disturbing the

electrical equivalence of the two configurations

61
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Transformation Formula (1/2)

Δ-Y transformation

A Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

YǙ R2 =
Rc Ra
Ra + Rb + Rc
i R3 =
Ra Rb
Ra + Rb + Rc

Special case: If Ra = Rb = Rc = R

R1 = R2 = R3 = R/3
62
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Transformation Formula (2/2)

Y-Δ transformation

A
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1

骔
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3
Special case: If R1 = R2 = R3 = R

Ra = Rb = Rc = 3R
63
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Ex. 1.8 Δ-Y Equivalent Circuits

F
f虱
i 1
I ip. n

可管
i
ll 3225如5 12 5n

1. Find the current and power supplied by the 40 V source

可
Req 54Ritft4 11 Rst37 5 8u
do 告 o5A 功率窒法鴓
I
R 5 4 you_义
64
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Ex. 1.9 Δ-Y Equivalent Circuits

1. Find the voltage v supplied by the current source

65
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 電路學 Circuit Theory
Lecture 2
Advanced Techniques for Circuit
Analysis
Dr. Yen-Sheng Chen
Electronic Engineering, Taipei Tech
 Contents
Lecture 2:
Advanced Techniques for Circuit Analysis
2.1 Nodal Analysis (Node-Voltage Method)
2.2 Mesh Analysis (Mesh-Current Method)
2.3 Superposition Theorem
2.4 Source Transformation
2.5 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
2.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
2
Acknowledgment: Prof. Ching-Tsai Pan and his slides of Electric Circuits course.
Contents

2.1 Nodal Analysis

(Node-Voltage Method)

3
 Too Many Variables in 2B Method! (1/2)
R6
i6
+ v6 –
R4 B R5
A C
+ i4 i5 +
+ + v4 –
+
+ v5 – + v2
v1 −
R3 v3 − v2
– i1 v1 – i3 – i
2

D
2B method: a direct algebraic approach
KCL: KVL: Component models:
• Node A: i1 + i4 + i6 = 0 • Loop ABDA: v4 + v3 − v1 = 0 • v1 = Given v1
• Node B − 4 + i3 + i5 = 0 • Loop BCDB: v5 + v2 − 3 =0 • v2 = Given v2
• Node C: i2 − 5 − 6 =0 • Loop ACBA: v6 − 5 − 4 =0 • v3 = R3i3
• Node D − 3 − 2 − 1 =0 • v4 = R4i4
• v5 = R5i5
3 KCL equations 3 KVL equations • v6 = R6i6
4
 Too Many Variables in 2B Method! (2/2)

Objective of 2B method: find vk and ik, k = 1, 2, 3, …, B

The number of unknown: 2B
The number of KCL equations: N − 1
The number of KVL equations: B − (N − 1)
The number of component model: B
So there are 2B equations for solving 2B unknowns!

But it has serious problems:

Too many variables
Not efficient at all

We need better methods to reduce the complexity!

5
 Two IMPORTANT Methods in Midterm

Nodal analysis Mesh analysis

Based on KCL Based on KVL
只能 平
Suitable for general Suitable for planar
cases circuits only

Terminology: planar circuit

• Before putting it in order • After rearrangement

• Definition: a circuit that can be
drawn on a plane with no
crossing branches
6
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 The Idea of Nodal Analysis 譺 未知數

3Ω
vi v2 以 v4 節奌要壓
i
+ v –
啱 功
囇鱮
1Ω v2 4Ω
v1 v3
1 臖 3A 4A
簽 2Ω

v4
合參考㔄之
Previous method: use branch currents as the variable
But the number of branches is much larger than the number of nodes

New method: use node voltages as the variable

Each branch voltage can be obtained from nodal voltages
The corresponding branch current can be calculated by its
component model
12 branch variables 3 node variables
7
 Characteristics of Node-Voltage Method:
3Ω

1Ω v2 4Ω
v1 v3
3A 4A
2Ω

v4

1. KVL is automatically satisfied in every loop (why?)

2. We only need to find the independent KCL equations

3. The component model is applied so that the branch current can be
expressed
Gv = I
8
 it 只
上
Step 設定未知數 u V2以 V4

Step 列 kcL.NL
n_n hi 1 375

iii
相對值
nodezit stfjtY s.sk zv

step了 相對 1節奌電壓算 元件噎壓

13 43 4A 85 ㄨ 4 34w
贔地
 Five Cases in the Following Analysis

Only containing current sources Containing voltage sources

1. With independent current 3. Voltage sources connect to

sources: basic case the reference node: the
easiest case
2. With dependent current
sources: expressing the 4. Voltage sources do not
controlling parameters in contain the reference node:
terms of nodal voltages by supernode concept

5. With dependent voltage

sources: expressing the
controlling parameters in
terms of the nodal voltages
9
Ex. 2.1 With Independent Current Source
CASE 1 3Ω Rmk 䚺離開㗌 流来正
醉幽斑
nodel
以 兴 毕 兆3
呲了 另 o

嶾
1Ω v2 4Ω
v1 r 董 v3 node2
3A
2Ω
4A 喘 嘴 嘴 0
mde了
v4 芈 竿 4
Step 1 上
• Find 4 nodes
• Select a node as reference node. Which one? 法
a 雕護
• Set v1, v2, and v3 as unknowns

率 兩兩䶆㗧 和負數
āii I
法灣
和 電流源和
剧 看正規法9分 可知 10
Ex. 2.1 With Independent Current Source
CASE 1 3Ω

1Ω v2 4Ω
v1 v3
3A 4A
2Ω

Step 2
• Apply KCL to n – 1 nodes and use the component model (Ohm’s
law) to express the branch currents in terms of nodal voltages

ik = 0
leaving
node
11
Ex. 2.1 With Independent Current Source
CASE 1 3Ω

1Ω v2 4Ω
v1 v3
3A 4A
2Ω

Step 3 (not necessary)

• Matrix expression Gv = I
 1 1  G Conductance matrix
1 + 3 −1 −
3   v   3A 
  1 Gkk Sum of the conductances connected to node k
 −1 1 + 1 + 1 −
1   
v = 0  Gkj Negative of the sum of conductances directly
 4    
2
2 4 connecting nodes k and j (k j)
   v   −4 A
 −1 1 1 1  3  vk Unknown; nodal voltage of the kth node
− +
 3 4 3 4 
Ik Sum of independent current sources entering
to node k
12
Ex. 2.2 With Dependent Current Source
CASE 2 3Ω

ix 1Ω v2 4Ω
v1 v3
3A
2Ω
2 ix
Step 1
• Set v1, v2, and v3 as unknowns; set a reference node
Watch out the
• How to express ix?
current direction!

Step 2
• Apply KCL to n – 1 nodes

13
Ex. 2.2 With Dependent Current Source
CASE 2 3Ω

Sop
Steph 䚺未知數 ix 1Ω v2 4Ω
ten 不1kcl
v1
3A top 表v 3 相煙 法0功率
ten 把 雕元件嘇 2Ω
zixli 2 ix 2比 3 1 3125 3937
數 代挨

• Rearrange the equations and solve them!

鵶 哥 千
model 的
V2 375V
年 thl_V2千 V3 N
Rhode20
的de3 by V3i 2ix O

step3
比 uf 呲 3
n_n_in 14

祔主
Ex. 2.2 With Dependent Current Source
CASE 2 3Ω

ix 1Ω v2 4Ω
v1 v3
3A
2Ω
2 ix

Step 3 (again, not necessary)

• Step 3: Matrix expression
 1 1 
 1 + −1 −
3 3   v  3 A  • No longer a symmetric matrix
  1
 −1 1 1 1    
1+ + −  v2  =  0  • Off diagonal terms are not
 2 4 4 
  v   0  always negative
− 1 + 2 − 1 − 2 1 1  3  
+
 3 4 3 4 

15
Ex. 2.3 With Voltage Source Connected to the Reference Node

CASE 3 當電壓源有接地時 3Ω

oan
4A

v2
v1 v3
10 V + 1Ω 4Ω
− 2Ω 5Ω

Step 1
送你的 u
• Set v1, v2, and v3 as unknowns; set a reference node
• How to express v1? V1 送的
noded

iiii
Step 2
• Apply KCL to the 2nd and 3rd nodes
mde3
吉5 卅 千 怡
V2 4 9936v
V3 9554ˇ
16
Ex. 2.3 With Voltage Source Connected to the Reference Node

CASE 3 3Ω

4A

v2
v1 v3
10 V + 1Ω 4Ω
− 2Ω 5Ω

Step 3 (not necessary)

• Matrix expression

 1 1 1 
1 + 2 + 4 −  10 − 4 
4  v 
   = 10 
2
 • Only two unknowns!
 −1 1 1 1   v3   + 4 
+ + 3 
 4 3 4 5 

v1 = 10 V
17
Ex. 2.4 With Voltage Source NOT Connected to the Reference Node

CASE 4 3Ω
Component model of :

+
−
vs = 5 V

t
1Ω v2 ix is = ?
v1
整 v3

+
−
Define an extra unknown ix
3A 5V
2Ω 5Ω

Step 1
• Set v1, v2, and v3 as unknowns; set a reference node n_n 号 學号 0

• What’s the relation between v2 and v3?

Step 2 nodeliˇ等 毕 tniio
• Apply KCL to n – 1 nodes

niiii
ui
t
並相加 解 不
18
Ex. 2.4 With Voltage Source NOT Connected to the Reference Node
i

CASE 4 3Ω

Supernode 有那超雛
1Ω v2
v3 河迴僻
v1 和電法

+
−
3A 5V
2Ω 5Ω
in 嘘樂逃了0kcl
iii _____ see 設未知數
透過Supernode化簡 kd 即可不設 ix Step 列KCL supem.de列 kcl
Step conponetmoddtkd解題
• And we already know that v2 v3 = 5 V:
以 6.71u
需要 八 個 kd V2 571U
得認 解題只
V3 0 71V

19
Ex. 2.5 With Dependent Voltage Source
CASE 5 3Ω

f
Supernode
4Ω
v2 i 卡 個電壓源
v1
遭 v3

+
−
+ vx i 超節 能 kl
2 vx
2Ω 5Ω
l
3A

Step 1
• Set v1, v2, and v3 as unknowns; set a reference node
• What’s the relation between v1 and v3?
Nit
nodes

tut_it
毕 n.de3 0
super
• How to express vx?
号 tV3 o

Step 2 㗊焁 iuvzizvx 以5
• Apply KCL to the 3rd node and the supernode 2
Eof
seepl 故未知數7超 雖
給六件模型 y tixǖhyhnr
叭 把題 條件補上 20
 Ex. 2.6 Example of Nodal Analysis

䚺多電壓源節䞈參号電位
1

Ǘi
參考電位 7

di

1. Find v
2. Find the power consumed (or supplied) of the dependent voltage
source
model I 4 8 点 哥 is 点乳
以
super node 器 等 器 竿
所求 V u o 8U
componentmodel Uiiix iotcD14
邀 控 糝象 v.ie ns.io 21
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011 13zxc.y_4wdb
 Millman’s Theorem

A.K.A. “Sharing bus method”

a +
R1 R2 R3 Rn
vo
v1 + v2 + v3 + vn +
− − − −
b –

By using node-voltage method (choose b as the reference node):

vo − v1 vo − v2 vo − vn
+ + + =0
R1 R2 Rn
v1 v2 vn
+ + +
R1 R2 Rn
vo =
1 1 1
+ + +
R1 R2 Rn
n
1
If R1 = R2 = … = Rn = R, o
v = vk
n k =1
22
Contents

2.2 Mesh Analysis

(Mesh-Current Method)

23
 The Idea of Mesh Analysis
3Ω

i
i3 + v –
1Ω 4Ω
Only valid for
planar circuit
3V + i1 i2 + 4V
− 2Ω −

Previous method: use branch voltages as the variable

But the number of branch is much larger than the number of mesh

New method: use Mesh currents as the variable

Each branch current can be obtained from mesh currents
The corresponding branch voltage can be calculated by its
component model
12 branch variables 3 mesh variables
24
 KVL 5 加設未知數
咧 KVL 使總電壓
ti
is

ii is
ii
istl.in ii.is
iii
cii.is
viii 3
以北
以 4is I
 Characteristics of Mesh-Current Method

The current which runs through 1 Ω:

3Ω i1 i3

The current which runs through 2 Ω:

i3 i1 i2
1Ω 4Ω
The current which runs through 3 V:
3V + i1 i2 + 4V i1
− 2Ω −
KVL on loop 1
3) + 1(i1 i3) + 2(i1 i2)=0

