COMPUTER SCIENCE BASIC NOTES

COMPUTER SCIENCE BASIC NOTES

BY ANONYMOUS

NB: THIS WORK OF ART IS MOST SUITABLE FOR BIGGINERS AND THOSE NEW TO THE WORLD
OF COMPUTERS

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1 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

LAB RULES
• Making noise is strictly prohibited.
• No games allowed.
• Eating and drinking in the lab is not allowed.
• Computers must be properly switched on and off.
• Do not touch any computer until you are given permission.
• Do not put passwords on the computer.
• Do not bring foreign devices to the lab.
• Do not use the computer to access email, face book, you tube/ dirt images.
• Do not delete files that do not belong to you.
• When you are not sure ask the teacher.

THE COMPUTER
What is a computer?

✓ This is an electronic device that accepts data, processes it and give out information.

Data

✓ Is the collection of raw facts, such as numbers, words, measurement, observations or even
just description of things.
✓ Are raw facts or numbers without any meaning.

Information

✓ Is the processed data that has meaning of value

Peripheral/ Peripheral Device

✓ It is any piece of equipment (or hardware) that can be connected to the Central Processing
Unit.

HARDWARE
Hardware: These are parts of a computer that exits in physical form, for example
mouse, keyboard. Hardware refers to tangible devices of a computer. Hardware is

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grouped into: Input Hardware, Processing Hardware, Output Hardware,

Storage devices and communication hardware.
NB: Internal Components of a computer: refers to the components of a processor, which
are Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit, Registers and Clock
Internal components can also include components enclosed inside the CPU casing such
as; buses, fans, memory (RAM and ROM), etc.
PROCESSING DEVICE
A device used to convert and to manipulate data as per user requirement.
INPUT DEVICES

These are devices that are used to enter data into the computer.
OUTPUT DEVICES
These are devices used to give out data or information from the computer . STORAGE

DEVICES

These are devices that are used to store data or information in a computer .
COMMUNICATION

These are devices which allows communication to take place between two or more
computers .

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COMPUTER SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

PROCESSING DEVICE
A device used to convert and to manipulate data as per user requirement. The sole
processing device of a computer is the processor, which is inside the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) casing. Processing involves sorting of data, updating
records, searching certain records, adding a sequence of numbers, and others.

The processor has the following functions:

- It controls the transmission of data from input device to memory
- It processes the data and instructions held in main memory
- It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output device.
- Controls the sequence of instructions,
- Give commands to all parts of the computer,
- Fetches the next instruction to be executed
- Decodes instructions
- Executes decoded instructions

The speed of a processor determines the speed and function of a computer. Until
the 1980s, most computers had one processor, but recent ones have two or more
processors (called co-processors), those with two processors are called dual
processors. Two or more processors share loads and therefore perform operations
faster. The speed of a computer is also determined by the clock speed for each

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microprocessor. This speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz). The general

structure of the CPU or Processor is as illustrated below:

The processor comprises of:

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU) and Registers
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) - Carries out arithmetic operations like add,
subtract, divide, etc. Performs logic operations, like AND, OR, etc.
(b) Control Unit (CU)

- It coordinates and controls all hardware operations,

- It carries out the Fetch-Execute Cycle.
(c) Registers

High-speed storage area in the CPU used to temporarily hold small units of program
instructions and data immediately before, during and after execution by the CPU.
(d) Memory (Main memory)
Stores programs and data for programs currently running on the computer. Main Memory is
very close to the processors and therefore the two can coordinate their activities very fast.
INPUT DEVICES
Touch pad trackball

Joy pad barcode reader

Mouse scanner microphone
Light pen web camera
Joystick digitizer
Digital camera
Magnetic Ink character Reader (MICR)
Optical Character Reader
Magnetic Stripe Reader

Remote control
Sensors
Touch screen

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Numeric keyboard
(i) Keyboard: It is a device used to enter data and instructions into the computer
by typing. It is a manual input device. It is similar to the traditional typewriter. It is
used to enter alphabetic letters (A-Z-both lower case and upper case), numbers
(09, positive and negative) and other special characters like the %, $, coma, ?, and
the space. Keyboard entry of data is manual and its excessive use without breaks
will cause Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI).
*NB: - A character is any symbol, digit or letter that can be entered into the
computer, eg. $, %, 5, h, etc. These characters can be numeric (numbers 0-9,
positive and negative), alphabetic (letters A-Z, both lower and upper case),
alphanumeric data (a combination of both numeric and alphabetic characters) and
special characters

(Space, $, >, etc.).

*NB: - Control Character: - Refers to
non-printable character code
or number in the character set that
do not represent a written symbol,
e.g. carriage return, tab key, etc.
These are mostly used in peripheral
devices control and for
communication purposes, for example, carriage return, tab or backspace; and
others typed by depressing a key and the control key at the same time.
*NB:-Extended Binary-Coded-
Standard keyboard Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) an 8-bit character set
and encoding representing 256
alphanumeric and special characters

- ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange: - a code for

information exchange between computers made by different companies; in which a
string of 7 binary digits represents each character; used in most microcomputers.
Each character has its ASCII binary code that can be understood by the computer.

Keyboards can be of the following types:

(a) Concept keyboard: uses icons or phrases instead of standard letters, e.g. they can
have the following keys: %, tax, CH, Total, etc. Most are faster for making menu
choices. They have fewer keys. Mostly popular for use in bars, supermarkets, fast
food restaurants, etc. They are quick and easy to use. They are also waterproof. The
keys are tamper proof.
(b) Braille keyboard: Suitable for the blind.

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(c) Standard keyboard: this is the normal, also called QWERTY keyboard. Advantages
of standard keyboards:
- Most people find them easy to use
- Enable fast entry of text data

Disadvantages of standard keyboards

- They are manual and therefore slower than most automatic entry methods - Errors
are very common using keyboards.
- Can be difficult to use for others.
- Take up valuable desk space as they are large.

(d) Numeric keypads: mostly used to enter numbers only. Used on ATMs, to enter PIN
and amount to be withdrawn. Also found on cell and telephones, Chip and
pin devices, and on Electronic Point of Sale terminals (EPOS). They are faster
in entering numeric data as compared to standard keyboards, very easy to
carry around if found on cell phones. However, they have very small keys
which can be difficult to use. It is difficult to use them for entering text data.

(ii) Mouse: It is a pointing device used to enter data and instructions into the computer by
clicking. A mouse has either one, two or three buttons. A mouse can be cable or
wireless. The mouse is also used to:
- Select options from a menu
- Position the cursor when editing text/typing - Select an object for drawing and
for editing diagrams - Select icons/text to be formatted, deleted or edited.
- Control movement of pointer on the screen.
It can also be used for pointing and selecting items.
Clicking is the process of pressing and releasing the
Mouse mouse button.

Advantages of mouse
- It is a fast method of entering data and for selecting items as compared to the
keyboard.
- It is faster to move cursor around the screen using a mouse than a keyboard.
- Usually supplied with the computer and so there are no additional costs.
- Very easy to use for most users.
- Take up very small area of the desk
- Very fast to switch between programs

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Disadvantages of mouse
- Needs a flat surface on which to operate
- Can be easily stolen or vandalized
- Some people find it very difficult to use
-
(iii) Touchpad
These are pointing devices used on laptops, where one moves a figure to control the
pointer on the screen. Their uses are similar to those of mouse. They aid portability
since they are attached to the whole computer system. Can also be used where there
are no flat surfaces available. However, they are difficult to use, e.g. when doing drag
and drop.

(iv) Scanner: an input device used to convert images from paper (hard copy) into
electrical signals for input into the
computer.
The images can then be edited,
printed or saved. Mostly used to
scan pictures, photographs, etc. they
can use OCR, convert to Word or pdf
format directly.

Flatbed scanners have the paper placed on top of them, in a similar way to a
photocopier. These are more expensive than hand-held scanners but they are
usually able to produce higher resolution images. They are very
accurate in scanning. Images are stored for later editing. Quality
of scanned image can depend on the resolution of scanner.

(v) Digital Camera: A device use to capture photographs, films, videos or a combination
of both for entry into the computer where they can be edited.

- no film is needed (saves costs for purchasing films and developing the film)
- Unwanted images can be deleted straight away
- Images are already digital and therefore can be transferred to a computer for editing
immediately,

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- Easier and faster to upload photos to the computer

- Produce better quality images than the traditional camera However:
- Images need to be compressed
- Needs those who are computer literate to use it efficiently
(vi) Touch Screen: A screen display on which you could enter data by pointing/tapping
with a finger on intended option. Used on (ATMs)-Automated Teller Machines, cell
phones, computers, etc.

A touch screen is both an input and output

device. A touch sensitive visual display unit
(VDU) or screen has a grid of light beams or fine
wires crisscrossing the screen that are used to
detect touch. Many mobile phones use touch
screens and do away with the keypad entirely.
They're often used on cash machines and in
shopping centers too. Touch screens are
robust, easy to choose options. Faster to make selections. User
Touch screen friendly (less training needed). Tamper proof.
However, they have limited number of
options, leads to RSI, screen can get dirty by
constant touching.

(vii) Magnetic Stripe Readers

Are devices to read information on the magnetic strip found on credit cards. The
stripe contains information like account number, sort code, expiry date and start
date. Uses: used to read debit and credit card data on ATMs and EFTPOS
terminals. Also used to read security cards for entry into buildings, hotel rooms,
etc.
Advantages: very fast data entry. Error free data entry since no typing is involved.
Information on magnetic stripe is secure since no human can read it. Can prevent
access to restricted areas. Magnetic stripes are not affected by oil, water, etc. there
are no moving parts and therefore are robust.
Disadvantages: if the magnetic stripe is damaged, all data is lost. They do not work from
a distance, need contact with the reader.

(viii) Joystick: A device specifically used for playing games. Can be used to control pointer
on screen by gripping the stick when making selections. Used also in flight simulators.

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It can be an alternative to a mouse. It

consists of a base and
a stick perpendicular to the
base. The stick can be moved
in any direction, enabling
the user to move an object around the
computer screen. A
joystick can perform a
similar function to a mouse or
trackball, but is only commonly used
for playing games, controlling aircraft, controlling Two types of joystick
motorised wheelchair.

In construction, joysticks are used to

control machinery such as cranes.
Advantage: Easier to navigate round
screen, control is in 3-dimension. (ix)
Tracker ball: It is an input device with a
small ball that can be moved by passing
the palm of your hand over it. This will
move an arrow on the screen and
therefore can replace a mouse.
It is used to draw designs and to
select options from menu. Used as
an alternative to a mouse. To
operate it the user rotates the ball
which moves the pointer on
screen.

They are particularly easy to use for

Tracer ball those with limited movement in their hands and are often used in
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
for their increased precision over
a mouse.

Advantages of trackball
- It is stationery and therefore do not need a flat surface to move on
- Less likely to get damaged than mouse

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- Less tiring as less movement is needed

- Can be useful in laptops

Disadvantages
- Rolling the ball is less effective than using mouse
- Can be difficult to control
- Not supplied as standard device, so extra cost is incurred - Muscles can be strained
due to repeated movement

(x) Remote Control

Device used to control the operation of other devices remotely by using infra-red signals.
Has button to select options, e.g. TV stations, volume, etc.
Uses

- Used in home entertainment devices like TVs, DVD players, HIFIs, etc
- Remote controls for multimedia systems
- Stop/ start machinery in industrial applications
Advantages: Allows devices to be controlled from a distance, Flexible to the disabled, safer
to use in chemical processes.
Disadvantages: People arm problems/disabilities cannot use them, signals can be blocked
(need a line of sight)

(xi) Microphone: It is an analogue input device that recognises human voice for data entry
into the computer.
Microphones are used to input sound. In computing,
they can be used with voice
recognition software and a word
processing application to enter text.
Webcams commonly have microphones
built-in too.

