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The Lexicon

What is the lexicon, what does it contain, and how is it structured? What

principles determine the functioning of the lexicon as a component of

natural language grammar? What role does lexical information play in

linguistic theory?

This comprehensive yet accessible introductory textbook aims to

answer these three questions, and explores the relation of the lexicon

to grammar as a whole. It offers a critical overview of major theoreti-

cal frameworks, and puts forward a unified treatment of lexical structure

and design. The text can be used for introductory and advanced courses,

and for courses that touch upon different aspects of the lexicon, such as

lexical semantics, lexicography, syntax, general linguistics, computational

lexicology, and ontology design.

One of the authors’ key objectives is to provide students with a set of

tools which will enable them to work with lexical data for all kinds of

purposes, and they have included an abundance of exercises and in-class

activities for this purpose, which also ensure that students are actively

engaged with the content and effectively acquire the necessary knowledge

and skills they need.

JA M E S P U S T E J OV S K Y is the TJX Feldberg Chair in Computer

Science at Brandeis University. He has published numerous books

on Generative Lexicon theory, lexical semantics, temporal and spatial

semantics, and linguistic annotation.

OLGA B A T I U K O VA is Associate Professor in the Department of Span-

ish Philology at the Autonomous University of Madrid. She has published

extensively on lexical theory and its impact on lexicography, and the

syntax–lexicon interface and verbal aspect.

CAMBRIDGE TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS

General Editors: P. A U S T I N, J. B R ES NA N, B . C O M R I E, S . C R A I N,

W. DRESSLER, C . E W E N, R . L A S S, D . L I G H T F O O T, K. R I C E, I . R O B E R T S,

S. R O M A I N E, N . V. S M I T H.

The Lexicon
In This Series:

R . CANN Formal Semantics

J. L AV E R Principles of Phonetics

F. R . PA L M E R Grammatical Roles and Relations

M. A . JONES Foundations of French Syntax

A . RADFORD Syntactic Theory and the Structure of English: A Minimalist Approach

R . D . VA N VA L I N JR AND R . J. LAPOLLA Syntax: Structure, Meaning and

Function

A . DURANTI Linguistic Anthropology

A . C RU T T E N D E N Intonation Second edition

J. K. CHAMBERS AND P. TRU DG ILL Dialectology Second edition

C . LY O N S Definiteness

R . K AG E R Optimality Theory

J. A. HOLM An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles

G . G. CORBETT Number

C . J. EWEN AND H. VA N DER HULST The Phonological Structure of Words

F. R . PA L M E R Mood and Modality Second edition

B . J. Blake Case Second edition

E . GUSSMAN Phonology: Analysis and Theory

M. YIP Tone

W. C RO F T Typology and Universals Second edition

F. COULMAS Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis

P. J. HOPPER AND E. C. T R AU G OT T Grammaticalization Second edition

L . WHITE Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar

I . P L AG Word-Formation in English

W. C RO F T AND A . CRU SE Cognitive Linguistics

A . SIEWIERSKA Person

A . RADFORD Minimalist Syntax: Exploring the Structure of English

D . BÜRING Binding Theory

M. BUTT Theories of Case

N . HORNSTEIN, J. NUÑES AND K . G ROH MA NN Understanding Minimalism

B . C . LUST Child Language: Acquisition and Growth

G . G. CORBETT Agreement

J. C. L. INGRAM Neurolinguistics: An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing

and Its Disorders

J. C L AC K S O N Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction

M. ARIEL Pragmatics and Grammar

R . CANN , R . KEMPSON AND E . GREGOROMICHELAKI Semantics: An

Introduction to Meaning in Language

Y. M AT R A S Language Contact

D . BIBER AND S . CONRAD Register, Genre and Style

L . J E FF R I E S AND D. MCINTYRE Stylistics

R . HUDSON An Introduction to Word Grammar

M. L . MURPHY Lexical Meaning

J. M. MEISEL First and Second Language Acquisition

T. M C E N E RY AND A. HARDIE Corpus Linguistics: Method, Language and Practice

J. SAKEL AND D . L. EVERETT Linguistic Fieldwork: A Student Guide

A . SPENCER AND A. LUÍS Clitics: An Introduction

G . CORBETT Features

A . MCMAHON AND R . MCMAHON Evolutionary Linguistics

B . CLARK Relevance Theory

B . LONG PENG Analyzing Sound Patterns

B . DA N C Y G I E R AND E . SWEETSER Figurative Language

J. BYBEE Language Change

S . G . THOMASON Endangered Languages: An Introduction

A . RADFORD Analysing English Sentences Second edition

R . CLIFT Conversation Analysis

R . LEVINE Syntactic Analysis

I . P L AG Word-Formation in English Second edition

Z . G. SZABÓ AND R . H . THOMASON Philosophy of Language

J. P U S T E J OV S K Y AND O . B AT I U K O VA The Lexicon

Earlier issues not listed are also available.

