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Demystifying File Systems: A Comprehensive Exploration of Data

Organization

Experiment Findings · April 2024

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31160.35845

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Demystifying File Systems: A
Comprehensive Exploration of Data
Organization
Raksha Rane, Asmit Singh
April 2024

Abstract The application of file systems becomes

This paper explores the role of file systems in particularly evident when considering storage
devices like USB flash drives and solid-state drives
data organization within operating systems,
(SSDs). In their raw state, these devices are
focusing on NTFS, FAT32, exFAT, and APFS.
essentially empty canvases of storage space.
Through comparative analysis and empirical Without a file system, the operating system
benchmarking tests, it evaluates their wouldn't be able to understand how the data is
performance across key metrics such as file organized or located on the drive. Formatting a
size limitations, compatibility, security, and USB drive or SSD with a specific file system, like
additional features. The findings emphasize FAT32, exFAT, or NTFS, creates a structured table
the importance of selecting the appropriate file that maps out how files and folders will be stored
system for specific storage needs, offering and retrieved. This allows the operating system to
insights to optimize data management in efficiently locate, read, write, and manage data on
the storage device. The chosen file system also
modern computing environments.
dictates factors like compatibility with different
operating systems, maximum file size limitations,
Keywords and security features available for stored data. In
Operating Systems, File Systems, Drive essence, formatting with a file system transforms a
Formatting, FAT32, exFAT, NTFS, APFS raw storage device into a functional and organized
storage solution.

1. Introduction

1.1. Overview

File systems are foundational structures in

operating systems, organizing and managing data
storage for seamless access and manipulation. They
abstract complexities of storage devices, ensuring
uniformity in data access across various hardware
configurations. Key functions include ensuring data 1.2. Importance of performance and
integrity, reliability, and efficient resource speed in file systems
utilization through allocation algorithms. File
systems also incorporate advanced features like
Performance and speed are critical elements in file
access control and encryption for enhanced security
systems, directly impacting the efficiency and
and data management. In essence, they provide a
responsiveness of computing systems. Swift data
structured framework for organizing, accessing,
access and quick execution of file operations are
and safeguarding data, crucial for seamless
vital for seamless user experiences and
interaction between users, applications, and storage
productivity. For instance, faster read/write speeds
infrastructure.
enhance application performance and system and APFS (Apple File System). Each of these file
responsiveness, especially in multitasking systems represents distinct approaches to data
environments. In high-demand scenarios like server organization and management within operating
environments, rapid data retrieval is essential for systems.
meeting performance requirements and delivering
timely services. Efficient file system performance To evaluate the performance of these file systems
also optimizes resource utilization and reduces comprehensively, several key metrics will be
system overhead, enhancing scalability and data considered. These include read/write speeds, which
management capabilities. Hence, prioritizing fast measure the rate at which data can be read from or
data access and efficient file operations is crucial written to storage media, impacting overall system
for maximizing the performance potential of responsiveness and data transfer efficiency.
modern computing environments, improving user Additionally, factors such as file size limitations,
satisfaction, and boosting productivity. security features, compatibility across different
operating systems, and support for advanced
1.3. Purpose of the comparative analysis functionalities like encryption and compression
will be examined. By scrutinizing these
A comparative analysis of file systems such as performance metrics across NTFS, FAT32, exFAT,
NTFS, FAT32, exFAT, and APFS is essential for and APFS, this comparative analysis aims to
optimizing data storage and retrieval performance. provide nuanced insights into their respective
This analytical endeavor serves several critical strengths and limitations within the realm of
objectives. Firstly, by systematically comparing operating systems.
these file systems across a defined set of
performance metrics, including read/write speeds,
file size limitations, security features, and 2. Introduction to each file system
compatibility, researchers gain a comprehensive (FAT32, NTFS, APFS, exFAT)
understanding of their individual strengths and
weaknesses. This knowledge empowers informed
decision-making regarding the most suitable file 2.1. FAT32:
system for specific storage applications, ensuring
efficient utilization of resources. Additionally, FAT32, an extension of the File Allocation Table
comparative analysis helps identify optimal usage (FAT) file system lineage, was introduced by
scenarios for each file system. For example, a file Microsoft to address the constraints inherent in its
system excelling in handling large file transfers
might be ideal for internal hard drives, while one precursor, FAT16. Central to its design was the
prioritizing broad operating system compatibility mitigation of limitations associated with maximum
might be better suited for removable storage file and partition sizes. Distinguished by its
devices. Furthermore, analysis elucidates the straightforward structure, extensive
trade-offs inherent in file systems, such as the interoperability, and seamless implementation,
balance between robust security features and FAT32 emerged as a prevalent selection across a
performance overhead. By understanding these
spectrum of storage mediums and operating
trade-offs, stakeholders can make strategic
decisions aligned with their specific storage needs. environments.
Comparative analysis guides the development of
future file systems by identifying areas where
existing systems fall short. Researchers can focus
their efforts on creating new file systems that
address these limitations, leading to advancements
in efficiency and versatility.