*NB:-An analogue device is a device that recognises data in continuously varying

form, e.g. microphone, wall watches (with minute, hour and second hand), fuel
petrol gauge, speedometer, etc.
A microphone is used in voice recognition systems (voice synthesis). These are
computerised systems that allow users to communicate with the computer by
talking (voice input). Such systems have the following advantages:

- The systems are over 90% accurate.

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- They are appropriate for the handicapped, especially those without hands.
- They are very fast in entering data and in giving instructions to the computer.
- They are speaker independent.
- They can recognise natural language.

Disadvantages:
- Older systems are speaker dependent.
- They allow the user to speak slowly, using specific words that were programmed for
it to understand.
NB: Multimedia speakers, sound cards, a microphone and voice recognition software are
needed in voice recognition systems.

(xii) Light pen: A ballpoint shaped device used to enter data by writing on an ink
pad. It is also used to make alterations on the screen to the drawings, to write
directly on the screen and to select commands.

Light pen

(xiii) Kimball Tags: These are punched cards with a magnetic strip which contains
details of a product, mostly clothes in a shop.

(xiv) Graphics tablet: Devices used to provide interface for drawing on the screen
and links with the light pen. Can also be used with a stylus. Can be used for drawing

(xv) Webcam: A digital video camera designed to take digital photographs and
transmit them over the internet or to the computer. They do not have own memory.
Laptops have their own web cam.
Uses: viewing each other when chatting on internet. For video conferencing. For taking
personal images.
Advantages: can be left on and only activated when required. People can see each other
when chatting.

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(xvi) Sensor: an input device that automatically records physical data by sensing
the environment it is supposed to record, e.g. humidity sensor.

(xvii) Magnetic Stripes: Magnetic stripes can be seen on train tickets or bank or
credit cards.

(a) Card with magnetic strip (b) Magnetic strip reader These stripes
hold a small amount of data (64 characters) and can be read by a magnetic
stripe reader (card reader) that is connected to a computer system.
These provide a quick and accurate way of entering details into a computer system and
are simple to operate.

(xviii) Smart Card Readers: Similar to magnetic strip readers except that
they are used to read data stored on a chip. Most bank cards and credit cards are
now smart cards. Also used on royalty cards, ID cards, electronic
passports and transport passes.
Cards have their own processor and memory that can hold up to
64KB of data. The data that is stored can be updated and the
processor can process simple programs.

Smart cards
- Smart cards are simple to produce
- Not easily damaged
- Store a fairly large amount of information - Automatic input devices, reduce
paperwork However:
- Data can be changed by magnetic fields
- The strip can be damaged by scratching
- Limited storage capacity
- Not very secure as thieves can alter the data.

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(xix) Barcode Reader: These are devices at Electronic Point of Sale terminals
(EPOS) that read barcodes on products for automatic data entry into the computer.
Mostly used in library systems, luggage handling systems at airports, warehouse
stock control, etc.
Barcodes are numbered vertical lines and spaces
of varying size on products that provide data for
such a product to the computer when read by
barcode readers.

If the barcode reader fails to read the

Barcodes barcodes, data is entered manually
through the keyboard by entering the numbers below
the barcodes.

Barcodes have the following advantages:

- They are cheap and easy to use.
- They are very accurate in entering data.
- They are a very fast means of entering data since they are an automatic data entry
method.
- Customers can be served quickly.
- Automatic re-ordering of goods in supermarkets is possible.
- Automatic stock taking is possible.
- Need for fewer people in the stores thereby cutting labour expenses.
- Out of date items can be automatically identified.
- There is no need for supermarket workers to remember prices.
- It becomes easier to do price changes. Information found on barcodes includes:
- Product name,
- Check digit,
- Product number,
- Country of origin, - Manufacturer’s number, - Weight.
*NB:-The PRICE of an item is NOT FOUND on the barcode.

How does the computer system checks that the barcode has been read correctly?
Either the computer performs the following:
Calculates the check digit; remainder = 0 if barcode has been read correctly OR
uses the weights and modulus 11 and use remainder Areas where barcodes are
used: - Library book systems

- Passport and ID card systems

- Equipment checking systems
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- Automatic stock taking in supermarkets

(xx)Video digitiser

A video digitiser takes an image from a video camera or television and digitises it
so it can be read by, and stored on, a computer. Video sequences captured using
video digitisers are often used in multimedia presentations.

(xxi) Stylus: device used to write on sensitive pads or screen for data entry into the
computer. Often purchased with touch screens

DOCUMENT READERS
These are devices used for entering data automatically into the computer by reading
through documents. These include:
(i) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): The Optical Mark Readers use light
sensitive devices to sense pencil marks on a piece of paper for automatic data entry
into the computer. Light is reflected from the document onto the Optical Mark
Reader which records the output. It then records low intensity/zero intensity at
certain points. OMR is mostly used in marking multiple choice exams at ZJC and ‘O’
Level, reading pupils’ registers, playing lotto, etc. An Optical Mark Reader is the
device that is used for automatic data entry in OMR systems.
- OMR is fast in entering data
- It is also accurate and reliable in entering data.
- Has better recognition than OCR
- Can be prepared where data originates, without machines - Errors can be
corrected easily However:
- Mark readers are relatively slow
- Verification of data is difficult
- Document may be difficult to design
- Forms must be completed clearly for data to be recorded accurately - Papers need
to be clean

(ii) Optical Character Recognition (OCR): It is the use of light sensitive devices
to recognise alphabetic characters and numbers on a sheet of paper for automatic
data entry into the computer. Mostly used by insurance companies, in billing
systems and processing of Bank Giro-forms. An Optical Character Reader is the
device that is used for automatic data entry in OCR systems. It recognises printed or
even hang written test form input into the computer

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- Can convert large amount of text into digital form at once

- Less tiresome since it is an automatic data entry method
- Faster in entering text into the computer
- Accurate in data entry However:
- A lot of data entry errors can be found
- May not work well with tables and diagrams
- Do not work well with handwritten text

(iii) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): A method of automatically

entering data into the computer by reading characters on documents past a
magnetised field with iron
oxide, e.g. reading numbers
on the bottom of a cheque.
Advantages of using
magnetic ink on
cheques include: Bundles of
cheques can be processed
very quickly. It is very
difficult to forge a cheque.
The ink can be read by the
reader even if he cheque
gets marked or dirty. A Magnetic Ink Character Reader is the device that is used
for automatic data
entry in MICR systems

- MICR provides high level of security to data

- Automatic and therefore faster data entry
- Document can still be readable even if folded
However;

- Readers and printers are relatively expensive

- The system can only accept limited characters
- Very expensive data entry method

OUTPUT DEVICES
These are devices used to display and produce data and information held inside the
computer, for example: screen, printer and graph plotters. These are described below:
Three form of outputs are:
Sound- output from a speaker.

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Softcopy- output displayed on a monitor.

Hardcopy-output from printer or plotter.
(i) Printers: A printer is a device that is used to produce hard copies of data held in the
computer. Hardcopy is a document printed on paper. Output from the printer appears as
displayed on the computer screen, thus What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG).
Types of Printers
Printers can be classified into impact and non-impact printers.

(a) Impact Printers: these are printers whose write heads hit ink ribbon
against paper during printing, e.g. dot matrix printer, chain printer, daisy wheel,
printer, drum printer, etc. Thus, there is contact between the paper and the
write heads during the printing stage. Examples include drum printers, dot
matrix printers, daisy wheel printers and chain printers. Impact printers have
the following advantages:
• They are very cheap to buy.
• They are cheap to repair and to maintain.
• They can use continuous paper.
• They are economic in terms of ink usage.

However, Impact printers have the following disadvantages:

• They produce a lot of noise.
• They are very slow in printing since most are line printers. They
produce poor quality printout.

Dot Matrix printer

- Produces NLQ (Near Letter Quality) output, in form of small dots.

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- They are robust

- Less likely to be affected by dust
- Can print multi-part stationery
- Purchasing and running costs are very low

Weaknesses
- Low resolution
- Noisy
- Slow printing speed: this is because they can be character based or line based
printers.

Daisy wheel printer

- Uses a print wheel to produce characters
- Can print about 100 characters per second

(b) Non-Impact Printers: These are printers that do not produce contact
between papers, write heads and ink cartridge during printing. Non-impact
printers include: inkjet printer, laser printer, thermal printer, etc.
Laser printers
Most of the printers use light and are therefore called laser printers.
The advantages of laser printers are as follows:

• They print at very high speeds since they are page printers.

• They produce high quality text and graphics.

• They produce less noise than dot-matrix printers (they are quiet in their
operation).
• Have paper trays both for input and output and therefore need no
supervision once setup.
• The toner is not water-soluble

The disadvantages of laser printers are as follows:

• they are very expensive to buy,

• they are large and therefore take up a lot of desk space,
• they are quite complex and therefore repair bills can be very high,
• Multipart stationery cannot be used,
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• Cannot be used with continuous stationery since they are page printers.
• Toner is toxic and therefore should be disposed of carefully after use.

Inkjet printers uses print head to propel droplets of ink on

a sheet of paper.
Advantages:
• relatively high resolution
• Good colour production
• Low cost/heap to buy
• Usually small size
Disadvantages
• Slow printing speed
• Ink is expensive
• Has a water soluble ink which may be spilt
• Running costs are expensive

*NB: - Printers can also be classified as page printers (these print one page at a
given time and are therefore faster), line printers (print one line at a time, very
slow) and character printers (print one character at a time).

Factors to consider when purchasing a printer:

- Price
- Printing speed
- Reliability and easiness of maintenance
- Print quality
- Range of capabilities
- Noise level
- Compatibility with computers

(ii) Screen / Monitor: it is a television shaped device used to display contents on the
computer as soft copy. Soft copy refers to data viewed on the screen. The screen can
also be called the Visual Display Unit (VDU). The screen can differ in terms of
resolution, that is low resolution screens display less number of dots per inch on the
computer and therefore the display will be of poor quality. High resolution monitors
are needed mostly in graphics packages where colour and many dots per inch are
needed.
Monitors are of two main types:

- LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

Relatively thin and do not use a beam of electrons. They easily fit on walls
and desks, light weight, compact and can fit on laptops, little light is

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reflected, absence of flicker on the screen. However, images can be viewed

from fewer angles, can display limited range of colours.

- CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

These are the older and bulker versions. To display content, an electric gun
fires a beam of electrons from the rear of the CRT. They are cheap, images
can be viewed from a wider angles, and has a wider range of colour and
brightness. However, they are bulky and difficult to fit on a desk, they are
heavy and difficult to mount on walls, and too much reflection can affect
eyes.

- Plasma Display Panels:

Flat panel display used for television displays

Advantage of Monitors
- Its output is immediate and visual
- High speed of display
- No noise
- No wastage of paper - Can display text, graphics, etc
-
Disadvantages
- When the display changes, the previous output is lost.
- Needs a separate device to produce hardcoy

(iii) Graph Plotter: This is a device used to produce high quality drawings in various paper
sizes and is used in Computer Aided Design (CAD). A plotter can be used to produce
high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings. They are usually used for Computer
Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) applications, such as
printing out plans for houses or car parts. They print sharper and more precise
drawings.