1. KCL is automatically satisfied in every node (why?)

2. We only need to find the independent KVL equations

3. For a planar circuit consists of B branches and N nodes, one can have
B N independent meshes
4. The direction of mesh current should be kept as the same orientation
25
 Five Cases in the Following Discussion

Only containing voltage sources Containing current sources

1. Only with independent 3. Independent current sources

voltage sources: basic case exist in single mesh: the
easiest case
2. With dependent voltage
sources: expressing the 4. Independent current sources
controlling parameter in exist between two adjacent
terms of mesh currents meshes: by supermesh
concept

5. With dependent current

sources: expressing the
controlling parameters in
terms of the mesh currents
26
 Ex. 2.7 With Independent Voltage Source
CASE 1 2Ω 4Ω 10 V
b = 7, n = 6

+
−
b n 5V +
−
1Ω 5Ω
3Ω
i1 i2

The number of branch: b = 7

The number of node: n = 6
So, there are b n 7 meshes

Step 1
• Find 2 meshes and select i1 and i2 as mesh currents
• Choose the mesh currents as clockwise direction

27
Ex. 2.7 With Independent Voltage Source
CASE 1 2Ω 4Ω 10 V

+
−
5V +
−
1Ω 5Ω
3Ω
i1 i2

Step 2
• Apply KVL to 2 meshes and use the component model
(Ohm’s law) to express the branch voltages in terms of mesh
currents

vk = 0
drop
mesh
28
Ex. 2.7 With Independent Voltage Source
CASE 1 2Ω 4Ω 10 V

+
−
5V +
−
1Ω 5Ω
3Ω
i1 i2

Step 3 (not necessary)

• Matrix expression Ri = V
R Resistance matrix
Rkk Sum of the resistances in mesh k
1 + 2 + 3 −3   i1   −5  Rkj Sum of the resistance between meshes i and k and the
 −3    = 
 3 + 4 + 5 i
 2  5 − 10  algebraic sign depends on the relative direction of
meshes i and k, plus (minus) sign for same (opposite)
direction
Vk Sum of independent voltage rises at the kth mesh
ik Unknown; mesh current at the kth mesh
29
 Ex. 2.8 With Dependent Voltage Source
CASE 2
b = 6, n = 4
b n io
i2
24 V 10 Ω 4Ω 24 Ω
+
−
i1 +
12 Ω i3 − 4 io

Step 1
• Assign mesh currents: i1, i2,and i3
• Express i0 in terms of the mesh currents (i1, i2,and i3)

Step 2
• Apply KVL to 3 meshes:

30
Ex. 2.8 With Dependent Voltage Source
CASE 2

io
i2
24 V 10 Ω 4Ω 24 Ω
+
−
i1 +
12 Ω i3 − 4 io

Step 3
• Matrix expression (not necessary)
 10 + 12 −10 −12   i1   24 
 −10 10 + 4 + 24 −4  i  =  0 
  2  
 −12 + 4 −4 − 4 4 + 12   i3   0  4 io = 4 (i1 – i2)

i1 = 2.25 A, i2 = 0.75 A, i3 = 1.5 A

How about the current, voltage and power through the 10-Ω resistor and the CCVS?

31
 Ex. 2.9 With Current Source Existed in Only One Mesh
CASE 3 3Ω
b = 6, n = 4
b n
i2
4Ω 5Ω
10 V
+
− i1 6 Ω i3 5A

Step 1
• Assign mesh currents: i1, i2,and i3
• How to express i3?
Step 2
• Apply KVL to 2 meshes:

32
Ex. 2.9 With Current Source Existed in Only One Mesh

3Ω

i2
4Ω 5Ω
10 V
+
− i1 6 Ω i3 5A

• Rearrange the equations:

Step 3
• Matrix expression (not necessary)

4 + 6 −4   i1  10 − 30 
 −4 3 + 5 + 4  i  =  −25 
  2  

33
Ex. 2.10 With Current Source Existed Between Two Meshes

CASE 4
6Ω 10 Ω
b = 6, n = 5
b n + Component model of :
6A
20 V vx is = 6 A
vs = ?
+ i1 – i2 4Ω
− Define an extra unknown vx
2Ω

Step 1
• Assign mesh currents: i1 and i2
• What’s the relation between i1 and i2?
Step 2
• Apply KVL to 2 meshes:

34
Ex. 2.10 With Current Source Existed Between Two Meshes

6Ω 10 Ω
+ Supermesh
6A
20 V vx
+ i1 – i2 4Ω
− 2Ω

• And we already know that i2 i1 = 6 A

35
Ex. 2.11 With Dependent Current Source
CASE 5 2Ω
b = 8, n = 5
b n i1
5A 4Ω 2Ω io

6Ω 8Ω 10 V
+
i2 i3 i4 −
3 io

Step 1
• Assign mesh currents: i1, i2, i3 and i4

36
Ex. 2.11 With Dependent Current Source
2Ω

Supermesh
i1
5A 4Ω 2Ω io

6Ω 8Ω 10 V
+
i2 i3 i4 −
3 io

Step 2
• We can find that both the 5A independent current source and
the 3io dependent current source lie between two meshes
• Apply the supermesh concept to the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd mesh
• Only two KVL equations are required

37
 Nodal Analysis vs. Mesh Analysis

Advantage of nodal analysis and mesh analysis:

Both methods provide a systematic way for analyzing a circuit
The number of unknowns is fewer than that of the 2B method

Nodal analysis Mesh analysis

Node voltage Unknown Mesh current

Number of
n−1 unknowns b − (n − 1)

Number of
n − 1 − mv unknowns b − (n − i
(including sources)

(mv: number of voltage sources, mi: number of current sources)

Which method do we prefer? It depends on the solution required!

38
Ex. 2.12 Nodal Analysis & Mesh Analysis

1. Find the power supplied of the 4 A independent current source (by

nodal analysis and mesh analysis, respectively)

39
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
Contents

2.3 Superposition
Theorem

40
 Superposition Theorem in Circuits

The circuit theorem studied in this semester belongs to the area of

“linear systems”
So, we can apply some theorems of linearity to solve circuit problems

Two theorems are introduced in this section:

1. Homogeneous theorem
2. Superposition theorem

Actually, these two theorems are 2Ω 4Ω vs2

not critical for dc independent

+
−
sources vs1 +
However, they are important for the −
scenario that two independent 1Ω 5Ω
3Ω
sources are not of the same form,
such as vs1 = v1e–2t and vs2 = v2cosωt

41
 Linear Systems

A circuit can be considered as a linear system:

x y
Input
f( ) Output
6Ω 2Ω 3Ω
io
is
The value 7Ω 4Ω 5Ω
The current on the
of is interested load (io)

Properties of linear system (between output y and input x):

Homogeneous property
If f(x1) = y1, then f(mx1) = my1

Additive property
If f(x1) = y1, f(x2) = y2, then f(x1 + x2) = y1 + y2
42
Ex. 2.13 Homogeneous Property in Circuit
6Ω 2Ω 3Ω
io
is = 15 A
7Ω 4Ω 5Ω

1. Find io by assuming io = 1 A and use linear properties to find its

actual value

Output: The current on

Input: The value of is f( ) the interested load io
Assumption 5 1
Real value 15 3
43
 Additive Property in Circuit (1/2)

R2 R4

is1 + is2 is3

R1 R3 vx R5
–

For a linear circuit consisting of n input source (u1, u2, u3,…, un), then
the output response can be calculated as the sum of its
components
y = f (u1 ) + f (u2 ) + ... + f (un )

Input sources: is1, is2, and is3

Interesting output response: vx
We can activate one source at a time and sum the resultant output
responses to determine the final result

44
 Additive Property in Circuit (2/2)
R2 R4
Source 1:
is1 +
R1 R3 vx1 R5
–

R2 R4
Source 2:
+ is2
R1 R3 vx2 R5
–

R2 R4
Source 3:
+ is3
R1 R3 vx3 R5
–

The final response vx = vx1 + vx2 + vx3

45
Ex. 2.14 Superposition Theorem

1. Calculate i1, i2, i3, and i4 by superposition theorems

46
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
Ex. 2.15 Superposition Theorem

1. Use the principle of superposition to find vo and the associated

power delivered to it

(Note that dependent sources cannot be deactivate!!)

47
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
Contents

2.4 Source
Transformation

48
 Source Transformation

R
a a
is vs
+
R
−

b b

It allows a voltage source in series with a resistor to be

replaced by a current source in parallel with the same resistor
Vice versa

49
 Voltage Source Current Source

Case 1: R a i
vs +
+
− v Load
–

b
The current run through the load:

vs − v vs v
i= = − a i
R R R vs
is = +
R
R v Load
Let this term be is, so it is equivalent to: –

50
 Current Source Voltage Source

Case 2: a i
is +
R v Load
–

The voltage across the load:

v = ( is − i ) R = is R − iR
R a i
vs = is R +
+
− v Load
–
Let this term be vs, so it is equivalent to:
b

51
Ex. 2.16 Source Transformation
5Ω a

60 V −
+

5A
3Ω

Both the source and resistor representations are equivalent for the load
connected at a-b terminals

52
Ex. 2.17 Source Transformation

1. Use source transformations to find the voltage v

2. Find the power developed by the 120-V voltage source

53
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Contents

2.5 Thévenin and Norton

Equivalents

54
 Objective of Thévenin Equivalent Circuit (1/3)

4Ω io 6Ω 2Ω a

10 V 8Ω 3 io
+
−

8Ω b
Usually, we have a given circuit
We connect a load to the a-b terminals; the load derives power from that
given circuit
The objective is to calculate the voltage, current, or power on the load

RL = 3 Ω RL = 10 Ω CL = 5 pF
4Ω io 6Ω 2Ω a 4Ω io 6Ω 2Ω a 4Ω io 6Ω 2Ω a

10 V 8Ω 3 io 10 V 8Ω 3 io 10 V 8Ω 3 io
+
−
3Ω +
−
10 Ω +
−
C = 5 pF

8Ω b 8Ω b 8Ω b

55
Objective of Thévenin Equivalent Circuit (2/3)

4Ω io 6Ω 2Ω a

10 V 8Ω 3 io
+
−

8Ω b

Instead of calculating vL and iL one at a time, the given

two-terminal circuit can be replaced by:

Rth
a

vth +
−

b
56
 Objective of Thévenin Equivalent Circuit (3/3)

RL = 3 Ω RL = 10 Ω CL = 5 pF
Rth Rth Rth
a a a

vVthth +
vVthth +
vVthth +
3Ω 10 Ω 5 pF
− − −

b b b

To compute the voltage and current on the load becomes much easier
Voltage divider will do!
We don’t have to reanalyze the entire circuit
So, the most imperative task would be:
• How do we find vth?
• How do we find Rth?
57
 Thévenin Theorem

A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit

consisting of a voltage source vth in series with a resistor Rth where

a i
Linear two-terminal + Connected interested
v
circuit – circuit
b

Rth i
a
+ + Connected interested
vth v
− circuit
–
b

• vth : The open-circuit voltage at the terminals

• Rth :The input resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off
58
 vth: New Voltage Source

Equivalent circuit: The same voltage-current relation at the terminals

The equivalence is only valid for the viewpoint of the load
However, if you concern about the voltage-current relation at some
components of the source circuit, you can’t find such information by
using the equivalent circuit

a
+
Linear two-terminal
circuit voc
–
b

vth = voc Rth

a
+
−

b
59
 Rth: New Internal Resistance (Case 1)

a
Linear circuit with all
independent sources Rin
set equal to 0
b

Rth = Rin a
vth
+
−

If dependent sources are included in the original circuit,

we need another method for finding Rth

60
Ex. 2.18 If the Original Circuit Only Has Independent Sources (1/2)

10 Ω 20 Ω
a

10 V +
−
10 Ω

b
1. Derive the Thévenin equivalent circuit

vth : By voltage divider principle:

Rth :

61
Ex. 2.18 If the Original Circuit Only Has Independent Sources (2/2)

10 Ω 20 Ω
a

10 V +
−
10 Ω

b
Thévenin equivalent circuit:

Verification: If RL = 25 Ω:
• Original circuit: iL = 0.1 A, vL = 2.5 V
• Thévenin equivalent circuit: iL = 0.1 A, vL = 2.5 V
62
Rth: If the Original Network Has Dependent Sources (Case 2) (1/2)

io
a
Linear circuit with all
+
independent sources − vo
set equal to 0
b

Arbitrarily apply a testing voltage source vo

And then find the associated io

vo
Rth = io a
vth
+
−

b
63
Rth: If the Original Network Has Dependent Sources (Case 2) (2/2)

a
Linear circuit with all +
independent sources vo io
set equal to 0 –

Arbitrarily apply a testing current source io

And then find the associated vo

vo
Rth = io a
vth
+
−

b
64
Ex. 2.19 If the Original Circuit Has Dependent Sources
2 vx

0.5 Ω
a
+
5A 0.25 Ω vx 1/6 Ω
–

b
1. Derive the Thévenin equivalent circuit

vth : By nodal analysis

Rth :

65
Ex. 2.20 Application of Thévenin Equivalent Circuit
4Ω 1Ω
a

32 V + 2A
−
12 Ω RL

1. Find the current through the adjustable resistor where RL = 6,

16, and 36 Ω, respectively

66
Ex. 2.21 A More Complicated Example
2 vx

−
+
2Ω 2Ω
a
+
5A 4Ω vx 6Ω RL
–

1. Find the consumed power on the adjustable resistor where RL =

6, 16, and 36 Ω, respectively
2. What value of RL can derive maximum power from the original
circuit?