The Lexicon

JA M E S P U S T E J O V S K Y

Brandeis University, Massachusetts

O L G A B AT I U K O VA

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, N Y 10006, USA

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It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of

education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521839327

DOI: 10.1017/9780511982378

© James Pustejovsky and Olga Batiukova 2019

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2019

Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Pustejovsky, J. (James) author. | Batiukova, Olga, author.

Title: The lexicon / James Pustejovsky, Brandeis University, Massachusetts;

Olga Batiukova, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.

Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York, NY: Cambridge University

Press, 2019. | Series: Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics | Includes

bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018038011| ISBN 9780521839327 (Hardback) | ISBN

9780521547956 (Paperback)

Subjects: LCSH: Lexicology.

Classification: LCC P326 .P87 2019 | DDC 413.028–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018038011

ISBN 978-0-521-83932-7 Hardback

ISBN 978-0-521-54795-6 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of

URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication

and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,

accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

List of figures page xii

List of tables xiii

Preface xv

Acknowledgments xix

Part I The Lexicon in Linguistic Theory 1

1 Introduction 3

1.1 Overview 3

1.2 What Is the Lexicon? 3

1.3 What Is a Word? 6

1.4 Lexeme, Word Form, and Grammatical Word 10

1.5 What Is in a Lexical Entry? 10

1.6 The Role of Empirical Data in Lexicon Research 11

1.6.1 Naturally Occurring Data 12

1.6.2 Naturally Elicited Data 13

1.6.3 Experimentally Elicited Data 14

1.6.4 Data in the Linguistic Research Cycle 16

1.7 Goals of Linguistic Theory and the Notion of Grammar 18

1.8 Summary 19

1.9 Further Readings 20

1.10 Exercises 21

2 Lexicon and Syntax 24

2.1 Overview 24

2.2 What Is Syntax? 24

2.3 Syntactically Relevant Lexical Features and Lexically

Dependent Syntactic Phenomena 30

2.3.1 Syntactic Category 31

2.3.2 Semantic Features and Semantic Types 37

2.3.3 Countability 38

2.3.4 The Interaction of Lexical Features 45

2.4 Summary 46

2.5 Further Readings 47

2.6 Exercises 47

vii
viii CONTENTS

3 Lexicon in Syntactic Frameworks 49

3.1 Overview 49

3.2 The Lexicon from Aristotle to Structuralism 49

3.3 Generative Grammar 56

3.4 Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) 64

3.5 Lexical–Functional Grammar (LFG) 70

3.6 Construction Grammar 74

3.7 Lexicon in Its Own Right: Generative Lexicon 78

3.8 Summary 88

3.9 Further Readings 89

3.10 Exercises 90

4 Lexicon and Semantics 93

4.1 Overview 93

4.2 What Is Semantics? 93

4.2.1 Sentence Meaning and Inference 94

4.2.2 Word Meaning and Lexical Relations 98

4.3 Conceptual Meaning 99

4.3.1 Referential Models of Semantics 100

4.3.2 Representational Theories of Meaning 102

4.3.3 Rich Denotational Models of Semantics 104

4.4 Associative or Connotative Meaning 108

4.5 Literal and Non-Literal Meaning 110

4.6 Summary 112

4.7 Further Readings 113

4.8 Exercises 114

5 Lexicon in Semantic Frameworks 115

5.1 Overview 115

5.2 Formal Semantics 115

5.3 Conceptual Semantics 121

5.4 Cognitive Linguistics 126

5.5 Prototype Theory 131

5.6 Natural Semantic Metalanguage 137

5.7 Summary 140

5.8 Further Readings 140

5.9 Exercises 142

Part II Lexical Structures 145

6 The Structure of a Lexical Entry 147

6.1 Overview 147

6.2 Linguistic versus Extralinguistic Knowledge in the Lexical

Entry 147
 Contents ix

6.2.1 Conventional Dictionary Definitions and Their Types 149

6.3 Linguistic Structures 151

6.3.1 Typed Feature Structure 151

6.3.2 Argument Structure and Predication 153

6.3.3 Event Structure 158

6.3.4 Qualia Structure 161

6.4 Conceptual Structures 164

6.4.1 Image Schemas 164

6.4.2 Frames and Scenes 166

6.4.3 Conventionalized Attributes 168

6.5 Properties of Lexical Entries 169

6.5.1 Ambiguity, Polysemy, and Homonymy 169

6.5.1.1 Tests of Sense Distinctness 171

6.5.1.2 Polysemy and Homonymy 173

6.5.1.3 Regular Polysemy 175

6.5.2 Vagueness and Underspecification 177

6.6 Summary 178

6.7 Further Readings 179

6.8 Exercises 180

7 Semantic Typing and Decomposition 182

7.1 Overview 182

7.2 Strategies for Lexical Decomposition 182

7.3 Semantic Types 188

7.4 Qualia Structure As Semantic Types 194

7.4.1 Natural Types and Artifactual Types 194

7.4.2 Complex Types 198