1.4. Preview of the file systems to be

compared and the performance metrics

In the forthcoming comparative analysis, the file FAT32 employs a hierarchical directory structure to
systems under scrutiny include NTFS (New organize files and directories on a storage device.
Technology File System), FAT32 (File Allocation At the heart of the file system is the File Allocation
Table 32), exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table), Table (FAT), a table that maps each cluster on the
disk to the files stored within it. This table is transaction logs. This enables more efficient file
essential for tracking file allocation and managing access, advanced file management capabilities, and
disk space. better fault tolerance.

FAT32 is commonly used in scenarios where broad One of the key advantages of NTFS is its support
compatibility with different operating systems is for larger file sizes and partitions compared to
essential, such as: FAT32. NTFS can handle individual files up to 16
a. Removable storage devices like USB flash exabytes in size and partitions up to 256 terabytes,
drives and memory cards. making it suitable for high-capacity storage devices
b. Compatibility with legacy systems or and enterprise-level applications.
embedded devices that do not support
newer file systems. NTFS offers features such as file compression,
c. Temporary storage or data transfer encryption, and access control lists (ACLs),
between systems with different file system allowing users to manage data more securely and
requirements. efficiently. Additionally, NTFS supports features
d. Transferring files between macOS and like journaling, which helps maintain file system
Windows systems, especially for users integrity in the event of unexpected system crashes
who frequently swap storage devices or power failures.
between the two platforms.
NTFS is widely used in various scenarios,
2.2. NTFS: including:
a. Enterprise environments where data
NTFS (New Technology File System), a significant security, reliability, and scalability are
advancement over its predecessors, including paramount.
FAT32, was developed by Microsoft to address the b. High-capacity storage systems such as
limitations and enhance the capabilities of file servers, NAS devices, and external hard
storage on Windows operating systems. Introduced drives.
with the Windows NT operating system, NTFS c. Operating systems that require advanced
quickly became the standard file system for file system features, including
Windows-based computers due to its robust Windows-based servers and workstations.
features and advanced functionality. d. File sharing and collaboration
environments where multiple users need
concurrent access to shared resources.
e. Overall, NTFS stands as a versatile and
powerful file system that continues to play
a crucial role in modern computing
environments, offering unmatched
performance, scalability, and security for
Windows-based systems.

2.3. exFAT:

exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table), developed

by Microsoft as a successor to FAT32, represents a
significant evolution in file system technology,
particularly suited for handling large files and
At the core of NTFS lies a sophisticated storage devices with capacities exceeding the
architecture designed to provide improved limitations of FAT32. Introduced to address the
performance, reliability, and security. Unlike need for a modern, lightweight file system that
FAT32, which relies on a simple file allocation supports high-capacity storage media, exFAT offers
table, NTFS utilizes a complex metadata structure improved performance and compatibility across
to store file attributes, security descriptors, and various platforms and devices.
 2.4. APFS:
Central to exFAT's design is its ability to
accommodate large file sizes and storage volumes. Apple File System (APFS), introduced by Apple in
Unlike FAT32, which has a maximum file size of 4 2017, represents a significant leap forward in file
gigabytes and a maximum volume size of 32 system technology, designed specifically for
gigabytes, exFAT supports files up to 16 exabytes macOS, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS devices. APFS
in size and volumes up to 64 zettabytes, making it replaces the aging HFS+ file system and brings a
ideal for modern storage devices such as flash host of modern features aimed at improving
drives, external hard drives, and memory cards. performance, reliability, and security across Apple's
ecosystem of devices.
exFAT employs a simple and efficient file
allocation mechanism that minimizes overhead and At the core of APFS is a sophisticated architecture
maximizes storage utilization. Instead of using a optimized for flash storage and modern computing
traditional file allocation table, exFAT utilizes a environments. Unlike HFS+, which was developed
streamlined directory structure and a bitmap-based in the era of spinning hard drives, APFS is
allocation scheme, allowing for faster file access optimized for the solid-state storage found in most
and improved performance, especially on devices modern Apple devices, resulting in faster read and
with large capacities. write speeds, reduced latency, and improved overall
system responsiveness.
One of the key advantages of exFAT is its broad
compatibility with different operating systems and
devices. exFAT is supported natively by various
platforms, including Windows, macOS, and Linux,
as well as many consumer electronics devices such
as cameras, camcorders, and multimedia players.
This widespread support makes exFAT an excellent
choice for sharing and transferring files between
different devices and operating systems without the
need for additional software or drivers.

exFAT is commonly used in scenarios such as:

a. High-capacity storage devices requiring
support for large files and volumes, such APFS employs a copy-on-write mechanism, which
as external hard drives and SDXC means that when a file is modified, only the
memory cards. changed data is written to disk, while the original
b. Cross-platform environments where data remains intact until the new version is fully
compatibility with Windows, macOS, and written. This helps minimize the risk of data
Linux is essential for seamless file sharing corruption and improves the efficiency of file
and data exchange. operations such as copying and snapshotting.
c. Embedded systems and consumer
electronics devices that require a It supports space sharing, allowing multiple
lightweight and efficient file system for volumes to share the same underlying physical
storing multimedia content, firmware storage pool. This enables more efficient use of
updates, and other data. available disk space and simplifies volume
d. Overall, exFAT offers a versatile and management, especially in multi-boot or
scalable solution for modern storage containerized environments.
requirements, combining large file
support, high performance, and broad It enables the creation of read-only snapshots of the
compatibility to meet the needs of a wide file system at specific points in time. Snapshots
range of users and devices. provide a convenient way to revert to a previous
state of the file system or to recover from
accidental file deletions or modifications without 3. Comparative Analysis
the need for traditional backup solutions.
This term paper presents a comparative analysis of
It includes built-in support for encryption, with four widely used file systems: FAT32, NTFS,
options for both single-key and multi-key exFAT, and APFS. We will employ a systematic
encryption models. This ensures that data stored on approach to evaluate their capabilities, focusing on
APFS volumes is protected from unauthorized critical aspects such as maximum file size
access, whether at rest or in transit. limitations, partition size, operating system
compatibility, and data security features. By
It employs a new data structure called the dissecting these elements, we aim to illuminate the
"nanoseconds timestamp," which provides greater strengths and weaknesses of each file system. This
precision in tracking file modification times and analysis will provide valuable insights for selecting
improves metadata integrity, especially in scenarios the most suitable file system for various storage
involving frequent file system operations. applications.