67
 Norton Equivalent Circuit

A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit

consisting of a current source iN in parallel with a resistor RN where

a
Linear two-terminal Connected interested
circuit circuit
b

a
iN Connected interested
RN
circuit
b

• iN : The short-circuit current through the terminals

• RN :The input resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off
68
 Computation of iN and RN

• iN : The short-circuit current run through the terminals

a isc

Linear two-terminal
circuit

b
a
iN = isc
RN

b
• RN : The computation of RN is the same as that of Rth

Norton equivalent circuit is the source transformation of

Thévenin equivalent circuit
69
Ex. 2.22 Norton Equivalent Circuit
4Ω

3Ω 3Ω
a
10 V
+
− 3Ω

b
1. Derive the Norton equivalent circuit

70
Ex. 2.23 Norton Equivalent Circuit
2 ix

5Ω
a
ix
10 V +
4Ω −

b
1. Derive the Norton equivalent circuit

71
Contents

2.6 Maximum Power

Transfer Theorem

72
 Objective of This Section

a
Linear two-terminal
RL
circuit
b

Find the value of RL that permits maximum power delivery to it

The linear two-terminal circuit can be arbitrarily assigned, such as

4Ω io 6Ω 2Ω a

10 V 8Ω 3 io
+ RL
−

b
73
 Solution to This Problem

To simplify the problem, we replace the two-terminal circuit with its

Thévenin equivalent circuit
Rth i
a
vth
+
− RL

b
2
 vth 
The power on RL: P = i 2 RL =   RL
 Rth + RL 
dP
In order to have the maximum power transfer, let =0
dRL
2
 vth  vth2
Solution: when RL = Rth , Pmax =  RL =
 2 RL  4 RL

74
Ex. 2.24 Maximum Power Transfer
30 Ω a

360 V +
− 150 Ω RL

1. Find the value of RL that results in maximum power transferred to RL

2. Calculate the maximum power Pmax that can be delivered to RL
3. When RL is adjusted for maximum power transfer, what percentage
of the power delivered by the 360 V source reaches RL?

75
 電路學 Circuit Theory
Lecture 3
Responses of RL, RC, and RLC
Circuits
Dr. Yen-Sheng Chen
Electronic Engineering, Taipei Tech
 Contents
Lecture 3:
Responses of RL, RC, and RLC Circuits
3.1 Capacitors and Inductors
3.2 Combinations of C and L
3.3 Natural Responses of First-Order Circuits
3.4 Step Responses of First-Order Circuits
3.5 Linear Second-Order Circuits
3.6 Responses of Second-Order Circuits
2
Acknowledgment: Prof. Ching-Tsai Pan and his slides of Electric Circuits course.
Contents

3.1 Capacitors and

Inductors

3
 Two New Passive Components: C & L

Resistors: C ice cdǎě 器

Vce Vcotltifieiildi ice icotltisivlildi
They dissipate energy 電感器在直流非時變shore
10電容器在直流非時變時open
器的 感器的電
0電 連續
Capacitors:
They store energy
䆐 在
Metal
Insulator
The energy is stored at electric field
Whenever electrical conductors are separated by a
insulator, the capacitance occurs

Inductors
They store energy
The energy is stored at magnetic field
Inductance results from a conductor linking a
magnetic field

4
 Component Model of a Capacitor

Symbol Model

iC(t) q
Slope = C
+
vC(t) C vC
–

q = C × vC; where q: charge, or “electric flux”, in coulombs

C: capacitance in F (Farad)
t
On the other hand, q ( t ) = −
iC ( )d
dq dv ( t )
1. If vC is given, then iC ( t ) = =C C
dt dt
q 1 t 1 t
2. If iC is given, then C ( )
v t = = iC ( ) d = vC ( 0)
t +
t0 C
i ( )d
C C − C
5
 EX 3.1 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (1/5)

i(t)
+ C = 0.5 F 0 t
v(t) v ( t ) = 4t V 0<t
– −( t −1)
4e V t>1s

1. Find the expressions for the current, power, and energy on the
capacitor
2. Determine the interval of time when energy is being stored and
delivered in the capacitor, respectively

6
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.1 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (2/5)

dv ( t )
The current run through the capacitor: i ( t ) = C
dt
d ( 0)
( 0.5 10 −6
) dt
=0 t

d ( 4t )
i (t ) = ( 0.5 10−6 )
dt
= 2 10−6 A 0<t

( 0.5 10 −6
)
( d 4e
−( t −1)
) = −2 10−6 e
−( t −1)
A t>1s
dt

7
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.1 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (3/5)

The power of the capacitor: p ( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t )

0 t

p (t ) = ( 4t ) (2 10−6 ) = 8t W 0<t

( 4e ( ) ) ( −2
− t −1
10−6 e
−( t −1)
) = −8e −2( t −1)
W t>1s

8
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.1 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (4/5)

t t dv ( )d 1
The energy of the capacitor: W ( t ) = p ( )d = Cv ( ) = Cv 2 ( t )
− − d 2

0 t
1
W ( t ) = ( 0.5 10−6 ) ( 4t )
2
= 4t 2 J 0<t
2
1
( 0.5 10−6 ) ( 4e )
2
−( t −1)
= 4e −2(t −1) J t>1s
2

9
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.1 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (5/5)
Summary:
• Voltage on a capacitor must be continuous; it cannot
change abruptly across the terminals of the
capacitor
• If the voltage across the terminals is constant, ic = 0
dv ( t ) (equivalent to open circuit)
i (t ) = C
dt
When does the capacitor store energy?
• Storing energy: w(t) increases
• This is when the power is positive
1 1
p ( t ) dt = (8t ) dt =4 uJ
0 0

When does the capacitor dissipate energy?

• Dissipating energy: w(t) decreases
• This is when the power is negative

1
p ( t ) dt =
1
( −8e −2( t −1)
) dt = − 4 uJ
10
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.2 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (1/4)

i(t)
0 t s
+ C = 0.2 F 5000t A 0<t s
v(t) i (t ) =
0.2 − 5000t A 20 < t s
–
0 t > 40 s

1. Let v(0) = 0. Find the expressions for the voltage, power, and energy
on the capacitor

11
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.2 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (2/4)

1 t
The voltage dropped across the capacitor: v ( t ) = v ( t0 ) + i( )d
C t0

0 t s
1 t
0+ ( 5000 ) d = 12.5 109 t 2 V 0<t s
0.2 10−6 0
v (t ) =
1 t
5+ ( 0.2 − 5000 ) d = 106 t − 12.5 109 t 2 − 10 V 20 < t s
0.2 10−6 20

10 t > 40 s

12
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.2 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (3/4)

The power in the capacitor: p ( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t )

t s
0
(12.5 10 t ) ( 5000t ) = 62.5 10 t W
9 2 12 3 0<t s
p (t ) =
(10 t − 12.5 10 t − 10 ) ( 0.2 − 5000t ) = 62.5
6 9 2
1012 t 3 − 7.5 109 t 2 + 2.5 105 t − 2 W 20 < t s

0 t > 40 s

The power > 0 all the time

So the capacitor stores energy continuously

13
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.2 Circuit Variables of a Capacitor (4/4)

1
The energy in the capacitor: W ( t ) = Cv 2 ( t )
2
0 t s
1
( 0.2 10−6 ) (12.5 109 t 2 ) = 15.625 1012 t 4 J
2
0<t s
2
W (t ) = 1
( 0.2 10−6 ) (10 t − 12.5 109 t 2 − 10 ) = 15.625 1012 t 4 − 2.5 109 t 3 + 0.125 106 t 2 − 2t + 10−5 J
6 2
20 < t s
2
1
2
( 0.2 10−6 ) (10 )
2
= 10 J t > 40 s

14
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Component Model of an Inductor

Symbol Model

iL(t)
Slope = L
+
vL(t) L iL
–

= L × iL; where : “magnetic flux” in weber

L: inductance in H (Henry)
t
On the other hand, (t ) = −
vL ( )d
d di ( t )
1. If iL is given, then vL ( t ) = =L L
dt dt
1 t 1 t
2. If vL is given, then iL ( t ) = = vL ( ) d = iL ( t0 ) + vL ( )d
L L − L t0

15
 EX 3.3 Circuit Variables of an Inductor (1/5)

i(t)
+ L = 100 mH
0 t
v(t) i (t ) =
10te −5t A t > 0 s
–

1. Find the expressions for the voltage, power, and energy on the
inductor
2. Determine the interval of time when energy is being stored and
delivered in the inductor, respectively

16
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.3 Circuit Variables of an Inductor (2/5)

di ( t )
The voltage dropped on the inductor: v ( t ) = L
dt
0 t
v (t ) = d (10te −5t )
(100 10−3 )
dt
= e −5t (1 − 5t ) A t>0s

17
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.3 Circuit Variables of an Inductor (3/5)

The power in the inductor: p ( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t )

0 t
p (t ) =
( e−5t (1 − 5t ) ) (10te ) = 10t (1 − 5t ) e−10t W
−5t%
t>0s

18
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.3 Circuit Variables of an Inductor (4/5)

t t di ( )d 1 2
The energy in the inductor: W ( t ) = p ( )d = Li ( ) = Li ( t )
− − d 2

0 t
W (t ) = 1
2
(100 10−3 ) (10te ) −5t 2
= 50t 2 e −10t J t>0s

19
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.3 Circuit Variables of an Inductor (5/5)
Summary:
• Current through an inductor must be continuous;
it cannot change abruptly in an inductor
• If the current run through an inductor is constant,
vL = 0 (equivalent to short circuit)
di ( t )
v (t ) = L
dt
When does the inductor store energy?
• Storing energy: w(t) increases
• This is when the power is positive
0.2
p ( t ) dt =27.07 mJ
0

When does the inductor dissipate energy?

• Dissipating energy: w(t) decreases
• This is when the power is negative

p ( t ) dt = − 27.07 mJ
0.2

20
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 3.4 Circuit Variables of an Inductor

i(t)
+ L = 100 mH
v ( t ) = 20te −10t V t>0s
v(t)
–

1. Let i(0) = 0. Find the expressions for the current through the
inductor

21
EX 3.5 DC Condition

1Ω 5Ω
iL

12 V 4Ω
+ 2H
− +
1F vc
–

Under DC condition, find:

1. the voltage across the capacitor
2. the current through the inductor
3. the energy in the capacitor
4. the energy in the inductor

22
 Remarks

C and L are capable of storing energy, so they can be used for

generating a large amount of voltage or current for a short
period of time
They can also be used as temporary voltage or current sources
The frequency sensitive property of L and C makes them useful
for frequency discrimination
• Low pass filters
• High pass filters
• Band pass filters

23
Contents

3.2 Combinations of
C and L

24
 N Capacitors in Parallel
i A i A

+ i1 i2 i3 iN +
v C1 C2 C3 … CN v Ceq
– –

B B
Left: i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ... + iN
dv dv dv dv
= C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + CN
dt dt dt dt
dv
= ( C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + CN )
dt
dv
Right: i = Ceq
dt

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + CN

25
 N Capacitors in Series
i A C1 C2 C3 i A
…
+ + v1 – + v2 – + v3 – + +
v vN CN v Ceq
– – –

B B
Left: v = v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + vN
 1 t   1 t   1 t 
= v1 ( t0 ) + i( )   2( 0)
d + v t + i( ) 
d + ... +  N ( 0)
v t + i( ) 
d
 C1 t0
  C2 t0
  CN t0

 1 1 1 
= ( v1 ( t0 ) + v2 ( t0 ) + ... + vN ( t0 ) ) +  +
t
+ ... +  i( )d
C
 1 C 2 C N 
t0