Graph plotter

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(iv) Data/data projector

An output device that uses lenses to project intense light on the wall. Can be
multimedia projector and offer wider/ bigger screen display on the wall. Ideally the
surface should be a whiteboard. Suitable for presentations to a wider audience.
However, it is more expensive to buy and has a fragile bulb.

(v) Speakers: produce sound from music files on the computer. They are used in
conjunction with multimedia files.

(vi) Braille Printer: prints Braille which is readable to the blind people.

(vii) Actuators: these are output/control devices which turns on or off some devices in
control systems. Some of the control devices include electric heater
(supplier heat), electric motor (provide movement/rotation), motorized pump,
buzzers, lights, heaters, actuators, etc.
HEADPHONES

✓ These are used to hear sound coming out of the computer.

STORAGE DEVICES
STORAGE MEDIA ✓ These are devices used to store data and
programs for future use.

Storage Capacity
✓ Refers to the amount (volume) of data a device can store. The following storage
measurements can be used:
Bit: The smallest unit of data a computer can store, either a 1 or a 0.
Nibble: refers to half a byte, that is, a group of 4 bits.
Byte: a group of 8 bits representing a character. For example, the letter C is represented by the
byte 01000011.
Size Equal to
8 bits 1 byte
1024 bytes 1 kilobyte
1024 1 megabyte
kilobytes
1024 1 gigabyte
megabytes
1024 1 terabyte
gigabytes
Kilobyte (KB): this refers to 1024 bytes.
Megabyte (MB): 1 MB is equivalent to 1 048 576 bytes.

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Gigabytes (GB): 1024 megabytes (approximately 1 billion bytes)

Terabytes (TB): refers to 1 099 511 627 776 bytes (approximately 1 024 GB)

1. PRIMARY STORAGE (MAIN MEMORY, MAIN STORE, IMMEDIATE ACCESS

MEMORY, INTERNAL STORAGE)
✓ Refers to a group of chips inside the processing unit where data is held temporarily whilst
processing takes place. Main memory is very fast and reliable to use.
✓ Data is instantly accessed due to its proximity to the processor.
Main storage is used for:
➢ Storage of instructions waiting to be obeyed by the computer.
➢ Storage of programs currently being run on the computer.
➢ Storage of data currently being processed.
➢ Storage of input data before processing.
➢ Storage of output data, waiting to be saved or output to the printer. ➢ Acts as a working
area for data currently being processed.

Main memory is grouped in to RAM and ROM.

(a) RAM (Random Access Memory):

✓ A memory chip inside CPU casing used to store data and programs temporarily during
processing.

The uses of RAM are:

➢ To store programs currently running on the computer.
➢ Storage of data being processed in the computer.
➢ Storage of output data.
➢ Acts as a working area for data and programs.

✓ RAM is volatile, which means that it loses its contents when power is switched off.
✓ RAM is in two forms; that is, dynamic and static RAM.
✓ Static RAM is a Random Access Memory chip whose contents do not change as long as
there is continuous power supply.
✓ Dynamic RAM is Random Access Memory chip whose contents can be lost even if there
is continuous power supply. Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed to prevent loss of data.
The size of RAM also affects the speed of operation of a computer and the number of programs
that can be run on it. RAM size can be 16 MB, 32 MB, 64 MB, 126 MB, 256 MB, 448 MB, 1
GB, etc. The bigger the RAM size, the better the efficiency of the computer and the bigger the
number of programs it can run at a given time.
(b) ROM (Read Only Memory):
✓ ROM is a semi-conductor circuit (chip) whose contents can only be read from and cannot
be erased or modified.

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✓ ROM contents are fixed during manufacturing, that is, they are hard – wired.
✓ These contents can only be read from and cannot be modified.
The uses of ROM are:
➢ Stores the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS-refers to software that test hardware at startup,
starts the operating system and support data transfer between devices.) of the computer.
➢ Stores control programs for the operation of the computer and its peripherals.
➢ Stores translator programs.

ROM is grouped into:

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM):
✓ This is a ROM chip whose contents can be changed but only once. It is re-programmable
only once.
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):
✓ This is a Read Only Memory chip whose contents can be erased and modified several times.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):
✓ This is a Read Only Memory chip whose contents can be erased and modified several times
using electricity.
*NB:- Firmware (microcode):-refers to coded instructions that are stored permanently in
readonly memory, for example BIOS.
Cache Memory
➢ A cache is a small and very high speed memory used to speed up the transfer of data and
instructions, doubling the speed of the computer in some cases. - It can located inside or
close to the CPU Chip
➢ it is placed between the CPU and the main memory.
➢ It stores frequently or most recently used instructions and data
➢ It is faster than RAM
➢ The data and instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by CPU are stored
in cache memory.
➢ it is used to increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data available
to the CPU at a rapid rate
➢ CPU processes data faster than main memory access time, thus processing speed is limited
primarily by the speed of main memory.
➢ It compensates the speed difference between the main memory access time and processor
logic.
➢ It is used to increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data available
to the CPU at a rapid rate.
➢ The cache thus used for storing segments of programs currently being executed in the CPU
and temporary data frequently needed in the present calculations
➢ The amount of cache memory is generally between 1kb and 512kb
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Secondary Storage (Backing Storage/Auxiliary Storage/External Storage)

These are devices used to store data and programs for future use outside the computer systems. It
is a supplement to main storage. Backing storage is non-volatile. Backing storage is grouped into
magnetic storage, solid state and optical storage.

✓ Backing up of data refers to the copying of files to the copying of files & data to
a different ( medium disk tap ,flash drive etc) in case of the problem with the main
storage device

WHY DO WE BACK UP DATA?

✓ Data could be lost due to failure of the original storage device this could due of (head crush
on hard drive unit) or possible corruption of files e. g caused by power surges.
✓ Backups are also made in case the files need to be used elsewhere.

THREE TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES

I. Magnetic. II.
Optical.
III. Solid state.

Magnetic Storage
These store data on magnetized field of iron oxide and include magnetic tapes, zip drives, diskettes,
hard drives and flash drives.
(a) Magnetic Tapes:
✓ They are similar to a normal cassette tape in shape.
✓ They store data in serial and sequential order.
✓ They are mostly used to backup data.
✓ Their storage capacity can be up to 20 GB.
✓ Data is also accessed in serial or sequential order. They can be used as off-line storage
media.

Magnetic tapes have the following advantages:

➢ Data can be arranged in an ordered sequence.
➢ They are re-usable, that is can be overwritten several times.
➢ Suitable for high hit rate processing systems like payroll, billing systems, etc.
➢ They last for a very long period of time, and thus can be used to keep historical records.
➢ They are very cheap to buy.
➢ They store very large volumes of data, of up to 20 GB.
➢ They are small, robust, and portable and provide low cost storage per GB.
However, they have the following disadvantages:
➢ It takes too long to find (search for) a needed record in a long list of data records. It is very
difficult to update record held in a magnetic tape.

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➢ It takes too long to update records, time wasting. ➢ They are prone to humid (moist)
conditions.
➢ They are very slow to write to and read from

(b) Hard Disk (Hard Drive):

✓ These are disks used to store large volumes of data and programs, including operating
systems and are resident in the CPU casing.
✓ Data is stored on tracks in a random way and data retrieval is in a random way.
✓ Hard disks can store data of up to 300 GB, but ranges from 2 GB, 8 GB, 20 GB, 40 GB,
80 GB, 120 GB, etc. a hard disk can be internal or external.
✓ External hard disks have a larger storage capacity and can be used to back-up the system
Uses of Hard Disk:
➢ Creating backups for data.
➢ Storing communication and applications software.
➢ Storing of the operating system from which the computer will boot. ➢ Transferring large
volumes of data from one computer to another.

Hard disks have the following advantages:

➢ It is easier to access data stored on hard disks.
➢ They have a long life span, of about 5 years or more.
➢ Provides direct access to data.
➢ It is easier and faster to update data on hard disks.
➢ They are more robust.
➢ Have large storage capacity, about 300 GB or more.
➢ Very reliable to use
Disadvantages of Hard Disks:
➢ Are fixed inside the CPU casing and therefore cannot be repaired once damaged.
➢ All data can be lost if it crashes
➢ Can easily crush if computer is not switched off properly.
➢ They are expensive to buy.

(c) Diskette (Floppy Disk):

✓ A 3.5 inch and plastic magnetic disk enclosed in a stiff envelope with a radial slit; used to
store data or programs.
✓
✓ They have a storage capacity of 1.44 MB.
✓ They are used as backing storage for small volumes of data.
✓ Data is stored on tracks in a random way. ✓ Direct access to data is provided.

Uses of diskettes are:

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➢ Creating backups for small amounts of data.

➢ Transferring small amounts of data from one computer to another.
➢ Booting up the computer in case of system failure, for system recovery. ➢ Storage of small
programs and data.
Advantages of Diskettes:
➢ They are portable (easy to carry around as they can fit in a shirt pocket.).
➢ Conceals less electricity.
➢ Most are high Double Density Diskettes.

Disadvantages of Diskettes:
➢ Have very short life span (not durable).
➢ Can be affected by humid conditions.
➢ Can easily be affected by dusty conditions.
➢ Can easily be damaged if placed close to the screen for a long time.
➢ Takes long to read data into memory than from a hard disk.
➢ Hold very small amount of data, 1.44 MB.

Caring for diskettes:

➢ Do not place them near magnetised field or near the computer screen.
➢ Keep them free from dust.
➢ Keep of dry place.
➢ Do not expose them to direct sunlight.
(d) Zip Drives:
✓ Similar to diskettes in shape but does not flop.
✓ Data is stored in a random way.
✓ Data is accessed in a random way.
✓ Storage capacity is 100 MB.
Advantages of Zip Drives:
➢ They are portable (easy to carry around as they can fit in a shirt pocket.).
➢ Conceals less electricity.
➢ Relatively cheap
➢ Most are high Double Density drives.
➢ More durable than diskettes
➢ Good for archiving data

Disadvantages of Zip Drives:

➢ Hold small amount of data of about 100 MB.
➢ Not as compact as USB flash drive
➢ Slow data transfer rates

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Solid State Storage Media

✓ These are storage devices with no movable parts.
✓ They are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels of tape, no spinning
discs, no laser beams, etc.).
✓ Solid state devices use a special type of memory called flash memory.
✓ Examples of solid state devices include flash memory, USB memory stick, memory cards,
etc. solid state devices takes the form of solid state drives (SSD), solid state cards (SSC),
solid state modules (SSM), etc

(a) Flash Memory

✓ Flash memory is a type of EEPROM.
✓ Flash memory is non-volatile (like ROM) but the data stored in it can also be erased or
changed (like RAM).
✓ Flash memory can be found in many data storage devices.
✓ You might wonder why, since flash memory is non-volatile, normal computers don’t use
it instead of RAM.
✓ If they did we would have computers that you could turn off, turn back on again and no
data would be lost – it would be great, the reason is speed – saving data to flash memory
is very slow compared to saving it to RAM.
✓ If a computer were to use flash memory as a replacement for RAM it would run very
slowly.
✓ However some portable computers are starting to use flash memory (in the form of
solidstate ‘discs’ as a replacement for hard-drives.
✓ No moving parts mean less to go wrong and longer battery life.
(b) Memory Cards
✓ Many of our digital devices (cameras, mobile phones, MP3 players, etc.) require
compact, non-volatile data storage.
✓ Flash memory cards provide this and come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
✓ One of the most common formats used by digital cameras is the SD Card. The cards store
the digital images taken by the camera.
✓ Mobile phones contain a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card that contains the phone’s
number, the phonebook numbers, text messages, etc.
✓ Many phones also have extra memory cards to store music, video, photos, etc. (e.g Tiny
Micro-SD cards).
Memory Cards:
✓ Memory card is like a portable hard disk that fits into personal computer card slot.
✓ They offer direct access to data, are portable, can fit even on tablet computers like cell
phones, have large storage capacity of up to 8 GB.
✓ They can get lost easily. Virus spread quickly through them.