It is the default file system on macOS and iOS

3.1. File Size Limitations
devices running macOS High Sierra (10.13) and
later, as well as iOS 10.3 and later. It is optimized
3.1.1. FAT32
for Apple's ecosystem of devices, offering seamless
It has a maximum file size limitation of 4GB. This
integration with features such as Time Machine
means that individual files stored on a FAT32
backups, iCloud Drive, and FileVault encryption.
formatted volume cannot exceed 4GB in size. This
limitation arises from its design architecture, also
APFS is commonly used in scenarios such as:
inherent in previous iterations like FAT16 and
a. macOS and iOS devices: APFS is the
FAT12, particularly in how it allocates and
default file system on Macs, iPhones,
manages disk space using file allocation tables to
iPads, and other Apple devices, providing
track the allocation status of clusters on the disk
a unified storage solution optimized for
drive. Each entry in this file allocation table
performance, reliability, and security.
corresponds to a cluster on the disk. With FAT32,
the cluster size is typically set at 4KB. Despite
b. Time Machine backups: APFS supports
FAT32 supporting a maximum volume size of
Time Machine backups, allowing users to
approximately 8TB, the file size limitation arises
create incremental snapshots of their file
from using a 32-bit field to represent file sizes in
systems for easy restoration of data in case
directory entries. This 32-bit field restricts the
of hardware failure or data loss.
maximum file size to 2^32 - 1 Bytes (~4GB), the
one byte being 0xFFFFFFFF, reserved to indicate a
c. Solid-state storage: APFS is designed to
deleted file. This file size limitation makes FAT32
take full advantage of the performance
impractical for handling large files commonly
characteristics of flash storage, making it
encountered in modern computing environments.
particularly well-suited for Macs and other
devices equipped with SSDs.
3.1.2. NTFS:
It offers expansive file size support up to 16EB
d. Enterprise environments: APFS offers
(2^64 Bytes), allowing it to handle large files and
features such as encryption, snapshots,
massive data sets with ease. Unlike the 4 GB
and space sharing that are attractive to
limitation in older file systems like FAT32, NTFS
enterprise users looking for a modern and
supports individual file sizes up to 16 terabytes
secure file system solution.
(TB), making it well-suited for modern computing
needs. This capability is achieved through its use of
Overall, APFS represents a significant
a 64-bit file size representation, enabling NTFS to
advancement in file system technology, tailored to
address extremely large file sizes efficiently.
meet the demands of today's computing landscape
Additionally, NTFS also has features like
while providing a solid foundation for future
variable-sized clusters, file compression and sparse
innovations in Apple's ecosystem.
file allocation.
 number of files on an exFAT volume is up to
3.1.3. exFAT 2,796,202 per directory.
Like NTFS, the maximum file size supported by
exFAT is 16EB achieved through its use of a 64-bit 3.2.4. APFS
file size representation. It supports a theoretical maximum volume size of 8
exabytes (EB) for both macOS and iOS. This vast
3.1.4. APFS volume size makes APFS suitable for high-capacity
It supports file sizes up to 8EB, likely set storage devices and future scalability. The
considering a combination of factors like maximum number of files supported by APFS is up
future-proofing, data type flexibility and simplicity to 9,223,372,036,854,775,808.
in design. Just like NTFS, it uses a 64-bit file size
representation. This transition from 32-bit file size 3.3. Compatibility:
representation in HFS+ allows for much larger files
to be stored and managed, aligning with the 3.3.1. FAT32
increasing storage capacities of modern devices and It is renowned for its universal compatibility,
addressing the needs of today's data-intensive supported by a wide range of operating systems and
applications. APFS offers significant improvements devices. It is compatible with Windows, macOS,
over its predecessor, HFS+, particularly in its Linux, game consoles, digital cameras, and other
optimization for modern storage technologies like consumer electronics. FAT32's broad compatibility
solid-state drives (SSDs), enabling efficient makes it ideal for transferring files between
handling of large files. Overall, APFS's support for different devices and platforms, commonly used in
very large file sizes makes it a robust choice for USB flash drives, SD cards, and other removable
managing data across Apple's ecosystem. media.