1 t
Right: v = v ( t0 ) + i( )d
Ceq 0 t

1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
Ceq C1 C2 CN
26
 N Inductors in Series
i A L1 L2 L3 i A
…
+ + v1 – + v2 – + v3 – + +
v vN LN v Leq
– – –

B B
Left: v = v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + vN
di di di di
= L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN
dt dt dt dt
di
= ( L1 + L2 + L3 ... + LN )
dt
di
Right: v = Leq
dt

Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN

27
 N Inductors in Parallel
i A i A

+ i1 i2 i3 iN +
v L1 L2 L3 … LN v Leq
– –

B B
Left: i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ... + iN
 1 t   1 t   1 t 
= i1 ( t0 ) + v( ) d  + i2 ( t0 ) + v ( ) d  + ... + iN ( t0 ) + v( )d 
 L1 t0
  L2 t0
  LN t0

1 1 1  t
= ( i1 ( t0 ) + i2 ( t0 ) + ... + iN ( t0 ) ) +  + + ... +  t0 v ( ) d
 L1 L2 LN 
1 t
Right: i = i ( t0 ) + v( )d
Leq 0 t

1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
Leq L1 L2 LN
28
 Summary

Resistor Capacitor Inductor

1 t di
Give i, find v v = iR v ( t ) = v ( t0 ) + i( )d v=L
C t0
dt
v dv 1 t
Give v, find i i= i=C i ( t ) = i ( t0 ) + v( )d
R dt L t0

Power or v2 1 1 2
P=i R= 2
W = Cv 2 W= Li
energy R 2 2
Series C1C2
Req = R1 + R2 Ceq = Leq = L1 + L2
connection C1 + C2

Parallel R1 R2 L1 L2
Req = Ceq = C1 + C2 Leq =
connection R1 + R2 L1 + L2

DC case The same Open circuit Short circuit

29
Contents

3.3 Natural Responses of

First-Order Circuits

30
 From Resistive Circuits to RC and RL Circuits

Resistive circuits RC and RL circuits

• Algebraic equations • Differential equations
• Solution techniques: • Solution techniques:
Nodal analysis Nodal analysis
Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis

The solution of RC and RL circuits:

Natural response + Forced response
獨立電源
上暫時 讎
Or in the form of 只
持續 穩熊
When input sources are Transient response + Steady response
set as DC inputs, the
“forced response” is called Or in the mathematical terms of
a “step response”
Homogeneous solution + Particular solution

31
 Natural Responses of First-Order Circuits

First-order RC circuit First-order RL circuit

A A

i(0) i(t)
+ +
Ceq v(0) v(t) Req Leq Req
– –

B B

Objective: Find v(t) from a Objective: Find i(t) from a

given v(0) given i(0)
How to create v(0)? How to create i(0)?
t=0 A t=0 A

R1 i(0) i(t)
vDC + + iDC
+ Ceq Leq
v(0) v(t) Req R1 Req
−
– –

B B 32
 Step Responses of First-Order Circuits
t=0 t=0
A A

RTH i(t) vTH i(t)

vTH + +
+ v(t) Ceq RTH v(t) Ceq
−
RTH
– –

t=0 t=0
A A

RTH i(t) vTH i(t)

vTH + +
+ v(t) Leq RTH v(t) Leq
−
RTH
– –

Objective: Find v(t) and i(t) after t = 0

Note that the voltage source and current source provide DC inputs

33
EX 3.6 An RC Circuit

t=0

vS +
+ R
C v(t)
−
–

1. Find v(t) for t 0+

34
 Time Constant in RC Circuits

+ t
−
C v(t) R v ( t ) = vS e RC

After finishing the computation, we find an interesting parameter

t
−
= RC v ( t ) = vS e

t = : v(t) = 0.368 vS (37 %)

t = 3 : v(t) = 0.050 vS (5 %)
t = 5 : v(t) = 0.007 vS (1 %)

When t , we call it a “steady state”

The capacitor is fully discharged after 5

35
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 3.7 Example: Another RC Circuit
10 kΩ 32 kΩ i0(t)

100 V t=0 + +
+ 240 kΩ 60 kΩ
0.5 F vC(t) v0(t)
−
– –

1. Find vC(t), v0(t), and i0(t) for t +

2. Find the total energy dissipated in the 60-kΩ resistor

36
EX 3.8 An RL Circuit
t=0

iS
L R
i (t)

1. Find i(t) for t 0+

37
 Time Constant in RL Circuits

R
− t
L R i ( t ) = iS e L

i (t)

In the above procedure, we find an interesting parameter again

t
L −
= i ( t ) = iS e
R
t = : i(t) = 0.368 iS (37 %)
t = 3 : i(t) = 0.050 iS (5 %)
t = 5 : i(t) = 0.007 iS (1 %)

When t , we call it a “steady state”

The inductor is fully discharged after 5

38
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 3.9 Example: Another RL Circuit
t=0 4Ω

10 A iL(t) ix(t)
+
0.5 H 2Ω 3iL(t)
−

1. Find iL(t) and ix(t) for t 0+

39
EX 3.10 Another Example of RL Circuits

2Ω t=0 4Ω

40 V iL(t)
+
−
12 Ω 16 Ω 2H
ix(t)

The switch has been turned on for a long time

At t = 0, it’s turned off
1. Find ix(t) for t +

2. Find iL(t) for t +

40
Contents

3.4 Step Responses of

First-Order Circuits

41
 Characteristics of Step Response

Natural response: 2Ω t=0 4Ω

When the state of the switch is iL(t)
40 V
changed, the new state has no +
12 Ω 16 Ω 2H
other sources −
ix(t)

Step response:
When the state of the switch is
changed, the new state has new 3 kΩ 4 kΩ
t=0
sources
部24 V
The new sources cause new
responses—forced responses
i +
−
5 kΩ
+
v (t) 0.5 mF
+
−
30 V

If the new sources are DC inputs, –

then the force response is called
the “step response”
直流9情況
42
EX 3.11 Basic Case of Step Response (1/2)
R t=0

vS + v0
+ +
− C vC(t) −
–

1. Find vC(t) for t +

43
 EX 3.11 Basic Case of Step Response (2/2)
t
−
The complete solution: vC ( t ) = (V0 − VS ) e RC
+ VS

R t=0

vS + v0
+ +
− C vC(t) −
–

How about the current over C?

dvC  −1 −
t
 v − v −
t
iC ( t ) = C =C ( v0 − vS ) e RC  = S 0
e RC
dt  RC  R

If v0 = 0, for t = 0+, i(0+) = vS/R

C is initially short circuited!

44
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Particular Solutions (1/2)

an y ( n ) ( x ) + an−1 y ( n−1) ( x ) +  + a1 y ( x) + a0 y = g ( x )

yh + yp
g(x) particular solution

45
 Particular Solutions (2/2)

Example
y − 2 y − 3 y = 4 x − 5 + 6 xe 2 x

Step 1: Find the solution of

y − 2 y − 3 y = 0.
yc = c1e3 x + c2e − x
Step 2: Particular solution
y − 2 y − 3y = 4x − 5 y − 2 y − 3 y = 6 xe 2 x
guess guess
y p1 = Ax + B y p2 = Cxe 2 x + Ee 2 x

y p1 = − 4 x + 23 y p2 = −(2 x + 4 )e 2 x
3 9 3
46
EX 3.12 An RC Circuit with Step Responses

3 kΩ 4 kΩ
t=0

24 V + 30 V
+ +
5 kΩ
− v (t) 0.5 mF −
–

t 0− : the circuit is under steady state

1. Find v(t) for t +

47
EX 3.13 An RL Circuit with Step Responses
t=0

2Ω 3Ω
+ i(t)
+
10 V −
v (t) 1/3 H
–

t 0− : the circuit is under steady state

1. Find v(t) for t +

2. Find i(t) for t +

48
 EX 3.14 First-Order RC Circuit

The switch in the circuit has been in the OFF position for a long
time
1. Find vo(t) for t +

2. Find i (t) for t +

49
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.15 First-Order RL Circuit

The switch in the circuit has been open a long time before
closing at t = 0
1. Find io(t) for t +

50
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 3.16 First-Order RL Circuit

The switch in the circuit has been open a long time before
closing at t = 0
1. Find vo(t) for t +

51
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
Contents

3.5 Linear Second-Order

Circuits

52
 Examples of Linear 2nd-Order Circuits (1/2)

• One energy storage element • Two energy storage elements

• 1st-order differential equations • 2 nd-order differential equations
• Need one initial condition • Need two initial conditions to
to get the unique solution get the unique solution

Series RLC Circuit Parallel RLC Circuit

iL(t)

vs(t) R L is(t)
+
+
C R L C vC(t)
−
–

53
 Examples of Linear 2nd-Order Circuits (2/2)

is(t) R vs(t) R1 R2
+
C1 C2 −
L1 L2

We can’t combine C1 and C2 (L1 and L2) together because

there is a resistor between them

54
 Examples of Natural Response

Series RLC Circuit Parallel RLC Circuit

R1 R2 C t=0

t=0 iL(t) is
vs
+ R1 R2 L
−
L C

When the switch is turned off, the new circuit has no

external sources

55
 Examples of Step Response

Series RLC Circuit Parallel RLC Circuit

R C

t=0 is
vs
+ R2 L
−
L t=0 C

When the switch is turned off, the new circuit has external
sources

56
 How to Solve 2nd-Order RLC Circuits? (1/4)

v 吉 階
iC iR iL
+
vC(t) C R L Objective: find vC(t)
–

1. Select the nodal analysis or mesh analysis and write down the
equation

 dv ( t )   v ( t )   1
積分 程
+ 
( )  = 0
t
C + + vd + i 0
 dt   R   L 0+

tts
2. Differentiate the equation as many times as required to get the
standard form of a 2nd-order differential equation

C
d 2 v ( t ) 1 dv ( t ) 1
+ + v (t ) = 0
微 分到積分消失
2
dt R dt L
剛好變微分 和 2 階 57
 How to Solve 2nd-Order RLC Circuits? (2/4)

3. Solve the differential equation

Homogeneous solutions vh(t)
Particular solution vp(t) (if the RLC circuit has external sources)

d 2 v ( t ) 1 dv ( t ) 1
C 2
+ + v (t ) = 0
dt R dt L

Considering that the RLC circuit has no external sources (as this example):
Homogeneous solutions xh(t):
Suppose that the solutions have the form of emt

m mt 1 mt  m 1  mt
Cm 2 e mt + e + e =0  Cm 2
+ + e = 0
R L  R L

58
 How to Solve 2nd-Order RLC Circuits? (3/4)
設rceseme 成的過
Solving Cm 2 +
m 1
+ = 0:
灣
關灣
niniii

f
R L

2
i 䨻 ini
1  1  1 m min iticgdamped
m1 = − +   − mt 阻尼
臨界
2 RC  2 RC  LC

iiiiii
2
1  1  1
m2 = − −   −
2 RC  2 RC  LC iiiǚiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiii

First difference between 1st -order and 2 nd -order circuits

2
 1  1
  − 0, 0, or = 0 leads to three different situations
 2RC  LC

• Three new terminologies: overdamped, underdamped, & critically damped

59
 Overdamped, Underdamped, & Critically damped

为阻尼 振幅隨時間衰減 t

Overdamped Underdamped

BT
Critically damped Undamped

ˋ
eiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.in
ㄟ

無阻尼
60
R. C. Dorf and J. A. Svoboda, Introduction to Electric Circuits, 8th Edition, Wiley, NJ, 2011
 How to Solve 2nd-Order RLC Circuits? (4/4)

4. Express the final solution v(t) = vh(t) + vp(t)

2
 1  1
(Supposing   − 0)
 2RC  LC

vC ( t ) = c1e m1t + c2 e m2t

Second difference between 1st -order and 2 nd -order circuits

• To get the unique solution, we need to solve c1 and c2

• Two initial conditions (I. C.) are required (Lectures 3-3 and 3-4 only
need one I. C.)
• What I. C. do we need?
dvC ( 0+ )
vC ( 0+ ) ,
dt

61
Contents

3.6 Responses of Second-

Order Circuits

62
 Solution Procedure

娜
All the problems in these two lectures can be casted into:

Step 1: Draw a circuit under t 0– 舊電路的

Find iL(0–) on inductors and vC(0–) on capacitors
Step 2: Draw another circuit for t 0+
Formulate the problem by nodal analysis or mesh analysis
Differentiate the equation as many times as required to
get the standard form of a 2 nd order D. E.

d 2 x (t ) dx ( t )
a
dt 2
+ b
dt
+ x (t ) = y (t ) 微分到積分不
Step 3: Solve the D. E. to get x(t) = xh(t) + xp(t)
Find the initial conditions x(0+) and dx(0+)/dt and then get
the unique solution