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(c) Smart Cards

✓ Many credit cards (e.g. ‘chip-and-pin’ cards), door entry cards, satellite TV cards, etc.
✓ Have replaced the very limited storage of the magnetic strip (the dark strip on the back of
older cards) with flash memory.
✓ This is more reliable and has a much larger storage capacity.
✓ Cards with flash memory are called smart cards.
(d) USB Memory Sticks:
✓ These are small drives that can be plugged on the Universal Serial Bus (USB) of the CPU.
Provide direct storage and access to data.
✓ Memory sticks (or ‘thumb-drives’) have made many other forms of portable storage almost
obsolete (why burn a CD or DVD when you can more easily copy your files onto a memory
stick).
✓ Memory sticks are non-volatile, random-access storage devices.
✓ Each of these small devices has some flash memory connected to a USB interface.
✓ Plug it into your computer and it appears as a drive.
✓ You can then add files, erase files, etc.
✓ You can use it to move any type of file between computers.
Storage capacity ranges from 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB and 32 GB.
Advantages of Memory Sticks:
✓ Have a long life span about 3 yrs.
✓ Have large storage capacity about 32 GB or more.
✓ Provide direct access to data.
✓ Very cheap to buy.
✓ Portable since they can fit in a pocket.

Disadvantages of Flash Drives:

✓ Older machines have no sockets to plug in memory sticks.
✓ They need software/drivers installed for them to work.
✓ They can get lost easily. Virus spread quickly through them.
1. Bus: A communication line used for data transfer among the components of a computer
system
2. USB: - An external bus that supports Plug and Play installation of devices. Using USB,
you can connect and disconnect devices without shutting down or restarting your computer. You
can use a single USB port to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, including speakers, telephones,
CD-ROM drives, joysticks, tape drives, keyboards, scanners, and cameras. A USB port is usually
located on the back of your computer near the serial port or parallel port.
3. USB port: An interface on the computer that enables you to connect a Universal Serial Bus
(USB) device. USB is an external bus standard that enables data transfer rates of 12 Mbps (12
million bits per second).
Optical Storage Media:

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✓ Refers to devices that use light to store data on them and these include Compact Disks,
Digital Versatile Disks, Video Compact Disks, etc
1. CD (Compact Disk):
✓ It is spherical disc that uses laser beam technology to read and write data.
✓ It stores data on tracks in a random way.
✓ Data retrieval is in random order.
✓ Storage capacity is 750 MB.
✓ Writing of data on CD is done by a device called CD writer/burner.

Uses of compact disks:

➢ Transferring data from one computer to another.
➢ Creating backup storage for programs and data.
➢ Booting the computer when loading the operating system or restoring damaged system files
(system repair).

Advantages of CDs:
➢ Provide fast and direct access to data.
➢ Has large storage capacity of about 750 MB.
➢ Produces high quality sound and pictures.
➢ It is a multi-media device.

Disadvantages of CDs:
➢ Can be affected by direct sunlight.
➢ Less durable.
➢ They can easily get scratched.
➢ Not so easy nor fast to save data on them
Types of CDs
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) a common form of optical Disks on which
data, once it has been recorded, cannot be modified.
2. CD-W (CD-Writeable) an optical disk that can be written upon, but only once. Often called
WORM (Write Once Read Many) disks.
3. CD-RW (CD-Rewriteable) on optical disk that allows personal computer users to replace
their diskettes with high-capacity CDs that can be written upon and edited over.

Advantages to schools of storing learning materials on a CD-ROM other than using the
Internet
➢ No danger of accessing doubtful websites.
➢ Does not take as long to find required information.
➢ Do not have to have a modem.
➢ Do not need for a telephone line.
➢ Once CD ROM is bought there is no additional expenditure.
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➢ Do not have to remember user id/password. ➢ Usually quicker to load material.

➢ Information on CD is more reliable

Disadvantages to schools of storing learning materials on a CD-ROM other than using the
Internet
➢ CD ROM can be lost easily.
➢ CD ROM can be damaged easily. Internet is up to date while CD ROM is soon out of date.
➢ CD ROMs are expensive to replace and to update.
➢ Less information can be stored on the CD-ROM as compared to the internet.

2. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc):

✓ Are spherical in shape that can store data on 2 sides.
✓ Stores data on tracks in a random way.
✓ Data retrieval is in random order.
✓ Storage capacity is about 4 GB. Writing of data on DVD is done by a device called DVD
writer/burner.
✓ There are several formats on the market, such as:
DVD-ROMs - read only, the data is written to them before they are sold.
DVD-R - meaning DVD-Recordable, the user can write data to the DVD once or fill it over time
using multi-session.
DVD-RW - meaning DVD-ReWritable, the DVD can be written and re-written to. Unlike
multisession discs, existing data can be overwritten.
Uses of DVDs:
➢ Transferring large volumes of data from one computer to another.
➢ Creating backup storage for programs and data.
➢ Booting the computer when loading the operating system or restoring damaged system files
(system repair) Advantages of DVDs:
➢ Provide fast and direct access to data.
➢ Has large storage capacity of about 4 GB.
➢ Produces high quality sound and pictures.
➢ It is a multi-media device.

Disadvantages of DVDs:
➢ Can be affected by direct sunlight.
➢ Less durable.
➢ They can easily get scratched.

Caring for DVDs, VCDs and CDs:

➢ Do not expose them to direct sunlight.
➢ Do not touch the recording surface.

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➢ Use soft marker for labelling and not ball point. ➢ Keep the free form dust conditions.

*NB: - Virtual Memory – Refers to temporary storage (on hard disk) used by the computer to
run programs that need more memory (RAM) than the computer has. For example, programs
could have access to 4 gigabytes of virtual memory on a computer's hard drive, even if the
computer has only 32 megabytes of RAM.

SOFTWARE
What is software?

✓ Set of instructions or suit of programs that drive hardware components.

Types of software

➢ SYSTEM SOFTWARE
➢ APPLICATION SOFTWARE

System software
✓ These are programs that manages, oversee and control all activities of computer.
Operating system software.
✓ Is a large, complex of programs, which provides for loading and execution of other
programs.
Examples of operating system.
➢ Windows family.
➢ Mac OS.
➢ Linux.
➢ UNIX.
➢ MS DOS
Functions of the operating systems:
➢ Controls movement of data to and from peripherals.
➢ Acts as a background on which application programs can run.
➢ Device management/Input-Output management: Operating system manages hardware
components of the computer.
➢ Handling of interrupts
➢ Manage software resources of the computer
➢ Memory management: Manages memory resources of a computer - Acts as an interface
between the user and the computer.
➢ Scheduling of tasks
➢ Loading and running of programs

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➢ Provides a log of users for the computer.

➢ Handling of errors and correcting them where possible. (error handling and reporting)
➢ Protect hardware, software and data from improper use.
➢ Control over the selection and operation of input, output and storage devices of the
computer.
➢ Used for spooling
➢ Maintain user accounts
➢ Booting and properly shutting down the computer.
➢ File management

Utility programs.
✓ These are programs responsible for housekeeping functions in the computer system.
✓ -There are also known as service programs.
✓ -There are designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer system
✓ These are programs used to perform specific, useful and frequently needed task in a
computer system. They usually have one single task to perform on the computer system.
Utilities include the following:
i. Virus Scan Utility: These are programs that protect computers from virus attacks, for example
Norton Antivirus, AVG, Avast, Eset NOD32, MacAfee, etc.

ii. Sort Utilities: These are programs used to arrange data, files and records into a specific ordered
sequence, for instance in ascending or descending order of a given key.

iii. Debuggers: These are utilities used for assisting in correcting errors in programs.

iv. Dump Utilities: These are programs that assist in copying data from main storage to output
devices and to other storage devices like the hard drive.

v. Editors: These are programs used to make changes to data already held in the computer.

vi. Peripheral Transfer Utility: These are programs used to transfer data from one peripheral
device to another.

vii.System Status Utilities: These are programs that provide information on the state of files,
memory, users and peripherals.

viii. File Maintenance Utilities: These are programs used to reorganise programs and to update
them.

(d) Device Drivers: Programs that allows a device, e.g. printer to work on a given operating
system/computer.

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Application software.
✓ Is a software that allow users to perform specific set of task/activities.eg database.
Application software ( also called end user program ) include such things as database
programs, word processor , web browsers and spreadsheets.
Off shelf software.
✓ It is a software that is readily available on the market.
Bespoke /Customized/Tailor made.
✓ This is a specific software that is developed for a specific purpose.

2 APLICATION OF COMPUTER SCIENCES

Where are computers used?

➢ Business ( companies)
➢ Government ( different Department)
➢ Education ( Schools )
➢ Home (entertainment )
➢ Manufacturing companies ( factories )
➢ Travel (Airport and Airplanes )
➢ Entertainments ( discos )
➢ Sports( timing in Olympics )
➢ Car ( engines, radios )
➢ Appliances ( Micro wave, Washing Machines, Mobiles)

USES OF COMPUTERS IN AGRICULTURE

FACTS

➢ Computers are used for keeping records such as budget information , farm equipment
inventories and animal health form

Farm implements

➢ farm implements such as tractors , fertilizers sprayers have computers that farmers
can program to automatically adjust the amount of fertilizers according to the
requirements of soil and crop which help in improving soil and higher crop yield.

Farm equipment

➢ Farmers can use computer system to guide the steering of their farm equipment
during planting or harvesting ; if the system experiences problem , Technicians can
diagnose and fix the issues remotely from another computer.
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Farm software

➢ with regard to live stock farming ready-made computer applications are available to
track individual animals , storing and evaluating information such as age , health
record, milk production , offspring productive cycle status this is often called herd
recording .

Agribusiness

➢ Internet forums , social networking and online knowledge bases: through internet
forums ,social network sites and online knowledge bases farmers get a lot of
information with these they contact with other farmers and experts and exchange
know-how there are many online data base , articles, newspaper in which there is
a lot of information available for farmers which help them in increasing
productivity.

Farmland Assessment

➢ Geographic information systems (gis) are being used for developing ranking systems that
evaluate land and provide a site assessment to aid what is now known as precision
agriculture .These hi-tech, interactive systems provide information based on a variety of
factors such as soil conditions, drainage and slope conditions, soil ph and nutrient status,
etc.

USES OF COMPUTERS IN BANKS

✓ The use of computer technology has revolutionized how we do our banking transactions ,
for example :
➢ Find balance in our account
➢ Change your pin (Personal identification number)
➢ Transfer funds

Automated teller machines (ATMs)

Here are some things you can do using ATM:

➢ Get cash out

➢ find out the balance in our account
➢ Change your pin (Personal Identification number)
➢ Make deposits (i.e. put cash ,cheque or both into your account )
➢ Obtain a mini statement listing your recent transaction ( money in and out of your
account)

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CHIP AND PIN TECHNOLOGY

✓ Many credit cards are equipped with a chip as well as magnetic stripe, this contains
key information such as pin.
✓ Card is inserted into the chip and reader.
✓ The card is checked to see if its valid( expiry date, whether stolen card) ✓ If card is
stolen or expires then the transaction is terminated.
✓ The customer then enters the pin using a key pad
✓ The pin is read from the chip on the card and is compared to the one just keyed in.
✓ If they are the same , then transaction is processed , if different , transaction is
terminated.
✓ A check is then whether there is enough fund, if there are not enough funds transaction
is terminated .Otherwise transaction is authorized.
✓ Authorization code is sent, money is deducted from the customer`s account.
✓ The same amount of money is credited to the shop`s bank account. ✓ A receipt is produced
as proof of purchase.