3.2. Partition Size: 3.3.2. NTFS

It is primarily designed for Windows operating
3.2.1 FAT32 systems, with full support across recent versions
The maximum theoretical partition size for FAT32 like Windows 10, Windows 8/8.1, and Windows 7.
is 2TB, but the practical maximum is lower due to While macOS and Linux offer partial support for
operating systems and their own implementations reading NTFS volumes, full read-write
(Windows only allows partitions up to 32GB). This functionality may necessitate third-party drivers or
limitation arises from the use of a 32-bit file additional software. External hard drives and USB
allocation table, which can address clusters up to flash drives often come pre-formatted with NTFS,
32 bits in size. With a maximum cluster size of 32 though compatibility with macOS and Linux may
KB, the maximum volume size is calculated as require additional steps or software.
2^32 * 32 KB = 2 TB. The maximum number of
files on a FAT32 volume is 4,294,967,295 (2^32 - 3.3.3. exFAT
1). It is designed to be a cross-platform file system
with broad compatibility across different operating
3.2.2. NTFS systems. It is natively supported by most modern
It supports significantly larger volume sizes platforms, including Windows, macOS, and various
compared to FAT32. The maximum volume size for Linux distributions. This makes exFAT a popular
NTFS is 256 terabytes (TB) for most modern choice for removable storage devices like USB
Windows operating systems. The maximum flash drives and SD cards, allowing users to plug
number of files on an NTFS volume is also them into different systems and access files without
4,294,967,295 (2^32 - 1). additional software or drivers. However,
compatibility with older systems or embedded
3.2.3. exFAT devices may vary.
It supports a maximum volume size of 128
petabytes (PB), which makes it suitable for 3.3.4. APFS
high-capacity storage devices. The maximum It is optimized for Apple's macOS, iOS, watchOS,
and tvOS platforms. While operating systems
within the Apple ecosystem can fully access APFS a high level of data protection across Apple's
volumes, non-Apple operating systems like ecosystem.
Windows and Linux have limited or no native
support. External storage devices formatted with 3.5. Additional Features:
APFS may present compatibility challenges when
connected to non-Apple platforms, necessitating 3.5.1. FAT32
third-party solutions for access. It lacks advanced features compared to other file
systems, however, its simplicity and compatibility
3.4. Security: make it a popular choice for certain applications,
particularly in scenarios where cross-platform
3.4.1. FAT32 compatibility and ease of use are prioritized over
It lacks built-in security features such as advanced functionality.
encryption, access control lists, or file-level
permissions. It offers minimal security capabilities 3.5.2. NTFS
compared to modern file systems like NTFS and It maintains a robust system of metadata to manage
APFS. Users should exercise caution when storing files and directories efficiently. This includes
sensitive or confidential data on FAT32-formatted attributes such as file ownership, permissions,
devices, as they lack native protection mechanisms timestamps, and file attributes (read-only, hidden,
against unauthorized access or data breaches. system, etc.).

It includes a journaling feature that helps ensure the

3.4.2. NTFS integrity of the file system in the event of
It offers robust security features, including access unexpected system shutdowns or power failures.
control lists (ACLs), file-level permissions, and The journal logs changes before they are
built-in encryption through the Encrypting File committed to the file system structure, reducing the
System (EFS). It also enables administrators to risk of data corruption.
control access to files and directories based on user
accounts and group memberships. Additionally, It supports file-level compression, allowing users to
NTFS supports auditing, allowing administrators to save disk space by compressing individual files or
track and log access attempts to files and directories. This feature can be useful for archival
directories, enhancing security and compliance. purposes or when dealing with large volumes of
data.
3.4.3. exFAT
It does not inherently include security features like It supports sparse files, which are files that contain
encryption or access control mechanisms. It large sections of zeros or empty data. Sparse file
primarily focuses on compatibility and efficient support allows efficient storage of files with large
storage, making it less suitable for scenarios where amounts of empty space, reducing disk space
security is a primary concern. Users may need to usage.
rely on external encryption tools or file-level
security mechanisms provided by the operating 3.5.2 exFAT
system or applications when using It has a relatively low overhead compared to file
exFAT-formatted storage devices. systems like NTFS. This means that a smaller
percentage of the total storage capacity is used for
3.4.4. APFS file system metadata, resulting in more available
It incorporates advanced security measures, such as space for user data.
native encryption, through FileVault on macOS and
Data Protection on iOS. APFS encryption uses It supports transaction-safe updates, meaning that
strong cryptographic algorithms to protect user file system changes are either fully completed or
data, ensuring confidentiality and integrity even if fully rolled back in the event of a power failure or
the storage device is compromised. While APFS system crash.
lacks some of the granular access control features
found in NTFS, its encryption capabilities provide
3.5.3. APFS To minimize external influences, all unnecessary
It introduces a feature called Space Sharing, which background applications were closed during
allows multiple volumes within the same container testing. Additionally, the laptop was connected to a
to share the available free space. This feature stable power source, and Wi-Fi and Bluetooth were
enables more efficient use of disk space and disabled.
simplifies volume management.
The test partition was formatted using the New
It also supports the creation of snapshots, which are Simple Volume Wizard in the Windows Disk
read-only copies of the file system at a specific Management Utility. A 48GB partition was used
point in time. Snapshots capture the state of the file for the NTFS Benchmark, 32GB for exFAT and
system, including file and directory structures, 16GB for FAT32. This was because Windows
attributes, and metadata. doesn’t allow FAT32 for partitions above 32GB.