63
EX 3.17 Natural Response of Series RLC Circuits

300 Ω t=0

500 Ω
80 V + 40 nF
+ iL(t)
vC(t)
−
2.5 mH –

t 0–: the circuit is under steady state

1. Find iL(t) for t +

64
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 dt
EX 3.18 Natural Response of Parallel RLC Circuits

t 0–: the circuit is under steady state

1. Find vo(t) for t +

65
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 3.19 Step Response of Series RLC Circuits

9 kΩ t=0 80 Ω 5 mH i (t)
L

80 V + 100 V
+ +
−
15 kΩ 2 F vC (t) −
–

t 0–: the circuit is under steady state

1. Find iL(0+) for t +

2. Find diL(0+) /dt for t +

3. Find iL(t) for t +

66
 EX 3.20 Second-Order RLC Responses

The switch in the circuit has been in position a for a long time
1. Find iL(t) for t +

67
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 3.21 A More Complex Example

4Ω i(t) 1H

12 V 2Ω
+
0.5 F
−
t=0

t 0–: the circuit is under steady state

1. Find i(0+) for t +

2. Find di(0+) /dt for t +

3. Find i(t) for t +

68
 電路學 Circuit Theory
Lecture 4
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

Dr. Yen-Sheng Chen

Electronic Engineering, Taipei Tech
 Contents
Lecture 4:
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
4.1 The Phasor
4.2 Circuit Theorems in the Phasor Domain
4.3 Advanced Techniques for Phasor Analysis
4.4 Sinusoidal Steady-State Power Calculation
4.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
4.6 Analysis of the Y-Y and Y- Circuits
2
Acknowledgment: Prof. Ching-Tsai Pan and his slides of Electric Circuits course.
Contents

4.1 The Phasor

3
 Introduction to This Lecture

Lecture 4
• We consider DC sources • Now we deal with AC sources
• Transient solution + steady- • Steady-state solution
state solution • Such as:
• Such as: vS = 2cos(60t + 30°) V
vS = 12 V & iS = 200 mA iS = Imcos(ωt + φ) A

60 Ω

+
+ 10 mF v(t)
−
– 5H
20cos(4t – 15°)

4
[Online] https://www.redbubble.com/i/clock/F-ck-Tesla-By-Edison-by-simasgs/32669339.CN2BJ
 Definition of AC Circuit
AC circuits:
Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources
v ( t ) = Vm cos (ωt + θ )
Vm The amplitude of the sinusoid
ω The angular frequency, unit: rad/s
θ Phase angle, unit: rad
f frequency, unit: Hz
ω=2 f
T Period, unit: s. v(t + T) = v(t)
T = 2 /ω

Characteristics:
It’s the dominant form of signal in Communication,
Electromagnetics, and Electric Power Industries
Through Fourier analysis, any practical periodic signal can be
represented by a sum of sinusoids
AC circuits can be easily handled by the phasor
5
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Some Manipulation of Sinusoidal Sources

1. Changing sine into cosine:

Cosine is the standard reference of AC signals/circuits
v(t) = Vmsin(ωt + θ) v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + θ – 90°)
v(t) = –Vmsin(ωt + θ) v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + θ + 90°)
v(t) = –Vmcos(ωt + θ) v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + θ + 180°)

Vm > 0; only the cosine function is involved

2. The superposition of sine and cosine:

Acos(ωt) + Bsin(ωt) = Ccos(ωt – θ), where C = A2 + B 2
sin
B
θ = tan −1
A
cos cos
3. Another form of sinusoidal function:
e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ
sin
6
 Why is the Phasor So Important?

Prerequisites of using the phasor domain:

It’s useful when you only care about the steady-state solution
You must have the capability to move back and forth between the
polar and rectangular forms of complex number

Benefits of using the phasor representation:

For a linear circuit with sinusoidal sources, the current and
voltage at any branch will also have sinusoidal forms
It greatly simplifies the complexity of computation:
• The addition of complex number
• It turns the differential/integral equations into algebraic equations
Time domain P (v (t )) Phasor domain

Solve the problem!

P −1 ( V ) = Re  Ve jωt 
7
 A New Approach for Solving AC Circuits: Phasor

Phasor: a complex number that represents the amplitude

and phase of a sinusoid
Phasor domain
Time domain (or frequency domain)
P v t ( ( ))
v ( t ) = Vm cos (ωt + θ ) V (Complex form)
Vm ∠θ (Polar form)
Vm cos θ + jVm sin θ (Rectangular form)
Vm e jθ (Exponental form)

P −1 ( V ) = Re  Ve jωt 

• Real value • Complex

• Voltage and current • Voltage and current are NOT the
are the functions of t functions of t
8
EX 4.1 Phasor Transform

1. Find the phasor transform of each trigonometric function:

v(t) = 170 cos(377t – 40°) V
i(t) = 10 sin(1000t + 20°) A
v(t) = 300 cos(20000 t + 45°) – 100 sin(20000 t + 30°) mV

2. Find the time-domain expression associated

to each phasor:
V = 18.6∠–54° V
I = (20∠45° – 50∠–30°) mA
V = (20 + j80 – 30∠15°) V

9
Contents

4.2 Circuit Theorems

in the Phasor Domain

10
 KCL in Phasor Domain

i1 i2
KCL in Lecture 1:
i3 n
iK ( t ) = 0 (for any node)
K =1

Now every branch has sinusoidal current:

iK ( t ) = I mK cos (ωt + θ K )
n
I mK cos (ωt + θ K ) = 0
K =1

Take phasor transform on both sides:

n
I mK ∠θ K = 0 + j 0
K =1

or I1 + I 2 + ... + I n = 0

11
 KVL in Phasor Domain
+ v1 –
KVL in Lecture 1:
+ + n
v4 v2 vK ( t ) = 0 (for any loop)
– – K =1

+ v3 – Now every branch has sinusoidal voltage:

vK ( t ) = VmK cos (ωt + K )
n
VmK cos (ωt + K )=0
K =1

Take phasor transform on both sides:

n
VmK ∠ K = 0 + j0
K =1

or V1 + V2 + ... + Vn = 0

12
 Resistor Model in Phasor Domain
iR(t)
Component model in Lecture 1:
+
R vR ( t ) = RiR ( t )
vR(t)
–
Suppose the sinusoidal current is given:
R: resistance Given iR ( t ) = I m cos (ωt + θ )
G: conductance
Then vR ( t ) = RI m cos (ωt + θ )

Take phasor transform on both sides:

Phasor domain model
Given I R = I m ∠θ
IR
Then P ( vR ( t ) ) = RI m ∠θ = RI R = VR
+
Similarly, given VR, one can find
VR R
– 1
IR = VR = GVR
R
13
 Inductor Model in Phasor Domain
iL(t)
Component model in Lecture 3:
+ diL ( t )
vL(t) vL ( t ) = L
L dt
–
Suppose the sinusoidal current is given:

Given iL ( t ) = I m cos (ωt + θ )

diL ( t )
Then vL ( t ) = L = −ω LI m sin (ωt + θ )
dt
= ω LI m cos (ωt + θ + 90 )
Phasor domain model
IL Take phasor transform on both sides:
P ( vL ( t ) ) = ω LI m e
j (θ + 90 )
+ = ω LI m e jθ e j 90 = jω LI m e jθ = jω LI L
VL jωL
1
– VL = jω LI L Similarly, given VL: I L = VL
jω L
14
 Capacitor Model in Phasor Domain
iC(t)
Component model in Lecture 3:
+ dvC ( t )
vC(t) iC ( t ) = C
C dt
–
Suppose the sinusoidal voltage is given:

Given vC ( t ) = Vm cos (ωt + θ )

dvC ( t )
Then iC ( t ) = C = −ωCVm sin (ωt + θ )
dt
= ωCVm cos (ωt + θ + 90 )
Phasor domain model
IC Take phasor transform on both sides:
+ P ( iC ( t ) ) = ωCVm e j (θ +90 ) = ωCVm e jθ e j 90 = jωCVm e jθ = jωCVC
VC 1/jωC
1
– I C = jωCVC Similarly, given IC: VC = IC
jωC
15
 Summary of the Component Models

Element Time domain Phasor domain

v = Ri V = RI
R i = Gv I = GV

di
v=L V = jω LI
dt
L 1 t I=
1
V
i = i ( 0) + v( )d jω L
L 0

dv 1 1
i=C V= I=−j I
dt
C 1 t
jωC ωC
v = v ( 0) + i( )d I = jωCV
C 0

16
 The Concept of “Impedance”

From the above phasor-domain models of R, L, and C, the ratio of

the phasor voltage to the phasor current:

R, for resistor
V
= jω L, for inductor
I
1 1
=−j , for capacitor
jωC ωC

Define
V
I
Z Impedance (Unit: Ω)
Impedance is a complex quantity; it’s not a phasor
It can be further expanded into R + jX. R: resistance; X: reactance
17
 The Concept of “Admittance”

Definition:

1 I • Y: admittance, unit: S
Y= = G + jB • G: conductance, unit: S
Z V
• B: susceptance, unit: S

Summary:

V = ZI, I = YV Suitable for resistors, inductors, and capacitors

complex Ohm’s law

18
EX 4.2 Circuitry in Frequency Domain

10cos(ωt + 20°) 1Ω 1F
1H 2Ω

1. Redraw the above circuit in frequency domain (phasor domain

with ω = 3)

19
 Remarks

For a resistor with resistance R:

1
G=
R

For a component with impedance Z = R + jX:

1 1 R X
Y= = = 2 −j 2 = G + jB
Z R + jX R + X 2
R +X 2

R
G= 2
R + X2
−X
B= 2
R + X2
1
G (unless X = 0)
R
20
 Series Connection

+ V1 – + V2 –
I
Z1 Z2
+ +
V Zk Vk
– + Vn – + Vn–1 – –
Zn Zn–1

Equivalent impedance:
n
By KVL: V = Vk
k =1
n
Vk
V V1 + V2 + ... + Vn n
Z eq = k =1
= = Zk
I I I k =1
21
 Voltage Division Principle

+ V1 – + V2 –
I
Z1 Z2
+ +
V Zk Vk
– + Vn – + Vn–1 – –
Zn Zn–1

The voltage on each component Vk:

Zk
Vk = n
V
Zk
k =1

22
EX 4.3 Combining Impedances in Series
90 Ω 32 mH

i(t)
+
−
5 F
750cos(5000t + 30°)

1. Calculate the steady-state current i(t) by the phasor approach

23
 Parallel Connection

+
V Z1 Z2 …… Zk …… Zn
– I1 I2 Ik In

Equivalent impedance (or equivalent admittance):

n
By KCL: I = k
k =1
n

1 I k =1 k n
1 n
= = or Yeq = Yk
Z eq V V k =1 Z k k =1

24
 Current Division Principle

+
V Z1 Z2
– I1 I2

The current through each component:

Z2
I1 =
Z1 + Z 2
Z1
I2 =
Z1 + Z 2
Z1Z 2
(The equivalent impedance can be written as Z eq = )
Z1 + Z 2
25
EX 4.4 Combining Impedances in Parallel

8cos(200,000t)
+ 6Ω
v(t) 10 Ω 1 F
– 40 H

1. Calculate the steady-state voltage v(t) by the phasor approach

2. Find the current run through each branch

26
 Δ-Y Transformation

Δ-Y: Zb Zc
Z1 =
Z a + Zb + Zc
Zc Za
Z2 =
Z a + Zb + Zc
Z a Zb
Z3 =
Z a + Zb + Zc

Y-Δ:
Z1Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
Za =
Z1
Z1Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
Zb =
Z2
Z1Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
Zc =
Z3
27
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 4.5 Δ-Y Transformation

2Ω –j4 Ω
I

50∠0° 12 Ω j4 Ω 8Ω j6 Ω
+ –j3 Ω
−
8Ω

1. Find I in the above circuit

28
 Contents

4.3 Advanced Techniques

for Phasor Analysis

29
 How to Solve More Complex Circuits?

Lecture 2 Lecture 4

Resistive networks AC circuits

The same methods in Lecture 2 can be extended to this lecture:

Nodal analysis
Mesh analysis
Superposition theorem
Source transformation
Thévenin equivalent circuits
Norton equivalent circuits

30
 Solution Steps

Steps to analysis of AC circuits:

Step 1: Transform the circuit to the phasor domain
(or frequency domain)
Step 2: Solve the complex algebraic equations
Step 3: Transform the answer back to the time domain

Assumptions for using the phasor approach:

1. We only need the steady-state solutions
2. Only one frequency existed in the circuit
3. The voltage source and current source must be of sinusoidal
form
4. All of the elements in the circuit are linear components

31
EX 4.6 Nodal Analysis
10 Ω 1H
ix
20cos(4t) V
+
0.1 F 2ix 0.5 H
−

1. Find the steady-state ix(t) in the above circuit

32
EX 4.7 Mesh Analysis
4Ω

5∠0°
Io
–j2 Ω
j10 Ω
+
−
20∠90°
8Ω –j2 Ω

The circuit has been already transformed to the phasor domain

1. Find Io

33
 EX 4.8 Solving AC Circuit

va = 50sin(106t), vb = 25cos(106t + 90°)

1. Find the steady-state expressions for the branch currents ia, ib, and ic

34
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 EX 4.9 Solving AC Circuit

vg = 72cos(5000t)
1. Find the steady-state expressions for vo

35
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Superposition Theorem

The superposition theorem in Lecture 2:

For a linear circuit consisting of n input sources, We can activate
one source at a time and sum the resultant output responses to
determine the final result
But, if the circuit contains only DC sources, the superposition
theorem is of little help

The superposition theorem in Lecture 4:

The superposition theorem becomes a very important technique
NOW
When the AC sources have DIFFERENT frequencies, we can
activate one source at a time, and the total response is obtained
by adding the individual responses in the time domain

36
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
Example of Superposition Theorem (1/2)

R2 R4

Is1 + Is2 Is3

R1 R3 vx R5
–

How to find vx by superposition theorem?