USES OF COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION

✓ The computer help in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

➢ LIBRARY
✓ Many library system are computer controlled. They usually involve the use of bar codes
on the books being borrowed and on the borrower`s library card.
✓ Each member is given a unique member which acts as the primary key in the
members` table of the data base.
✓ This is faster and accurate than typing it in.
✓ Books are also bar-coded with a unique number.
➢ Offering Education Online
➢ Learning Job Skills- Use Of Office Programs , Presentation Creations And Learning
Number Of Languages Including C, C++, Java, Oracle. Makes Learners
Aware Of How To Use These Language In Terms Of Daily Work And Learn
Practically
➢ Efficiency-Computers makes the process of learning much simpler and easy , student
can check their own lessons of online discussion
➢ Quick communication between teachers and parents or guardians better presentation of
information.

DEFINITIONS

COMPUTER SCIENCE- IS the study of principles and use of computers.

SOCIAL NETWORKS- A web site that brings people together to talk , share ideas and
interests, or make new friends.

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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT- Discovering new knowledge about products,

processes, and services and server and then applying that knowledge to create new and
improved products, processes, and services that fill market needs.

SOCIAL NETWORKS

Classmates ( http: // www.classmates.com/)-One of the largest and most used websites for
connecting people who graduated from a high school and allows you to keep in touch with
them and any future reunions.

Face book- (https:// www. facebook.com/)-The popular social networking websites on the
internet. Face book is a popular destination for users to set up personal space and connect
with friends , share pictures , share movies , talk about what you are doing , etc. .

Google+ (https://plus.google.com/)- the latest social networking service from Google.

INSTAGRAM (https://www.instagram.com/)-A mobile photo sharing service and application

available for the phone, android, and windows phone platform.

LINKEDIN( https:// www. linkedin.com/)- One of the best if not the best location to connect
with current and past co-workers and potentially future employers .

TWITTER ( https://twiter.com/)-Another fantastic service that allow users to post 140

character long post from their phones and on the internet. A fantastic way to get the
pulse of what`s going on around the word.

YOU TUBE ( https:// www.youtube.com/)- An excellent network of users posting video blog`s
and other fun and exciting video.

APPLICATION OF COMPUTER SCIENCES IN SOCIAL NETWORKS

NEWS AND CURRENT EVENTS-By staying up-to-date to news and current event

GROUP INFORMATION SHARING OVER LONG DISTANCES- Friends and family

members can keep in contact via messages or phone call, social nets offer a much richer
environment for staying connected.

BROADCASTING ANNOUNCEMENT-Local shop and venues can advertise upcoming

events and products on social network.

FOSTERING DIVERSITY OF THOUGHT-Some critics of social networks point out that

online communities tend to attract people with similar interests and background.
➢ Meeting new people.
➢ sharing of photos and video

APPLICATION OF COMPUTER SCIENCE IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

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Internet

Before you start research, you often want to quickly learn about possible issues or topics
of study by searching available source of information . Nearly all academic journals are
available online, and many organized into online data base. Government agencies often have
demographic or economic information online you can use in your research.

INFORMATION STORAGE

Computers store vast amounts of information .You can quickly and efficiently organize and
search information , making for easier retrieval than paper storage. You can store your raw
data in multiple formats. Some research conduct the research online, often through the use of
surveys .

COMMUNICATION TOOLS

Availability of standardized software packages that allow researchers to do statistical analyses

of their data , compute complex mathematical functions, maintains large data base .
Computers began as powerful calculators , and that service is important to research today .
Regardless of the amount of data you have, you can do more with a computer`s help.

COMMUNICATION

Building knowledge through research requires communication between experts to can

communicate through papers and workshops. Now, the world`s experts can communicate via
email or web chats. Researchers have their own network in which they connect and share
information.

3 Data Representation
Binary

➢ It is a number expressed in binary numerical system or base 2 which represent numeric

values by using two different symbols typically zeros ( 0 ) and ones ( 1 ) .

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➢ Data is represented in 0s and 1s, thus in base 2. It is obtained by dividing the denary number
by 2, taking the remainders only. The number of bits in the answer does not matter unless
specified.
➢ Binary = base 2.
➢ Octal = base 8.
➢ Denary = 10.
➢ Hexadecimal = base 16.

Binary Conversion
This involves converting a number in binary from to either denary (base 10), octal (base 8) or
Hexadecimal (base 16)
(a) Conversion from decimal (denary) to Binary
➢ Divide the denary number by 2, listing the remainders until the answer is 0 remainder 1.
➢ Take the remainders only from the last one until the first. For example:

The answer is therefore 101002

(b) Binary to decimal conversion

Raise each bit to its binary power equivalent, from right going to the left, starting at 20

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➢ Add all the equivalent to values in the table, whose binary digit correspond to 1 and add
them.
➢ The result is the denary equivalent.
➢ That is 16 + 4 = 20. This is a short form of (16 x 1) + (4 x1) = 20

LOGIC GATES

✓ A logic gate is a device that produce signals of 1 or 0 when the input logic requirements
are met and are used in manipulating binary information.
✓ A logic gate is a device (or electrical circuit) that performs one or more logical operations
on one or more input signals.
✓ Output represent Boolean (T or F) or binary values (1 or 0) as voltages.
✓ Logic gates are the building blocks of digital technology.
✓ They can be used in applications like:
➢ Building computer chips
➢ Programming traffic signals
➢ Chips for automatic alarm systems
➢ Chips for automated control systems
✓ Electronic circuits operate using binary logic gates.
✓ Logic gates process signals which represent TRUE or FALSE, ON or OFF , 1 or 0

Main Logic Gates

The main logic gates are:
a) OR gate
b) AND gate
c) NOT gate
d) NOR gate
e) NAND gate

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f) Exclusive OR gate (XOR)

g) Exclusive NOR gate (XNOR)
Logic gates are used with truth tables.
✓ A truth table is a table which shows how a logic circuit's output responds to various
combinations of the inputs, using logic 1 for true and logic 0 for false.
✓ A truth table is a table that describes the behaviour of a logic gate.
✓ It lists the value of the output for every possible combination of the inputs ✓ Truth tables
contains 1s and 0s and are an integral part of logic gates functionality.
✓ Truth table and logic gates use the following:
✓ 1 (True, ON, Not False)
✓ 0 (False, OFF, Not True)
The number of rows in a truth table shows the number of combinations of the inputs of a particular
circuit. The number of rows for each gate is found using the following formulae: rows = 2n, n
being the number of inputs in the gate or circuit. For example, a gate or circuit has the following
rows corresponding to the number of input (excluding column headings):
- 1 input = 21 = 2 rows
- 2 inputs = 22 = 4 rows
- 3 inputs = 23 = 8 rows - …..

(a) OR gate
➢ This represents two inputs entering the gate and one output from the gate.
➢ The inputs can be represented by any alphabetic characters, e.g. A and B, while the output
can be X, given as follows:

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➢ X= A OR B
➢ The output (X) is true if the INPUT A OR INPUT B are true.
➢ Thus if any one of the inputs is 1, the output is automatically 1
➢ Output only becomes 0 if all inputs are 0

(b) AND gate

This is represented as follows:

✓ The output (X) is only true if the INPUT A AND INPUT B are both true. If any one of the
inputs is 0, then the output becomes 0 also. Thus X = A AND B.

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(c) NOT gate

✓ The NOT gate has only one input and one output. The input is negated. Thus if input is 1,
output is 0, and vice versa.
✓ The output (X) is true when the INPUT A is NOT TRUE. The output (X) is False when
the INPUT A is TRUE.
EXAMPLES

Draw circuits for following Boolean statements.

a. If A AND B are on AND C AND D are on then output is on.
b. If A OR B are on AND C OR D are on then output is on.
c. If A OR B is on then output is off.
d. If B AND C is off OR A is on then output is on.
e. If A is off AND B OR C is on AND D is off then output is on.
f. If A is on AND B AND C are off AND D is on then output is on.
g. If smoke detector (S) is on OR fire alarm (F) is on then sprinkler (W) is on.

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4 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND

INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES
DEFINITIONS

NETWORK- A set of devices (nodes) connected by media links.

NETWORKING-Linking together of two or more computers by means of networking media e.g.

routers, switches to transfer data.

INTERNET-Global connections of networks.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

REASONS OF NETWORKING

➢ Computer network allow people to share resources and communicate effectively.

➢ Computer network allow companies to store information on data bases that employees can
access. Employees working on document can store them on centralized database because
they`re easier to back up than individual workstation.
➢ Network also allow employees to communicate with each other. Internal email and instant
messaging have become popular means of communication.
➢ Eases out management of data.
➢ networking provides the advantages of centralization of data from all the user system
to one system where it can be managed in an easy and better way. Even the access of
data becomes easy for user.
➢ Networks can configured to implement various safeguard. Various scanners can check
email for viruses and other malware to keep computers from being subjected to
viruses and malware.
➢ A network can also block certain websites; schools often use this capability to keep
students from accessing inappropriate materials when using the school`s network. and
they can provide firewalls and other safeguards
➢ INTERNET
✓ Whenever you are accessing internet, you are making use of a network.
✓ The benefits of internet need no mentioning.
✓ Thanks to the wonderful world of networking.
➢ NETWORKING has promoted gaming

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✓ Many internet games accounts are being played by players all over the world using
common servers these gives fun and enjoyed to people and also improved their
skills.

Types of networks
i. LAN (Local Area Network

A LAN is a privately owned connection of computers on a very small geographical area for
sharing of data and files by users of the network, for example, within a single room. Usually
connected using cables of radio connections.
Hardware Requirements for a LAN
• Network Interface Card (NIC):- Each computer on the network must have this as it allows
computers to be linked and to be uniquely identified on the network.
• Server: - to store software that controls the network, software and files and also data that
can be shared by all users of the network
• Hub or alternatively a Switch:-
A hub is a device that connects workstations together in order to make a LAN. It receives
signal/data from workstations, regenerates it and the sends it to all ports on it. Thus all
workstations connected to it will get the signal or data packets. Hubs are less intelligent, they do
not determine the exact computer the data is addressed to and so they broadcast the signal. This is
a security risk. It is usually used on a star network or on a hybrid network. A hub has many ports
on which cables to all computers on the network are connected.

A switch is a networking device that allows multiple devices and workstations to be connected
to each other on a LAN just as a hub does. However, a switch is more intelligent than a hub. A
switch directs traffic across a LAN, enabling computers to talk to each other and share resources.
It joins computers on a LAN and is found at layer 2 of the OSI reference model. It allows different
nodes on the network to directly communicate with each other. A switch runs in full duplex mode.
It can recognise different devices onthe network using their MAC address so that data and signals
can be send to exact/intended devices. This is more secure than a hub. Switches can be LAN switches
or ATM switches which are used on WANs and MANs.