7.5 Summary 200

7.6 Further Readings 201

7.7 Exercises 201

8 Argument Structure 204

8.1 Overview 204

8.2 The Basics of Function–Argument Behavior 204

8.2.1 Formalizing Argument Structure 204

8.2.2 Argument Structure and Lexical Meaning in the

Predicate 206

8.2.3 Arguments and Adjuncts 214

8.2.4 Unexpressed Arguments 218

8.3 Argument Structure in Verbs 219

8.3.1 Semantic Roles and Related Notions 220

8.3.2 Verbal Valence 224

8.4 Argument Structure in Nouns 227

8.5 Argument Structure in Adjectives 234

x CONTENTS

8.6 Argument Structure in Prepositions 236

8.7 Summary 240

8.8 Further Readings 242

8.9 Exercises 243

9 Lexical Aspect, Tense, and Modality 245

9.1 Overview 245

9.2 Events As Arguments of Natural Language Predicates 245

9.3 Internal Temporal Makeup of Events: Event Structure 247

9.3.1 Perspectives on Event Decomposition and Event

Structure 248

9.3.2 Event Type as a Property of Phrases and Sentences 256

9.3.3 Event Type Diagnostics 258

9.3.4 Eventive Readings of Nouns and Adjectives 263

9.4 Tense–Aspect Details 268

9.5 Modality 273

9.6 Summary 279

9.7 Further Readings 281

9.8 Exercises 282

Part III Lexicon As a System 285

10 General Architecture of the Lexicon 287

10.1 Overview 287

10.2 Lexical Architecture 287

10.3 Syntactic Type Hierarchy 289

10.4 Semantic Type Hierarchy 292

10.5 Lexical-Semantic Relations 300

10.6 Morphology and Word Structure 311

10.7 Summary 316

10.8 Further Readings 318

10.9 Exercises 319

11 Compositionality in the Mapping from the Lexicon to

Syntax 321

11.1 Overview 321

11.2 The Basics of Compositionality 321

11.3 Apparent Violations of Compositionality 328

11.4 Main Approaches to Compositionality 336

11.5 Non-Compositional Constructions 346

11.6 The Lexicon and Grammar: Outstanding Problems 351

11.7 Summary 355

11.8 Further Readings 356

11.9 Exercises 357

 Contents xi

Answers to Selected Exercises 359

Online Resources 378

Glossary 380

References 397

Subject Index 413

Name Index 419

 Figures

3.1 Agent nominalization lexical rule page 68

3.2 Multiple inheritance hierarchy 69

3.3 Ditransitive construction 76

4.1 Concept FL OW E R 102

5.1 The Parallel Architecture of the language faculty 122

5.2 Trajector–landmark alignment 128

5.3 Vantage point 128

5.4 Types of entities in Cognitive Linguistics 129

5.5 Naming preferences and basic level categories 135

6.1 U N C O N TA I N M E N T image schema 164

6.2 I N TO image schema 166

7.1 Aristotelian ontology 189

7.2 Classic upper ontology 189

7.3 ENTITY subtypes 193

7.4 Multiple inheritance in artifactual types 197

8.1 The Actor–Undergoer hierarchy 224

9.1 Geometric analysis of event types 253

10.1 Syntactic type hierarchy 290

10.2 Individuation tree 294

10.3 Ontological types with individuation hierarchy 295

10.4 Semantic type hierarchy (fragment) 296

10.5 Ontological types with qualia specification and individuation 296

10.6 Semantic subtyping of E N T I T Y 299

10.7 -er nominalization rule 314

10.8 -al adjectivization rule 315

11.1 C O U N T– M A S S alternation rule 337

11.2 Causative–inchoative alternation rule 338

xii
 Tables

2.1 Differences between syntax and lexicon page 30

2.2 Grammatical features 36

3.1 Distinctive features in phonology 55

3.2 Lexical field of cooking words, componential analysis 55

3.3 Types of constructions in CG 75

3.4 Lexical entry of school 88

3.5 Lexicon–syntax relationship in syntactic theories 89

4.1 Entailment 95

4.2 Logical conjunction 96

4.3 Logical relations through entailment 97

4.4 P presupposes Q 97

4.5 Extension of different types of linguistic expression 100

4.6 Concepts of different types of linguistic expression 104

4.7 Denotational semantic meanings of different types of

linguistic expression 106

5.1 Full-blown and defective lexical items in the Parallel

Architecture 123

5.2 Semantic definition of syntactic categories in Radical

Construction Grammar 130

5.3 Coding of propositional act constructions in Radical

Construction Grammar 130

5.4 Goodness-of-example ratings of concrete categories 133

5.5 Family resemblances in the category F RU I T 134

5.6 NSM semantic primitives (English exponents) 138

6.1 Core event types 161

6.2 THEFT frame, FrameNet 167

7.1 Semantic types 193

8.1 Illustration of the θ -criterion 221

10.1 Types of part-of relations 308

10.2 Conjugation of the German verb öffnen (‘open’) 311

11.1 Syntactic categories and their semantic types (part A) 326

11.2 Syntactic categories and their semantic types (part B) 327

11.3 Types of MWEs 348

11.4 Collocation examples in English, Spanish, and Russian 349

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