37
 Example of Superposition Theorem (2/2)

Source 1: R2 R4

Is1 +
R1 R3 vx1 R5
–

R2 R4
Source 2:
+ Is2
R1 R3 vx2 R5
–

R2 R4
Source 3:
+ Is3
R1 R3 vx3 R5
–

The final response vx = vx1 + vx2 + vx3

38
EX 4.10 Superposition Theorem (1/6)

2H 1Ω 4Ω

+ v(t) –
10cos(2t) V + + 5V
− 0.1 F −
2sin(5t) A

The linear AC circuit contains 3 source frequencies

ω: 2, 5, and 0
1. Find the steady-state v(t)

Now we have 3 frequencies, the response should be regarded as:

ω1 = 0, ω2 = 2, ω3 = 5
v ( t ) = v1 ( t ) + v2 ( t ) + v3 ( t )

39
EX 4.10 Superposition Theorem (2/6)
Original circuit:
Step 1: Transform the circuit to 2H 1Ω 4Ω
the phasor domain
(frequency domain) + v(t) –
10cos(2t) V + + 5V
1. v1(t): (ω1 = 0)
− 0.1 F −
2sin(5t) A

2. v2(t): (ω2 = 2)

3. v3(t): (ω3 = 5)

v ( t ) = v1 ( t ) + v2 ( t ) + v3 ( t )
40
EX 4.10 Superposition Theorem (3/6)

1. v1(t): (ω1 = 0)
1Ω 4Ω (Original circuit)

+ v1(t) – 2H 1Ω 4Ω
+
− + v(t) –
5V 10cos(2t) V + + 5V
− 0.1 F −
2sin(5t) A

Step 2-1: Solve the circuit

41
EX 4.10 Superposition Theorem (4/6)

2. v2(t): (ω2 = 2)
j4 Ω 1Ω 4Ω (Original circuit)

+ V2 – 2H 1Ω 4Ω
10∠0° V
+
− –j5 Ω + v(t) –
10cos(2t) V + + 5V
− 0.1 F −
2sin(5t) A

Step 2-2: Solve the circuit

Step 3-2: Transform the answer back to the time domain

42
EX 4.10 Superposition Theorem (5/6)

3. v3(t): (ω3 = 5)
(Original circuit)
j10 Ω I1 1Ω 4Ω
+ V3 – 2H 1Ω 4Ω

+ v(t) –
–j2 Ω
2∠ –90° A 10cos(2t) V + + 5V
− 0.1 F −
2sin(5t) A

Step 2-3: Solve the circuit

Step 3-3: Transform the answer back to the time domain

43
EX 4.10 Superposition Theorem (6/6)

Step 4: Sum up the individual response in time domain

1
v1 ( t ) = −5 = −1 V
1+ 4

v2 ( t ) = 2.5cos ( 2t − 30.8 )V
v3 ( t ) = 2.33cos ( 5t − 80 )V

44
 Source Transformation

a a
ZS
IS VS
ZS +
−

b b

If the current source (IS) is given, then it can be transformed to a

voltage source with
VS = Z S I S

If the voltage source (VS) is given, then it can be transformed to a

current source with
VS
IS =
ZS
45
 Example of Source Transformation
5Ω a a

60 V − 12 A
+ 5Ω

b b

a 3Ω a

5A 15 V +
3Ω
−

b b

Both the source and resistor representations are equivalent for the load
connected at a-b terminals
46
EX 4.11 Source Transformation

5Ω 4Ω –j3 Ω

20∠–90° V 3Ω +
+ Vx
− 10 Ω
j4 Ω –

1. Calculate Vx

47
 Thévenin-Norton Equivalent Circuits

A linear two-terminal circuit under sinusoidal steady-state condition:

a I
Linear two-terminal + Connected interested
V
circuit – circuit
b

Thévenin equivalents Norton equivalents

Zth I
a I a
Vth + IN +
+ ZN V
− V –
–
b b

48
 Example of Thévenin Equivalent Circuit

4Ω io 6Ω 2Ω a i

10 V 8Ω 3 io +
+ RL
− v
–
b

• vth : The open-circuit voltage at the terminals

• Rth :The input resistance at the terminals when
the i n d e p e n d e n t sources are turned off

Rth i
a
vth + +
− v RL
–
b
49
EX 4.12 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

50 mH a

22.36cos(5000t + 26.565°) 250 Ω

+
− 400 nF
50 mH

1. Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a, b

50
EX 4.13 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

−j6 Ω 4Ω

+
120∠75° V − a b
8Ω j12 Ω

1. Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a, b

51
Contents

4.4 Sinusoidal Steady-

State Power Calculation

52
 Introduction to AC Power

The topic of the following discussion: AC power

Nearly all electric energy is supplied in the form of sinusoidal voltages
and currents
Prior to this lecture, we have only one definition for power calculation:

Power calculation i(t)

+
Resistive circuits p=v i v(t)
Circuits with L & C p (t ) = v (t ) i (t ) –

But AC power has 6 definitions:

1. Instantaneous power
2. Average power (namely, real power)
3. Reactive power (namely, imaginary power)
4. Complex power
5. Apparent power
6. Power factor
53
 Instantaneous Power

Instantaneous power Assume passive sign convention

i(t)
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t ) + p(t) > 0: The power is dissipated
(Watt) v(t) p(t) < 0: The power is pulled out
–

In AC circuits, v(t) and i(t) are expressed as: Im V

v ( t ) = Vm cos (ωt + θ v )
θv
i ( t ) = I m cos (ωt + θi ) I
(Time domain) θi
Re
(Phasor domain)
It’s equivalent to:
Im
V
v ( t ) = Vm cos (ωt + θ v − θi )
i ( t ) = I m cos (ωt ) (Time domain)
θv– θi I
Re
(Phasor domain)
54
 Derivation of Instantaneous Power
By definition, the instantaneous power is:

p ( t ) = Vm I m cos (ωt + θ v − θi ) cos (ωt )

On the other hand, from the property of trigonometric function:
1 1
cos cos = cos( − ) + cos( + )
2 2
V I V I
p ( t ) = m m cos(θ v − θi ) + m m cos(2ωt + θ v − θi )
2 2
Again, using the property of trigonometric function:
cos( + ) = cos cos − sin sin
Vm I m This expression leads to the definition
p (t ) = cos(θ v − θi ) of average power and reactive power
2
V I V I
+ m m cos(θ v − θi ) cos 2ωt − m m sin(θ v − θi ) sin 2ωt
2 2
55
 Average Power & Reactive Power

Vm I m Vm I m Vm I m
p (t ) = cos(θ v − θi ) + cos(θ v − θi ) cos 2ωt − sin(θ v − θi ) sin 2ωt
2 2 2

We “define” them as: P P Q

p ( t ) = P + P cos 2ωt − Q sin 2ωt

We define the following quantities:

Average power Reactive power

Vm I m Vm I m
P= cos(θ v − θi ) Q= sin(θ v − θi )
2 2
(Watt) (Var)

56
 Physical Meaning of P

Why is P called “average” power?

p ( t ) = P + P cos 2ωt − Q sin 2ωt

1 t0 + T
p( )d =P
T t0

T is the period of the sinusoidal function

The average of the instantaneous power over one period is
exactly P itself

57
 Physical Meaning of Q

Why is Q called “reactive” power?

Purely resistive circuit Purely inductive circuit Purely capacitive circuit

θv θi 0 90° 90°

p(t) P + Pcos2ωt Qsin2ωt Qsin2ωt

P 1 0 0

Q 0 1 1

Figure

Reactive power: Inductors and capacitors are reactive element

58
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 4.14 Average Power & Reactive Power

i(t) 1. Calculate the average power and the reactive power at

+ the terminals of the network if
v(t)
– v ( t ) = 100 cos (ωt + 15 )
i ( t ) = 4sin (ωt − 15 )
2. State whether the network is absorbing or delivering
average power
3. State whether the network inside the box is absorbing
or supplying magnetizing vars

59
 Representation in Phasor Domain

Time domain Phasor domain

P (v (t ))
v ( t ) = Vm cos (ωt + θ v ) V = Vm ∠θ v

i ( t ) = I m cos (ωt + θi ) I = I m ∠θi

P −1 ( V ) = Re  Ve jωt 

Average power and reactive power represented by its phasor:

Vm I m 1
P= cos(θ v − θi ) = Re  VI 
2 2
Vm I m 1
Q= sin(θ v − θi ) = Im  VI 
2 2

60
 Are the Formulations Familiar with Our Background?

Vm I m 1
P= cos(θ v − θi ) = Re  VI 
2 2
V I 1 That is, the instantaneous
Q = m m sin(θ v − θi ) = Im  VI  power in time domain
2 2
We are more familiar with the form: p = v × i instead of P = Vm × Im*/2
Can we create effective terms of voltage and current, such as

Veff, Ieff

and make P =Veff × Ieff*?

1 t0 + T
Ieff of a periodic current i(t): I eff = i 2 ( )d
T t0

The equivalent DC current that delivers the same average power

to a resistor R as the periodic current

61
 The Meaning of Ieff

Periodic i(t) R Ieff R

• Periodic current source • DC source

• Not necessary being a
sinusoidal source
1 t0 + T
P1 = i2 ( ) Rd P2 = I eff2 R
T t0

By definition, P1 = P2, so:

1 t0 + T
I eff = i 2 ( )d
T t0

The effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean

square (RMS) value!
62
 EX 4.15 Calculations of RMS Value

1. If i(t) = Imcos(ωt + θi)

Find its RMS current

2. If i(t):

Find its RMS current

63
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Special Case: AC Circuits

The major concern in this lecture: i(t) = Imcos(ωt + θi)

I m2 T Im
cos (ωt + θi ) d =
2
I rms =
T 0
2

We define a new type of phasor, called “rms phasor” of i(t), as

Im
I rms = I rms ∠θi = ∠θi
2

Average power can be rewritten as:

Vm I m V I
P= cos(θ v − θi ) = m m cos(θ v − θi ) = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θi )
2 2 2
Reactive power can be rewritten as:

Q = Vrms I rms sin(θ v − θi )

64
EX 4.16 Finding Average Power by the RMS Voltage

A sinusoidal voltage having a maximum amplitude of 625 V is

applied to the terminals of a 50 Ω resistor
1. Find the average power delivered to the resistor

65
 Complex Power of Phasor Domain

If we express them in terms of RMS voltage phasor & RMS current

phasor:

1 V I 
P = Re  VI  = Re   = Re  Vrms I rms 
2  2 2
So P is also called “real power”
1 V I 
Q= Im  VI  = Im   = Im  Vrms I rms 
2  2 2
So Q is also called “imaginary power”

So, we define the complex power: Complex power

S = P + jQ = Vrms I rms S = Vrms I rms

= P + jQ (VA)
66
 Power Triangle (1/2)

Vm I m 1
|S| P= cos(θ v − θi ) = Re  VI  = Re  Vrms I rms 
2 2
Q
θ v − θi V I 1
Q = m m sin(θ v − θi ) = Im  VI  = Im  Vrms I rms 
2 2
P

Definition of “apparent power (unit: VA)”:

Apparent power = |S|, or • The apparent power represents the volt-amp
capacity required to supply the average power
S = P2 + Q2

Definition of “power factor (pf)”: Apparent power

P
pf = = cos(θ v − θi )
S S = P2 + Q2
• Clearly, pf
(VA)
• What does pf = 1 mean?
67
 Power Triangle (2/2)

From complex Ohm’s law:

Vrms = ZI rms = ( R + jX ) I rms

Therefore, complex power can be written as:

2 2 2
S = Vrms I rms = ZI rms I rms = Z I rms = R I rms + jX I rms = P + jQ

R P and X Q
Z Note:
X P R
pf = =
θ v − θi S Z
R
Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the source and the
reactive part of the load
Reactive power represents a lossless interchange between the load
and the source
68
 Meaning of Power Factor

From the perspective of power: From the perspective of impedance:

|S| |Z|
Q X
θ v − θi θ v − θi

P R
V Vm
P = S cos (θ v − θi ) Z= = ∠θ v − θi
I Im
Lagging pf and leading pf:

Load pf
Q=0 Resistive load pf =1
Q>0 Inductive load Lagging pf Current lags voltage

Q<0 Capacitive load Leading pf Current leads voltage

69
EX 4.17 Calculating Power for Arbitrary Load

The load voltage and current are given as follow:

v ( t ) = 60 cos (ωt − 10 )V
i ( t ) = 1.5cos (ωt + 50 ) A

Calculate the following quantities:

1. Complex power
2. Apparent power
3. Average power
4. Reactive power
5. Power factor
6. Impedance ZL

70
EX 4.18 Calculating Complex Power

An electrical load operates at |Vrms| = Vrms = 240 V

The load absorbs an average power of 8 kW at a lagging power
factor of 0.8
1. Calculate the complex power of the load
2. Calculate the impedance of the load

71
 Conservation of Complex Power (1/2)

Parallel connection:
I
I1 I2
+
V Z1 Z2
–
(RMS phasors)

The complex power supplied by the source:

( −I ) = V  − ( I1 + I 2 ) = ( −V I1 ) + ( −V I 2 ) = ( −S1 ) + ( −S 2 )
* *
S=V

The complex power of the source equals the respective sum of the
complex powers of the individual loads

72
 Conservation of Complex Power (2/2)

Series connection:
I + V1 –

+ Z1 +
V V2 Z2
– –
(RMS phasors)

The complex power supplied by the source:

( −I ) = ( V1 + V2 ) ( −I ) = ( −V1 I* ) + ( −V2 I* ) = ( −S1 ) + ( −S 2 )

* *
S=V

The complex power of the source equals the respective sum of the
complex powers of the individual loads

73
 EX 4.19 Power Conservation

j1 Ω

+
+
VS 200∠0 V
L1 L2
– (rms)
–

Load L1 is absorbing 15 kVA at 0.6 pf lagging

Load L2 is absorbing 6 kVA at 0.8 pf leading
1. Find the phasor voltage VS (rms) in
this circuit
(Express VS in polar form)

74
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Applications of Power Conservation

75
https://www.xuehua.us/a/5eb5b97986ec4d6195ad79b0?lang=zh-tw
https://www.newton.com.tw/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AE%B9%E8%A3%9C%E5%84%9F
 Maximum Power Transfer in AC Circuits

Resistive Circuit More general case

a a
Linear two-terminal Linear two-terminal
RL ZL
circuit circuit
b b

Find the value of ZL that permits maximum power delivery to it

How to solve it? From its Thévenin equivalent circuit:
a
ZTH

Vth +
− ZL

b
76
 The Condition for Maximum Power Transfer (1/2)

(Phasor domain)
a
ZTH Let

+
ZTH = RTH + jX TH
Vth ZL
− Z L = RL + jX L

b
VTH VTH
I= =
ZTH + Z L ( RTH + RL ) + j ( X TH + X L )
2
1 2 1 VTH RL
P= I RL = (P: Average power)
2 2 ( RTH + RL ) 2 + ( X TH + X L ) 2

To have maximum output P:

P P
= 0 and =0
RL XL
(1) (2)
77
 The Condition for Maximum Power Transfer (2/2)

2
P − VTH [( RL + RTH ) + ( X L + X TH ) − 2 RL ( RL + RTH )]
2 2

(1) = =0
RL [( RL + RTH ) + ( X L + X TH ) ]
2 2 2

( RL + RTH ) 2 + ( X L + X TH ) 2 − 2 RL ( RL + RTH ) = 0
RL2 + 2 RL RTH + RTH
2
+ ( X L + X TH ) 2 − 2 RL2 − 2 RL X TH = 0
2
RTH + ( X L + X TH ) 2 − RL2 = 0 RL = RTH
2
+ ( X L + X TH ) 2

2
P − VTH 2 RL ( X L + X TH )
(2) = =0 X L = − X TH
X L [( RL + RTH ) + ( X L + X TH ) ]
2 2 2

(Amplitude phasor)
To have maximum output P: 1 2
Pmax = I RL
2
Z L = ZTH =
1 VTH
2

RTH =
VTH
2

2 2 RTH 8 RTH

78
 Special Case: If the Load Is Purely Real

The load is not a complex number; it’s purely real:

ZTH = RTH + jXTH
a
ZTH

Vth +
− RL

b
What’s the condition for maximum power transfer?

1. RL = RTH
or RL = RTH
2
+ X TH
2
= ZTH
2. RL = |ZTH|

79
EX 4.20 Case 1: ZL Is an Arbitrary Complex Number

4Ω j5 Ω
(Amplitude phasor)

10∠0° 8Ω
+
− ZL
–j6 Ω

1. Determine ZL to get maximum average power output PZL

2. What is the value of PZL?

80
EX 4.21 Case 2: ZL Is an Arbitrary Real Number

40 Ω –j30 Ω
(Amplitude phasor)

15∠30°
+
j20 Ω RL
−

1. Find RL such that it will absorb maximum average power

2. What is the value of this power?

81
 Contents

4.5 Balanced Three-Phase

Circuits

82
 An Overview of Balanced Three-Phase Systems

Sources Zl Loads
a A

Van +
− Vbn ZY
b Zl B ZY
n N
−
+
−
Vcn + ZY
c Zl C

(Phasor domain)
A balance three-phase system contains:
Three voltage sources
• Equal amplitude
• Phases are different by 120°
Three loads with equal value
Three distributed lines

83
 Three-Phase Voltage Sources (1/2)

Three-phase generator:
The induced voltage:

d
E = −N
dt
(N: number of wires;
φ: magnetic flux)

Mathematical representation:
Y-connection: Δ-connection:

84
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Three-Phase Voltage Sources (2/2)

Creating one-phase voltage:

Creating three-phase voltages:

85
 Y-Connection (1/3)

a
van(t) +
−
vbn(t)
n b

−
+
−
(Textbook)
vcn(t) +
c

Positive sequence Negative sequence

Phase voltage in Phase voltage in
time domain: time domain:
van(t) = Vpcosωt van(t) = Vpcosωt
vbn(t) = Vpcos(ωt – 120°) vbn(t) = Vpcos(ωt + 120°)
vcn(t) = Vpcos(ωt – 240°) vcn(t) = Vpcos(ωt – 120°)
= Vpcos(ωt + 120°)

86
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Y-Connection (2/3)

Positive sequence Negative sequence

Phase voltage in phasor Phase voltage in phasor
domain: domain:
Van = Vp∠0° Van = Vp∠0°
Vbn = Vp∠–120° Vbn = Vp∠120°
Vcn = Vp∠120° Vcn = Vp∠–120°
Vcn Im. Vbn Im.

Van Re. Van Re.

Vbn Vcn
Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0 Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0

87
 Y-Connection (3/3)

4 important physical quantities:

Phase voltage:
a
van(t) + • Time domain: van(t), vbn(t), vcn(t)
−
vbn(t)
• Phasor domain: Van, Vbn, Vcn
n b
−
+

−
vcn(t) + Line voltage (line-to-line voltage):
c • Time domain: vab(t), vbc(t), vca(t)
• Phasor domain: Vab, Vbc, Vca
The relation between phase voltage and line voltage:
vab(t) = van(t) – vbn(t) Sources Zl Loads
a A
vbc(t) = vbn(t) – vcn(t) +
Van ZY
− Vbn
vca(t) = vcn(t) – van(t) n
b Zl B ZY
N
−
+

−
Vcn ZY
Phase current = line current
+
c Zl C

88
EX 4.22 Line Current vs. Phase Current

a
+
Van Vbn
−
n b

−
+
−
Vcn +
c

The balanced three-phase system is of positive sequence

Now, Van = 100∠0°

1. Find Vab, Vbc, and Vca

89
 Δ-Connection
a

van(t) vcn(t)

+
−
c
vbn(t)

There is a circulation current for the Δ-Connection systems

The circulating current cause power loss
Moreover, the usage life of the
generator decreases
We consider only the Y-connection in
this course

Practical scenario: Van + Vbn + Vcn 0

90
 Y-Connected Load (1/2)

IaA (Line current) In “balanced” three phase systems:

A
+ The three load impedances are equal:
VAB ZA
ZA = ZB = ZC = ZY
– I ZB IBN IAN
bB
B N Line current = phase current
+ (Phase ICN
current)
IaA = IAN
VBC ZC
– I IbB = IBN
cC
C IcC = ICN
Considering positive sequence: VP = VAN = VBN = VCN

Line voltage (line-to-line voltage):

VAB = VAN − VBN = 3VP ∠30 , VBC = VBN − VCN = 3VP ∠ − 90 ,

VCA = VCN − VAN = 3VP ∠150
91
 Y-Connected Load (2/2)

Assuming positive sequence:

IaA (Line current) VAN − VBN = 3VP ∠30
A VCN Im. −VBN
+
VAB ZA
– I ZB
B
bB IBN IAN VCN − VAN
N 30°
(Phase ICN
VAN Re.
+
current) = 3VP ∠150
VBC ZC
– I
cC
C
VBN
VAB = VAN − VBN = 3VP ∠30
VBC = VBN − VCN = 3VP ∠ − 90
VBN − VCN = 3VP ∠ − 90
VCA = VCN − VAN = 3VP ∠150
If the phase voltage is obtained, so is the line voltage
If the solution of the phase a is obtained, so are that of the phase
b and phase c
92
 Δ-Connected Load (1/2)

IaA A In “balanced” three phase systems:

a
IAB
+ – The three load impedances are equal:
VAB ZA
– ZA = ZB = ZC = Z
IbB B
b ZCVCA Line voltage = phase voltage
IBC
+
VBC ZB Vab = VAB
– + Vbc = VBC
IcC ICA
c
C Vca = VCA
Considering positive sequence:
For given phase voltages VAB = VP∠0°, VBC = VP∠–120°, VCA = VP∠120°:

VAB V V
I AB = = I P ∠ − θ , I BC = BC = I P ∠ − θ − 120 , I CA = CA = I P ∠ − θ + 120
Z Z Z
93
 Δ-Connected Load (2/2)
I cC = I CA − I BC
VCA ICA Im. = 3I P ∠ − θ + 90
I bB = I BC − I AB
IaA −θ −IBC
a
A
IAB
= 3I P ∠ − θ − 150
+ –
VAB
VAB Re.
ZA −θ
– VAB −θ
IbB B I AB = = I P∠ − θ IBC
30°
IAB
b ZCVCA Z
IBC
+
VBC
VBC ZB I BC = = I P ∠ − θ − 120 VBC
IcC – + Z −ICA
ICA
c
C I CA =
VCA
= I P ∠ − θ + 120
I aA = I AB − I CA
Z
= 3I P ∠ − θ − 30
Line current:
I P = I AN = I BN = I CN
I aA = I AB − I CA = 3I P ∠ − θ − 30
I bB = I BC − I AB = 3I P ∠ − θ − 150
I cC = I CA − I BC = 3I P ∠ − θ + 90

94
 Summary

Positive sequence Negative sequence

(P.S. or a b c) (N.S. or a c b)
∠VPA ∠VPB ∠VPC 120 ∠VPA ∠VPB ∠VPC −120
VaA VaA
= 3, = 3,
Y-connected V: VAN V: VAN
∠VaA − ∠VAN = 30 ∠VaA − ∠VAN = −30
I: I aA = I AN I: I aA = I AN

∠VPA ∠VPB ∠VPC 120 ∠VPA ∠VPB ∠VPC −120

V: VaA = VAN V: VaA = VAN
-connected I aA I aA
= 3, = 3,
I: I AN I: I AN
∠I aA − ∠I AN = −30 ∠I aA − ∠I AN = 30
95
EX 4.23 Line Current vs. Phase Current
IaA A