It uses a copy-on-write (CoW) mechanism for data

integrity and performance optimization. When a
file is modified, APFS writes the changes to a new
location on disk instead of overwriting the original
data in place.

4. Performance Comparison

To empirically evaluate the performance of these

file systems, a series of benchmark tests were
conducted on each file system, NTFS, exFAT, and
FAT32 (APFS was excluded because of platform
and hardware differences).

The 48GB and 32GB partitions have an option

of choosing between NTFS and exFAT.

These tests measured read/write speeds for files on

a Solid State Drive (SSD).

The tests were conducted on a Asus ROG Flow

X16 laptop equipped with a Micron 3400 NVMe
SSD connected through a PCIe Gen4 interface. The
system runs Windows 11 and is equipped with a
AMD Ryzen 9 6900HS processor and 16GB of The 16GB Partition has an option of choosing
RAM. between NTFS and FAT32.
Here are the benchmark results: Despite running the performance comparison ten
times, all three file systems - NTFS, exFAT, and
NTFS Partition (48 Gigabytes) FAT32 - yielded identical results in read and write
speeds across these consecutive runs. This
unexpected outcome challenges our initial
assumptions about the performance differences
between these technologies. There are several
possibilities to consider. The benchmarking tool we
used might not be sensitive enough to detect subtle
variations between the file systems. Alternatively,
the storage device itself could be the bottleneck,
limiting the test's ability to showcase the
performance impact of each file system. Finally,
the file size used in the tests might be a factor.
NTFS, with its journaling overhead, might not
exFAT Partition (32 Gigabytes) exhibit a significant difference compared to exFAT
and FAT32 when working with smaller files.

5. Results and Discussion

The analysis compared file systems like NTFS,

FAT32, exFAT, and APFS. Here's a quick
summary:

5.1. File Size

When it comes to handling massive files, NTFS
and exFAT are the clear winners. Both support file
sizes up to a whopping 16EB, making them ideal
for storing high-resolution videos, scientific
FAT32 Partition (16 Gigabytes) datasets, or vast media libraries. FAT32, due to its
design limitations, restricts file sizes to a mere
4GB, rendering it unsuitable for today's data
demands.

5.2. Compatibility
FAT32 is the best file system to seamlessly transfer
files between a multitude of devices and operating
systems. Its universal compatibility across
Windows, macOS, Linux, and even game consoles
or digital cameras makes it the go-to choice for
removable storage like USB drives or SD cards.
However, if you're primarily within the Apple
ecosystem (macOS, iOS, etc.), APFS offers a
well-integrated and optimized experience.
CrystalDiskMark, a widely recognized disk
benchmark tool, was employed to measure the read 5.3. Security
and write speeds of each file system. The For data security, NTFS is the best file system. It
benchmark was configured to test Sequential boasts features like access control lists, file-level
permissions, and built-in encryption to safeguard
(1MB) and Random (4KB) read and write speeds
your sensitive information. FAT32 and exFAT,
along with IOPS and response time. This approach while convenient for their compatibility, prioritize
allows for a comprehensive analysis of how each simplicity and lack robust security measures. This
file system performs with different data types might be a concern for users storing confidential
commonly encountered during everyday usage. data.
5.4. Performance Further testing with various tools, file sizes, and
storage devices could provide more definitive
insights.

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