• Terminals: - these are computers that are connected to each other through a server and
cannot work without the server. Terminals can be dump or intelligent. A dump terminal does not
have neither processing nor storage capabilities and thus wholly depends on the host computer for
it to work. An intelligent terminal has limited processing and or storage capabilities.
• Workstation: - these are the computers connected to the server and are less powerful than
the server
• Cables: - connects computers together and acts as pathway for data moving from one
workstation to another.

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• Bridge: - this is a device that connects networks using the same communication protocols.
It is used to connect different parts of a LAN, thus is used to connect different LAN segments
together. However, it cannot handle multiple paths for data. In general a bridge is used for:

➢ Increasing the number of workstations on the network

➢ Allows connection of different types of LANs
➢ Allows different segments to be treated as one network
➢ Allows easier management of the network
➢ Improves network security

ii. WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN refers to connection of computers over a very large geographical area and may cover the
whole world. The internet is part of the WAN. A WAN is created by joining several LANs
together, for example, connecting different branches of a company that are in different provinces
or countries. Computers are usually linked together using fibre optic cables, satellite links,
telephone lines, etc.
Gateways are usually used to bridge the different networks.
Hardware Requirements for a WAN
• Routers: - this is a network device that connect different types of networks together, for
example, connects a school LAN to the internet (which is a WAN). It can route packets of the
same protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) over networks with dissimilar architectures (e.g. Ethernet to token
ring). It receives transmitted messages and forwards them to their correct destinations over the
most efficient available route. A router is used to form complex networks with multiple paths
between network segments (subnets), each subnet and each node on each subnet is assigned a
network address.

A Router is very intelligent. It uses network addresses and IP addresses of other routers to create
routes between two networks. They keep tables of addresses that will be used in routing
information. Routers are thus used for:

✓ Determining the path of data packets using destination addresses of the packets.
✓ Used for packet switching

• Gateway: - a device used to connect different kinds of networks. Thy act as link to
different WANs. A gateway is a device that connects networks with different architectures and
different protocols. When packets arrive at a gateway, the software strips all networking
information from the packet, leaving only the raw data. The gateway translates the data into the

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new format and sends it on using the networking protocols of the destination system. Thus it
becomes a protocol converter.

• Modem (Modulator Demodulator):- This is a device that converts digital signal received
from a computer into an analogue signal that can be sent along ordinary telephone lines, and back
to digital at the receiving end. Mostly used to connect to the internet using the ordinary telephone
line. The speed of modems is measured in bits per second e.g. 56K bps. The following parameters
must be specified when a modem is installed:
➢ the telephone number of the ISP
➢ baud rate of modem
➢ number of data bits per block
➢ number of stop bits
➢ whether odd or even parity is used
Cable modems - employ broadband transmission across regular cable television wires.

Network Topology (Configuration)

This refers to the shape/configuration of the network. Common network topologies are Ring, bus,
star and mesh network topologies.
1. Ring Network:
➢ Computers are connected together to form a circle and uses a token when transferring data.
➢ Data/information travels in one direction only.
➢ Information moves around the ring in sequence from its source to its destination.
➢ As data passes from one computer to another in the ring, each computer removes any data
relevant to itself and adds any data it wishes to send.
➢ The diagram below illustrates the physical configuration of a ring network:

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Advantages of Ring Network

➢ Data processing is faster as each computer processes its own processor.
➢ Has very high data transfer rates.
➢ Uses a token to avoid data collision or loss
➢ it is possible to create large networks using this topology
➢ If one computer breaks down, others will remain working as they have their own
processors and storage facilities.
➢ Performs better than star network when traffic is very heavy.

Disadvantages of Ring Network

➢ If one computer breaks down, the whole network is disrupted.
➢ a faulty connection between two stations can cause network failure
➢ Its requirements are expensive, that is buying several computers with processors and
storage facilities.
➢ It is difficult to link the computers together.
➢ Difficult to add another computer without disrupting the networking.

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➢ Only the computer with the token is allowed to send data at a given time. One may not
send data when another node (computer) is still sending its own data.
➢ System is less secure as token together with data has to pass through other nodes that do
not concern it.

2. Star Network:
✓ Computers form a star shape with host computer at the centre.
✓ The Server (host computer) manages all other computers/terminals on the network.
✓ If the terminals are not intelligent, they have to rely on the host computer for everything.
✓ This network is as shown below:

Advantages of Star Network

➢ If one terminal breaks down, the network is not disrupted.
➢ It is cheap in terms of requirements since only the host computer can have a processor and
storage facility.
➢ It is very easy to install.
➢ Management of data is easier as this is done centrally.
➢ It is very fast to process data.
➢ Easier to add new workstation without disrupting the network.
➢ No problem of collision of data since each terminal has its own cable to the host computer.
➢ Gives consistent performance even when the network is heavily utilized.

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➢ More secure than other network topologies

➢ it is easier to identify faults using this type of topology
➢ It is easy to expand this type of network
➢ If one terminal breaks down, others will remain working.

Disadvantages of a Star Network

➢ If the host computer breaks down, the whole network will be disrupted.
➢ If the host computer is down, all the terminals will not work as they depend on the host for
processing and storage.
➢ It requires a lot of cabling, which might be expensive. ➢ Can be slower if overloaded

3. Mesh Network
✓ A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending
information to any other computer on the network.
✓ No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data
back and forth between computers.
✓ Thus, if any one computer is damaged or temporarily unavailable, information is
dynamically rerouted to other computers—a process known as self-healing

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Advantages of Mesh Network

➢ If one computer breaks down, others will remain functional.
➢ If one computer breaks down, the network is not disturbed.
➢ Computers have their own storage and processing capabilities.

Disadvantages of Mesh Network

➢ Expensive to buy computers with their storage and processing facilities.
➢ Too much cabling is involved, which may be expensive.

4. Bus (Linear/Multi-drop) Network:

✓ Computers are connected together through one main cable and all computers all signals
transmitted by any computer connected to the network Definition of Terms
(a) Bus/Backbone: the dedicated and main cable that connects all workstations and other computer
devices like printers.

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(b) Nodes: these are connection points for workstations and the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices that prevent data in the bus from bouncing back, causing noise and
prevents data from getting lost.
Advantages of Bus network
➢ If one workstation breaks down, others will remain functional.
➢ If one workstation breaks down, the network remains working.
➢ All computers have processing and storage capabilities.
➢ It is cheap to install due to less cabling.
➢ Easy to add workstation without disrupting the network.
➢ Requires less cabling than a star network.
➢ Less expensive network than the other systems
Disadvantages of Bus Network
➢ Computers cannot send data at the same time nor while there is data being transferred in
the bus.
➢ Can cause collision of data during transmission.
➢ It is slow in transferring data.
➢ Its requirements are expensive, that is computers with their own processors and storage
facilities.
➢ The system will be down if the main cable (bus) is disrupted at any point.
➢ Less secure.
➢ Performance worsens as new stations added

NB: Point – to-Point Connection: Point-to-point topology is the simplest connection, consisting
of two connected computers.

E-commerce
✓ The phrase e-commerce is a buzzword which relates to buying or selling via the Internet.
✓ Increasingly you can purchase directly via a Web site by selecting the goods or services
which you require and entering your credit card details.
✓ When you send your credit card details these SH OULD be encrypted by the site operators
so that no one can intercept your details.
✓ Most sites which accept credit card payment are on secure services and your Internet
browser program (i.e. Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Communicator) will
normally inform you (via a popup) when you are entering or leaving a secure server.
✓ There are numerous web sites from where you can purchase online, a famous example
being amazon.com.

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✓ Most Internet based shopping sites use a virtual “shopping cart” system.
✓ As you browse the site you can add any products you want to purchase to your cart.
✓ Once you have placed items in the cart you can then move to the checkout stage.
✓ At the checkout you enter your name & address, select the type of delivery you want and
enter your payment details.

Advantages of e-commerce
There are many advantages in using e-commerce:
➢ Services available 24/7
➢ Large stock range
➢ Detailed product information
➢ Ability to compare prices
➢ Right to return defective goods

Disadvantages of e-commerce
➢ Possible credit card fraud ➢ Is the website genuine?
➢ What about returning faulty goods? Be sure you know about a company’s returns policy,
BEFORE you make an online purchase.

E-learning
✓ E-learning refers to learning via the Internet or working through a disk based tutorial.
There are many advantages, but also some disadvantages.
Advantages include:
➢ One trainer can train many people at many different locations.
➢ If the training is solely computer based, then the students can work at their own pace, and
repeat parts of a course which they do not understand.
➢ Also the teaching can be at any time, 24 hours a day, and 7 days a week.
➢ Often e-learning solutions are cheaper to provide than other more traditional teaching
methods.
Disadvantages include:
➢ There may be no opportunity to ask a question of a real person.

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➢ The Internet connection may temporarily fail for some reason.

➢ You may have to pay for the connection time, by the minute.
➢ The download speed may be too slow for some forms of e-learning.
➢ Because of the increased time required to produce some types of e-learning packages, the
e-learning tutorials may not be available for some time following the release of a new
version of software, or a new certification syllabus.

Electronic mail (e-mail)

✓ Email allows you to send a message to another person almost instantly, anywhere in the
world. It requires both computers to be connected to the Internet.
✓ As well as sending a text message, files can be sent as email attachments.
✓ A form of communication in which written/typed messages are send electronically over
networked computers. In-order to send and receive e-mails, the following is needed.
✓ An e-mail address is made up of two parts that are separated by the “@” symbol, for
example, kapondenit@gmail.com.
✓ The first part (kapondenit) is the username and is used to identify the name of the person
or organisation that has the mailbox. The username is unique.
✓ The second part (gmail) is the domain name and is used to identify the server where the
person has a mailbox.
✓ The other part (the one after the dot (.) indicates the domain type e. g o . com – commercial
organisation o . edu – educational organisation o . org – non-profit making organisation,
etc.
✓ An e-mail address should be known by many people so that they will know the address
where to send the emails.
✓ Every mailbox is protected from illegal access by use of password.
✓ A password is a secret group of alphanumeric characters used to protect a document from
unauthorized access.

NB. When creating an e-mail, one is requested to enter the password twice in order to verify if
it is the one you intend to use.

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Mailbox: - An electronic folder used to store electronic mails. It contains the inbox; which
contains incoming mails; and the outbox; which is used to save outgoing messages.

Advantages of e-mails as compared to ordinary mails

➢ It is very fast in sending messages (can be delivered promptly while ordinary mails can
take days to reach their destination).
➢ It is very cheap to send e-mails since there is no need for envelopes, stamps, paper and
pen, which are needed in conventional mail.
➢ They are reliable since e-mails rarely get lost.
➢ E-mails are time independent as they can be send any time of the day other than
conventional mails which can be send during the normal working hours.
➢ E-mails allow multiple addressing, that is, one e-mail message can be send to several
recipients simultaneously without having to retype it.
➢ E-mails can be saved for future use or reference.
➢ E-mails are more convenient to use as there is no need to travel to the post office or to
shops to buy stamps and envelopes.
➢ In e-mails, attachments in form of reports, scanned documents, pictures and curriculum
vitae can easily be attached to the e-mail.
➢ there are no language problems (systems can translate messages sent)
➢ It is possible to read emails whenever you want – there are no issues of time differences
as would be the case with video conferencing. If some delegates lived in the USA and
the others lived in India, for example, the time difference is 10 to 14 hours which could
be a problem)

Disadvantages of e-mail
➢ Not everyone has equipment to send e-mails.
➢ Junk mail (spam) is a problem.
➢ You waste a lot of time looking through mails that are just adverts.
➢ E-mails are not as secure as traditional mails.

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➢ The system relies on people checking their mails regularly.