Z Z

IbB
B C
IcC Z

The balanced three-phase system is of positive sequence

Now, VAB = 200∠30° and Z = 10∠10°
1. Find IaA, IbB, and IcC

96
Contents

4.6 Analysis of the Y-Y

and Y- Circuits

97
 Y-Y Circuits

ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n ZY
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY
n N
−
+

−
Vc’n + ZY
ZS c Zl IcC C

A three-phase Y-Y balanced system:

Balanced source conditions
Balanced distribution lines (Zl)
Balanced load conditions (ZY)

98
 If We Purposely Add a Neutral Wire (1/2)

ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n ZY
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY
n N
−
+

− Io
Vc’n + Z0 ZY
ZS c IcC C

Zl
Nn line with impedance Z0: Let the voltage across the wire is VNn
Va n − VNn
I aA =
Z S + Z l + ZY
Vb n − VNn VNn
I bB = Io =
Z S + Z l + ZY Zo
Vc n − VNn
I cC =
Z S + Z l + ZY 99
 If We Purposely Add a Neutral Wire (2/2)
ZS Zl IaA
a A Va n − VNn
I aA =
Va’n + Z S + Z l + ZY
− Vb’n ZY
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY Vb n − VNn VNn
n N I bB = Io =
−
+

− Io Z S + Z l + ZY Zo
Vc’n Z0 ZY
Vc n − VNn
+
ZS c IcC C I cC =
Z S + Z l + ZY
Zl

From KCL at node n: I aA + I bB + I cC − I o = 0

=0
Va n + Vb n + Vc n  3 1 
− VNn  + =0
Z S + Z l + ZY  Z S + Z l + ZY Z o 

VNn = 0
The neutral wire can be replaced by a shorted circuit, despite the
fact that Z0 is arbitrarily chosen!
100
 A Short Cut for Balanced 3φ Systems

ZS Zl IaA ZS a Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n ZY A
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY +
n N − ZY
−
+

Va’n
−
Vc’n + ZY
ZS c IcC C
n N
Zl

The three-phase circuit can be decomposed into 3 single-phase

equivalent circuits
We solve a-phase circuit, calculating its line current (IaA) and phase
voltage (VAN)
If the phase voltage is obtained, so is the line voltage
If the solution of the phase a is obtained, so are that of the
phase b and phase c

101
EX 4.24 Analyzing a Y-Y Circuit
ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n ZY
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY
n N
−
+
−
Vc’n + ZY
ZS c Zl IcC C

We already know that the three-phase system is of positive sequence,

Va’n = 120∠0°, ZS = 0.2 + j0.5 Ω, ZY = 39 + j28 Ω, and Zl = 0.8 + j1.5 Ω
The a-phase internal voltage of the generator is chosen as the
reference phasor
1. Construct the a-phase equivalent circuit of the system
2. Calculate the line currents IaA, IbB, and IcC
3. Calculate the phase voltages at the load VAN, VBN, and VCN
4. Calculate the line voltages at the load VAB, VBC, and VCA
5. Calculate the phase voltages at the source Van, Vbn, and Vcn
6. Calculate the line voltages at the source Vab, Vbc, and Vca
102
 Y-Δ Circuits

ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n Z
ZS b Zl IbB B
n Z
−
+

−
Vc’n + Z
ZS c Zl IcC C

A three-phase Y-Δ balanced system:

Now the loads are Δ-Connected, while the sources are Y-
connected
We can’t add an N-n neutral line, so the three-phase system
can’t be decomposed into 3 single one-phase circuits

103
 Δ-Y Transformation

Δ-Y transformation

Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Rc Ra
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Special case: If Ra = Rb = Rc = R

R1 = R2 = R3 = R/3
104
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
 Transforming Y-Δ to Y-Y

ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n + 1
− Vb’n ZS Zl
Z
b IbB B 3
n
−
+

−
1 1
Vc’n +
Z Z
ZS IcC 3
c C 3
Zl
ZS a Zl IaA
A
Solution step: + 1
− Va’n Z
1. Redraw a single-phase circuit for phase a 3

2. Find the line current IaA

3. For other phases: line quantities can be obtained directly
form the information of phase sequence

105
EX 4.25 Analyzing a Y-Δ Circuit
ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n Z
ZS b Zl IbB B
n Z
−
+
−
Vc’n + Z
ZS c Zl IcC C

We already know that the three-phase system is of positive sequence,

Va’n = 120∠0°, ZS = 0.2 + j0.5 Ω, Z = 118.5 + j85.8 Ω, and Zl = 0.3 + j0.9 Ω
The a-phase internal voltage of the generator is chosen as the
reference phasor
1. Construct a single-phase equivalent circuit of the system
2. Calculate the line currents IaA, IbB, and IcC
3. Calculate the phase currents of the load
4. Calculate the phase voltages at the load terminals
5. Calculate the line voltages at the source terminals
106
 A Balanced Y Load: Instantaneous Power (1/2)

IaA
A
1. Instantaneous power:
+ +
Assuming the system has positive
VAB ZA VAN
– sequence
– I + VBN –
bB Let the loads are ZA = ZB = ZC = |Z|∠θ
B N
+ ZB + Let the phase voltages be:
VBC ZC VCN
– I v AN = 2VP cos ωt
–
cC
C vBN = 2VP cos (ωt − 120 )
iAN = 2 I P cos (ωt − θ ) vCN = 2VP cos (ωt + 120 )
RMS phasor
iBN = 2 I P cos (ωt − θ − 120 )
iCN = 2 I P cos (ωt − θ + 120 )
VP
where I P =
Z
107
 A Balanced Y Load: Instantaneous Power (2/2)

The formula of instantaneous power:

p ( t ) = p A + pB + pC
= v AN iAN + vBN iBN + vCN iCN
= 2VP I P cos ωt cos (ωt − θ )
+ 2VP I P cos (ωt − 120 ) cos (ωt − θ − 120 )
+ 2VP I P cos (ωt + 120 ) cos (ωt − θ + 120 )
1
By using cos A cos B = cos ( A + B ) + cos ( A − B ) 
2
p ( t ) = 3VP I P cos θ

In a balanced three-phase circuit, the power is invariant with time

108
 A Balanced Y Load: Complex Power

2. Complex power: S = P + jQ = Vrms I rms

Complex power for each phase:

S A = PA + jQA = (VP ∠0 )( I P ∠ − θ ) = VP I P ∠θ
S B = PB + jQB = (VP ∠ − 120 )( I P ∠ − θ − 120 ) = VP I P ∠θ
SC = PC + jQC = (VP ∠120 )( I P ∠ − θ + 120 ) = VP I P ∠θ

The complex power for each phase is the same as those of each other
Total complex power for the three phases:
S3 = S A + S B + SC = 3VP I P ∠θ
Total complex power for the three phases in terms of line voltages
and line currents:

S3 = 3VL I L ∠θ
109
 A Balanced Y Load: Average Power

3. Average power:

S3 = S A + S B + SC = 3VP I P ∠θ
The average power of the three phases is the real part of
the complex power:

P3 = 3VP I P cos θ
In terms of the line voltage and line current:

• Line current IL = Phase current IP

• Line voltage magnitude VL = 3VP

P3 = 3VL I L cos θ RMS phasor

4. Reactive power:
Q3 = 3VL I L sin θ
110
 A Balanced Δ Load: Instantaneous Power (1/2)
IaA A
a 1. Instantaneous power:
IAB
+ –
VAB ZA Assuming the system has positive
IbB – sequence
B
b ZC VCA Let the loads are ZA = ZB = ZC = |Z|∠θ
+
ZB Let the phase voltages be:
VBC
– +
IcC ICB ICA v AB = 2VP cos ωt
c
C vBC = 2VP cos (ωt − 120 )
iAB = 2 I P cos (ωt − θ ) vCA = 2VP cos (ωt + 120 )
RMS phasor
iBC = 2 I P cos (ωt − θ − 120 )
iCA = 2 I P cos (ωt − θ + 120 )
VP
where I P =
Z
111
 A Balanced Δ Load: Instantaneous Power (2/2)

The formula of instantaneous power:

p ( t ) = p A + pB + pC
= v AB iAB + vBC iBC + vCAiCA
= 2VP I P cos ωt cos (ωt − θ )
+ 2VP I P cos (ωt − 120 ) cos (ωt − θ − 120 )
+ 2VP I P cos (ωt + 120 ) cos (ωt − θ + 120 )
1
By using cos A cos B = cos ( A + B ) + cos ( A − B ) 
2
p ( t ) = 3VP I P cos θ

In a balanced three-phase circuit, no matter what the connection

manner is, the instantaneous power is invariant with time

112
 A Balanced Δ Load: Complex Power

2. Complex power: S = P + jQ = Vrms I rms

Complex power for each phase:

S A = PA + jQA = (VP ∠0 )( I P ∠ − θ ) = VP I P ∠θ
S B = PB + jQB = (VP ∠ − 120 )( I P ∠ − θ − 120 ) = VP I P ∠θ
SC = PC + jQC = (VP ∠120 )( I P ∠ − θ + 120 ) = VP I P ∠θ

The complex power for each phase is the same as those of each other
Total complex power for the three phases:
S3 = S A + S B + SC = 3VP I P ∠θ
Total complex power for the three phases in terms of line voltages
and line currents:
Again, the expression of complex power for
S3 = 3VL I L ∠θ two connection manners are identical
113
 A Balanced Δ Load: Average Power

3. Average power:

S3 = S A + S B + SC = 3VP I P ∠θ
The average power of the three phases is the real part of
the complex power:

P3 = 3VP I P cos θ
In terms of the line voltage and line current:

• Line current magnitude I L = 3I P

• Line voltage VL = Phase voltage VP

P3 = 3VL I L cos θ RMS phasor

4. Reactive power:
Q3 = 3VL I L sin θ
114
EX 4.26 Calculating Power in the Y-Y Circuit (Ex 4.24)
ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n ZY
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY
n N
−
+
−
Vc’n + ZY
ZS c Zl IcC C

We already know that the three-phase system is of positive sequence,

Va’n = 120∠0°, ZS = 0.2 + j0.5 Ω, ZY = 39 + j28 Ω, and Zl = 0.8 + j1.5 Ω
The a-phase internal voltage of the generator is chosen as the
reference phasor
1. Calculate the average power per phase delivered to the Y-connected
load
2. Calculate the total average power delivered to the load
3. Calculate the total average power lost in the line
4. Calculate the total average power lost in the generator
5. Calculate the total number of magnetizing vars absorbed by the load
115
EX 4.27 Calculating Power in the Y-Δ Circuit (Ex 4.25)
ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n Z
ZS b Zl IbB B
n Z
−
+
−
Vc’n + Z
ZS c Zl IcC C

We already know that the three-phase system is of positive sequence,

Va’n = 120∠0°, ZS = 0.2 + j0.5 Ω, Z = 118.5 + j85.8 Ω, and Zl = 0.3 + j0.9 Ω
The a-phase internal voltage of the generator is chosen as the
reference phasor
1. Calculate the total complex power delivered to the Δ-connected
load
2. What percentage of the average power at the sending end of the
line is delivered to the load?

116
EX 4.28 Calculating Power with an Unspecified Load
ZS Zl IaA
a A

Va’n +
− Vb’n ZY
ZS b Zl IbB B ZY
n N
−
+
−
Vc’n + ZY
ZS c Zl IcC C

A balanced three-phase load ZY requires 480 kW at a lagging power factor

of 0.8
The load is fed from a line having an impedance of Zl = 0.005 + j0.025 Ω
The line voltage at the terminals of the load is 600∠30° V (RMS phasor)
1. Construct a single-phase equivalent circuit of the system
2. Calculate the magnitude of the line current
3. Calculate the magnitude of the line voltage at the sending
end of the line
4. Calculate the complex power at the sending end of the line
117
 EX 4.29 Calculation of Line Current and Power

1. Find the RMS magnitude and the phase angle of ICA

2. What percentage of the average power delivered by the
three-phase source is dissipated in the three-phase load

118
J. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 9th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2011
EX 4.30 An Unbalanced Y-Y Circuit

a IaA A

Van +
− Vbn ZA
b IbB B ZB
n N
−
+
−
Vcn + ZC
c IcC C

We already know that the three-phase system is of positive sequence

with Van = 110∠0° (rms)
The load impedances are ZA = 50 + j80 Ω, ZB = j50 Ω, and ZC = 100 + j25 Ω
1. Calculate the line currents IaA, IbB, and IcC
2. Determine the complex power of the load for each phase
3. Calculate the total complex power delivered to the three-
phase load

119