➢ Old people feel left out as they consider themselves too old to learn.
➢ Equipment used to send and receive e-mails is very expensive as compared to
traditional methods.

However, despite the increase in the use of e-mail, there has been a sharp increase in the amount
of paper used. This is because:

➢ People print copies for meetings and then destroy them afterwards, but if needed again,
print out another copy.
➢ Some people find it difficult reading large amounts of text on the screen. People often
e-mail colleagues rather than use the phone who then print out the document.

5 SECURITY AND ETHICS (UNHU/UBUNTU/UBUNTU)

✓ COMPUTER SECURITY- is the protection of computing systems and the data that they
store or access.

✓ COMPUTER ETHICS-is set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers.

CYBER WELLNESS

✓ Refers to the positive wellbeing of internet users.

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✓ It involves an understanding of online behavior and awareness of how to protect

oneself in cyberspace.
Cyber Wellness Principles
✓ Some principles should be practiced while handling the social media.
✓ The three principles are:
1. Respect for self and others
2. Safe and responsible use
3. Positive peer influence

1. Respect for self and others

✓ Uphold dignity of people when online. Thai is, share appropriate content and
participate in only legal online activities.
✓ Respect other people online(e.g. put themselves in other’s shoes, accept diverse
views and opinions, give credit when using other people’s work and seek
permission where necessary, avoid sharing hurtful materials).
2. Safe and Response Use
✓ Have an understanding about harmful and illegal online behaviors.
✓ Take steps to protect themselves.
✓ Keep their personal information private.
✓ Verify the reliability of information using various sources.
✓ Take steps to avoid dangers they may encounter online.
✓ Maintain a healthy balance of their online and offline activities.
3. Positive peer influence
✓ Be a positive role model in online.
✓ Stand up for your peers online.
✓ Share healthy and positive content.
✓ Harness the affordances of technology to do good for society.

ONLINE RELATIONSHIP

✓ Is a relationship between people who have met online, and in many cases they know each
other only via the internet.

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Types of relationships
➢ Internet dating.
➢ Cybersex- this include individuals communicating sexually via video or audio.
➢ Social networking relationships.
➢ Online gaming etc.

COPYRIGHT ISSUES

Copyright

✓ Is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work
exclusive rights for its use and distribution.
✓ Protects tangible or fixed expression of an idea but not the idea itself.
✓ Is automatically assigned when created.
✓ May need to be registered in some countries.

Exists when:

➢ Proposed work is original.

➢ Creator has put original idea in concrete form.
➢ E.g. literary works, musical works, dramatic works, pantomimes and choreographic works,
pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works, motion pictures and other audiovisual works,
sound recordings, architectural works, software related-works.
PLAGIARISM AND PIRACY

Plagiarism

✓ Is when an individual takes another’s work and claims it as their own.

✓ It is illegal to take someone else’s opinion, quote, research, etc. and use it as your own.
✓ Plagiarism happens a lot when students write research papers.
✓ They either cite a reference incorrectly or forget to cite the reference at all.

Piracy

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✓ Is the act of using or reproducing a copyrighted or patented material without the owner’s
approval. Such as:
➢ Music downloads and uploads.
➢ Movie downloads and uploads.
➢ Software downloads and uploads.

TIPS AGANST

Plagiarism

1. Always cite information that you did not create yourself.

2. If you are unsure how to cite a reference ask a teacher or visit countless websites that offer
help.
3. If you are ever unsure whether you need to cite something, ask a teacher.

Piracy

1. ONLY download something from a trusted site.

2. Never give out personal information to a site you are unsure about.
3. If you are ever unsure ask an adult.

Safety/ legal issue:\

Plagiarism

✓ Is academic dishonesty. If found guilty of plagiarizing a student will receive an F in the

class and risk getting expelled.
✓ For professionals that plagiarize there could be legal action taken against them.

Piracy

✓ Is stealing. If an individual is convicted of copyright infringement is subject to large fines

and the possibility of jail time.

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6 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

SYSTEM

✓ A collection of components that work together to realize some objectives forms a system.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

✓ Is the process of investigation of a system’s operation with a view to changing it to new

requirements or improving its current working.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

✓ Is a term used in systems engineering, information systems and software engineering to

describe a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an information system.

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PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Preliminary Investigation

✓ Basically refers to the collection of information that guides the management of an

organisation to evaluate the merits and demerits of the project request and make informed
judgment about the feasibility of the proposed system.

Stages of the preliminary investigation

✓ This phase is used to identify the need for a new system.

✓ It is very important step.
✓ Everything performed in future depends on this phase.
1. System scope
✓ The scope of the system is defined at this stage.
✓ The scope of a system can be reduced due to financial and political problems etc.
2. Alternate Solutions
✓ A system may be developed by many ways.
✓ This step identifies all possible ways to develop a system.
✓ It is used to select the best solution that fulfills the requirements.
3. Feasibility study
✓ A system must be affordable and acceptable for the organisation.
✓ A feasibility study is used to find whether the proposed system is feasible. ✓ The
decision depends on different issues such as financial and time limits.

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4. Preliminary plan
✓ It consist of all findings in written form for approval.
✓ It is also called feasibility report.
✓ It is normally submitted to the top managers of the organisation.
✓ They may accept, modify or reject the report.

DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

✓ The systems analyst collects data about the system.
✓ The fact finding methods that can be used include:
➢ Interviews.
➢ Record inspection.
➢ Questionnaire.
➢ Observations.
1. Interview
✓ This refers to the face-to-face communication between two or more people in order to
obtain information.
✓ Interviews can also be done over the phone but the most common ones are face to face.
✓ Interviews are done when you want to collect information from a very small population
sample.
Advantages of Interviews
➢ Effective when gathering information about a system
➢ The researcher can ask for clarification on some points that may not be clear.
➢ Encourages good rapport between the researcher and the respondent.
➢ Non-verbal gestures like facial expressions can help the researcher to determine if
the respondent is telling the truth.
➢ Information can be collected even from the illiterate since the respondent’s
language could be used.
➢ First-hand information is collected.
➢ The researcher can probe to get more information.
Disadvantages of Interviews
➢ It is expensive since the researcher has to travel to the interview venue.

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➢ Difficult to remain anonymous

➢ It is time consuming as more time is spent travelling and carrying out the
interview.
➢ Good interview techniques are required as failure may lead to disappointments.
➢ Biased information can be given since the respondent may not tell the truth.
2. Record inspection
✓ A fact finding method which involves scrutinising system documents in order to
solicit information.
Advantages
➢ Accurate information is collected from system records.
➢ Shows how data is collected within the system.
➢ Shows the exact data that is collected.
➢ Shows information that must be produced by the system ➢ First-hand information
is obtained.
➢ Gives a good idea of the ways things are actually done rather than how they are
supposed to be done.
Disadvantages of record inspection
➢ It is time consuming to go through all system records.
➢ Manual files can be tiresome to go through and some of the data may be illegible.
➢ Confidential files are not given to the researcher.
➢ Documentation may difficult for an outsider to understand.
➢ Some records may not be relevant.
3. Questionnaire
✓ A document with carefully crafted questions to be answered by the respondent by
filling on the spaces provided.
✓ Questionnaires are used when collecting information from a widely spaced
population sample and when collecting information from many people.
✓ A questionnaire contains open-ended and closed questions. Open-ended questions
are gap filling questions which require the respondent to express his or her own
view.

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✓ Closed questions are guided questions where the respondent just chooses Yes or
No, True or false, or by just putting a tick on given options.
✓ Questionnaires can be distributed personally or by post.
Advantages of questionnaires
➢ Effective when collecting a lot of data.
➢ Questions are very simple to answer.
➢ It saves time as questionnaires can be distributes and then collected later.
➢ Respondents can fill questionnaires at their own pace.
➢ Give guarantees confidential of information, thereby encouraging respondents to
give accurate information.
➢ They are cheap to use as travel expense can be low.
Disadvantages of questionnaires
➢ Questions must be well thought out and precise.
➢ Some questions are left blank.
➢ Some questionnaires may not be returned. Biased information can be collected.
➢ Respondents usually do not fill the correct information.
➢ It is difficult to analyse information collect using questionnaires.
➢ They are expensive to use if the postal system is used.
➢ Abusive information can be filled by respondents.
4. Observations
✓ It is a fact finding method that involves viewing the actual system in operation by
the researcher.
✓ The researcher can even take part in operating the system.
✓ It is used when the researcher wants to see for himself how the system operates.
Advantages of observations
➢ First-hand information is collected.
➢ May identify problems that the users did not see ➢ Accurate information can be
obtained.
➢ More reliable information is obtained.
➢ Only areas of interest can be observed.

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➢ The researcher can take part in operating the system thereby getting insight on
how the system operates.
Disadvantages of observations
➢ People work differently if they feel that they are being observed, therefore
inaccurate information can be collected.
➢ The researcher may not understand some of the activities being observed.
➢ It is time consuming to collect the required information.
➢ The researcher may interrupt some of the activities being done.
➢ More expensive than other methods

7 ALGORITHM DESIGN AND PROBLEM SOLVING

ALGORITHM

✓ It is a formula or a procedure for solving a problem, based on conducting a sequence of

specified actions. OR
✓ Is a procedure for solving a problem in terms of the actions to be executed and the order in
which those actions are to be executed.
✓ An algorithm is merely the sequence of steps taken to solve a problem. The steps are
normally "sequence," "selection," "iteration," and a case-type statement.

ALGORITHM DESIGN AND PROBLEM SOLVING

✓ A study of techniques for finding solutions to problems through structured programming

and step-wise refinement.

EXAMPLES OF ALGORITHMS

1. Flowcharts
2. Pseudo codes

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3. Programming constructs (e.g. sequence, iteration/repetition and selection.)

SEQUENCE CONSTRUCT

✓ A series of actions one after the other from beginning to the end either from top to bottom
or from left to right or a combination of these movements.

EXAMPLES OF SEQUENCE CONSTRUCT

Question: Write a program to accept two numbers, add them and print the two numbers and the
sum.

SOLUTION

Accept number1

Accept number2

Add number1 and number2

Print number1, number2 and sum

EXAMPLE 2

Question: write a program that accept your first name and last name, and display “hello your name
and last name.”

SOLUTION

Firstname=INPUT (what is your firstname?”)

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Lastname=INPUT (what is your lastname?”)

PRINT (“hello”+firstname+””+lastname+”!”)

PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
Programming

✓ It is the process of taking an algorithm and encoding it into a notation, a programming

language, so that it can be executed by a computer.

Program

✓ Is a term used for both statements written in a particular programming language.

Syntax

✓ In computer science, the syntax is the set of rules that defines the combinations of symbols
in a programming language.

Semantics

✓ Is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming
languages.

Constant

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✓ In programming a constant is a value that never changes.

Operators

✓ An operator in a programming language is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform

specific mathematical or logical operations.

Variable

✓ A variable is a programming construct that is used to store values.

✓ There are different types which include:
➢ String variable
➢ Numeric variable
➢ Arrays

EXAMPLES OF VARIABLES

How to declare a variable in the Visual Basic.Net (VB.NET) language

➢ Dim name As String=”Tinotenda”

➢ Dim num As Integer=45
➢ Dim I, j ,o As Integer

How to declare a constant in Visual Basic.Net (VB.NET) language

➢ Public const MyInteger As Integer=78

➢ Private const DaysInWeek As Short=7
➢ Protected Frienmd Const Funday As String=”Sunday”

DATA TYPES USED

✓ Data types describe the nature of data handled by programs.

Data Type Storage Allocation Value Range

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Boolean Depends on True or False

implementing platform

Byte 1 byte 0 through 255 (unsigned)

Char 2 bytes 0 through 65535 (unsigned)

Date 8 bytes 0:00:00 (midnight) on January 1, 0001

through 11:59:59 PM on December 31,
9999

Decimal 16 bytes
0 through +/-
79,228,162,514,264,337,593,543,950,335
(+/-7.9...E+28) with no decimal point; 0

through +/-
7.9228162514264337593543950335 with
28 places to the right of the decimal

Double 8 bytes -1.79769313486231570E+308 through

4.94065645841246544E-324, for
negative values

4.94065645841246544E-324 through
1.79769313486231570E+308, for positive
values

Integer 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647

(signed)

Long 8 bytes -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 through

9,223,372,036,854,775,807(signed)

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Object 4 bytes on 32-bit Any type can be stored in a variable of type

platform Object

8 bytes on 64-bit
platform

SByte 1 byte -128 through 127 (signed)

Short 2 bytes -32,768 through 32,767 (signed)

Single 4 bytes -3.4028235E+38 through -1.401298E-45

for negative values;

1.401298E-45 through 3.4028235E+38

for positive values

String Depends on 0 to approximately 2 billion Unicode

implementing platform characters

UInteger 4 bytes 0 through 4,294,967,295 (unsigned)

ULong 8 bytes 0 through 18,446,744,073,709,551,615

(unsigned)

User- Depends on Each member of the structure has a

Defined implementing platform range determined by its data type and
independent of the ranges of the other
members

UShort 2 bytes 0 through 65,535 (unsigned)

OPERATORS

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There are many programming languages one may choose to use when developing systems,
projects or applications in computer science ranging from python, vb.net, c++, c, c#, pascal, java,
android, e.t.c.As stated by your syllabus we will be focusing more on vb.net.

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Visual Basic .NET (VB.NET) is a multi-paradigm, object-oriented programming language,

implemented on the .NET Framework. Microsoft launched VB.NET in 2002 as the successor to
its original Visual Basic language. Although the ".NET" portion of the name was dropped in
2005, this article uses "Visual Basic [.NET]" to refer to all Visual Basic languages releases since
2002, in order to distinguish between them and the classic Visual Basic.

Program Development Life Cycle

When we want to develop a program using any programming language, we follow a sequence of
steps. These steps are called phases in program development. The program development life cycle
is a set of steps or phases that are used to develop a program in any programming language.
Generally, program development life cycle contains 6 phases, they are as follows….

1. Problem Definition
2. Problem Analysis
3. Algorithm Development
4. Coding & Documentation
5. Testing & Debugging
6. Maintenance

1. Problem Definition

In this phase, we define the problem statement and we decide the boundaries of the problem. In
this phase we need to understand the problem statement, what is our requirement, what should be

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the output of the problem solution. These are defined in this first phase of the program
development life cycle.

2. Problem Analysis

In phase 2, we determine the requirements like variables, functions, etc. to solve the problem.
That means we gather the required resources to solve the problem defined in the problem
definition phase. We also determine the bounds of the solution.

3. Algorithm Development

During this phase, we develop a step by step procedure to solve the problem using the specification
given in the previous phase. This phase is very important for program development.
That means we write the solution in step by step statements.

4. Coding & Documentation

This phase uses a programming language to write or implement actual programming instructions
for the steps defined in the previous phase. In this phase, we construct actual program. That
means we write the program to solve the given problem using programming languages like C,
C++, Java etc.,

5. Testing & Debugging

During this phase, we check whether the code written in previous step is solving the specified
problem or not. That means we test the program whether it is solving the problem for various
input data values or not. We also test that whether it is providing the desired output or not.

6. Maintenance

During this phase, the program is actively used by the users. If any enhancements found in this
phase, all the phases are to be repeated again to make the enhancements. That means in this
phase, the solution (program) is used by the end user. If the user encounters any problem or
wants any enhancement then we need to repeat all the phases from the starting, so that the
encountered problem is solved or enhancement is added.

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EXAMPLE CREATING A SIMPLE CALCULATOR FOR CALCULATING THE AREA OF

A RECTANGLE

9 DATABASE
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DATABASE THEORY NOTES

Database

✓ Is a set of related tables. OR

✓ Is information stored in a structured/organized way so that it can be easily accessed,
searched, managed and updated.

File

✓ Is a collection of related records.

Field

✓ Is a single data item in a record.

Record
✓ A collection of related fields describing an entity, e.g patient. Tables

✓ These are equivalent to files and therefore are used to store data.
✓ The data is stored in rows and columns.
✓ Each row in a table is called a record which is made up of a number of fields (columns in
the table).
✓ The data type in the fields is usually either text, numeric or date/time.
✓ Most databases contain a number of tables which are usually linked together in some way.

Forms

✓ Forms are commonly called data entry screens since they are the user interface which
allows data in the tables to be viewed, entered or edited.
✓ Forms permit the control of how other users interact with the information in the database
e.g. only allow certain fields to be seen or only allow certain operations to be carried out.
✓ This subsequently helps the protection of the information and also ensures it is entered
correctly

Reports

✓ Reports are produced as a result of questions such as “date>=01/01/1975”.

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✓ The data on report is extracted from queries or tables as per user requirement.
✓ They display certain required data as needed by the user, e.g. after searching or filtering of
data.
✓ Reports can be printed out as hardcopy, or viewed on the screen or exported (e.g. to a word
processor, an email message, etc.).

Queries

✓ Queries are questions that request certain data from tables, e.g, Amount <200.
✓ It can also be an instruction to search data which meets a certain criteria from table and
display it on the screen in form of another table created from the original table.
✓ Most commonly allow information to be retrieved from tables.
✓ They also allow filtering so only the records required are seen.

Macros

✓ A macro is a name or key that represents a series of commands or key strokes.

✓ Many applications allow single word or single nominated key on a keyboard to perform a
whole series of actions.
✓ Macros can be either written as required and then stored or stored in a library for future
use. Macros can be very sophisticated and save the operator a lot of time.
✓ For example, the name and address in a word processor could be set up by pressing key
F1 and the system brings information from a related database

DATA TYPES

Numeric

✓ consists of digits 0-9 only (negative or positive), 12, 900, -50, etc

Alphabetic
✓ Consists of letters of the alphabet (a-z, lowercase or uppercase) only, for example a
person’s name, like TINOTENDA. Alphanumeric

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✓ Combination of digits and letters of the alphabet, eg. National Identification Number, like
27-134575-C-27.
Text
✓ Combination of digits and letters of the alphabet.
String
✓ Combination of digits and letters of the alphabet Currency
✓ in monetary value, e.g. $10.00 Date/time
✓ shows date and time, e.g. 27/01/1997
Array

✓ An array is a series of elements of the same type placed in contiguous memory locations
that can be individually referenced by adding an index to a unique identifier.

FIELD SIZE

✓ Is when a data field have a default maximum size.

➢ For example: a single line input field often has a 2555 character limit, whilst a text
box may be 65, 000 characters.
✓ But it is often a good idea to reduce this limit to match the expected size of the data.
➢ For example a reasonable character size for any username may be a maximum of
20 characters, or a telephone number perharps 12-15 charactes.
✓ The reason being that this makes the database more efficient, as allowing 2555 characters
for every field when only 10 characters are normal is a waste of storage.

VALIDATION RULES AND INPUT MASKS

VALIDATION RULES

✓ Validation rules prevent bad data being saved in your database table.
✓ Basically, they look like criteria in a query.
✓ You can create a rule for a field (lower pane of table design), or for the table (in the
properties box in the table design.) use table’s rules to compare fields.
✓ There is one trap to avoid.

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✓ In some versions of Access, you will not be able to leave the field blank once you add the
validation rule, i.e. you must enter something that satisfies the rule.
✓ If you need to be able to leave the field blank, add OR IS NULL to your rule.

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INPUT MASK

✓ Refers to a string expression, defined by a developer that governs what a user is allowed
to enter in as input in a textbox.
✓ A template, or set format that entered data must conform to, mainly used for the purposes
of data integrity by preventing transcription errors.

PRACTICAL NOTES

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10 WEB DESIGN
Web design

✓ It is the planning and creation of web sites.

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✓ It includes the information architecture, user interface, site structure, navigation, layout,
colors, fonts and imagery.

Website

✓ Refers to the central location that contains more than one page. For example school
website.
✓ Collection of related pages.

Web address

✓ Is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a
mechanism for retrieving it.

Example.

https:// www. Webtutorial .com / paragon /u /url .html

https:// protocol

Www subdomain

Webtutorial. Com /- Domain and domain suffix

Paragon / u Directories

/ url. Html web page

Web page

✓ a template or page written in HTML language using HTML tags.

HTML

✓ Stands for Hyper Text Mark-up Language.

✓ It is a web mark-up language that allows one to create web pages.

HTML contains or consist of tags that let the browser know what action to perform.

Top ten HTML tags.

<a>

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< br >

< div >

< form >

< h1 to h6 >

< html >

< img >

<p>

<u>

<b >

Basic web pages

e.g. 1

< HTML >

< Head > < title > my first web page < / title > </Head >

< Body >

< p > Name, Surname, Location, Age, School

</p >

< / body >

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< / Html>

e.g. 2
<html>

<head>

<title>Contact Us</title>

</head>

<body>

<p>Address: Dendera High School, P. Bag 1006, Mudzi</p>

<p>Cell Number: +263 775 235 124</p>

<p>Email Address: dendera@gmail.com</p>

</body>

</html>

11 TECHNO-PRENEURSHIP
Techno- preneurship

✓ It is the process of merging technology prowess and entrepreneurial talent and skills.

INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL

✓ Is the intangible value of a business, covering its people (human capital), and the value
inherent in its relationships (relational capital, and everything that is left when the
employees go home.

ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL

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➢ Human capital
➢ Organizational capital
➢ Social capital
✓ HUMAN CAPITAL
➢ The skills, knowledge, and experience possessed by an individual or population,
viewed in terms of their value or cost to an organisation or country.
✓ ORGANISATIONAL CAPITAL
➢ The collective know how, beyond the capabilities of individual employees.
✓ SOCIAL CAPITAL
➢ Is a form of economic and cultural capital in which social networks are central,
transactions marked by reciprocity, trust, and cooperation, and market agents
produce goods and services not mainly for themselves, but for a common good.

BUSINESS ETHICS

✓ Is a form applied ethics or professional ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or
ethical problems that arise in a business environment. OR
✓ Is the study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially controversial
issues, such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery, discrimination, corporate
social responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities.
ATTRIBUTES OF BUSINESS ETHICS

➢ Honesty. You need to be honest in all your actions, and every communication you make.
➢ Integrity
➢ Keeping your promises
➢ Loyalty
➢ Fair
➢ Caring
➢ Respect
➢ Obeying the law

MARKETING AND BUSINESS STRATEGIES

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Marketing Strategy

✓ Is a process that can allow an organisation to concentrate its limited resources on the
greatest opportunities to increase sales and achieve a sustainable competitive advantage.

Business strategy

✓ Is the means by which it sets out to achieve its desired ends(objectives)

MARKETING AND BUSINESS STRATEGIES ELEMENTS

➢ Segment – who should be our customers and who should not.

➢ Brand
➢ Competition
➢ Products
➢ Price
➢ Promotion
➢ Communication
➢ Outsourcing

E-commerce refer to communication networks and internet technologies

THE END…………………………………………………………………………………………

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