LECTURE 1

TOPICS
 Coordinate systems
 Gradient of a scalar field
 Divergence and Curl of a vector field

On completing this lecture, Students should be able to:

1. Define a point in 3D coordinate system
2. Transform coordinate variables from one system to another
3. Write the equation of position vector
4. Write the equations for small length vector, surface and volume
5. Evaluate gradient of a scalar function
6. Evaluate the divergence and curl of a vector field

0.1 INTRODUCTION
The distribution of any physical quantity in space is defined by a field. A
complete pictorial representation and clear understanding of the fields is
possible with the help of coordinate system and vector analysis. This chapter
will, therefore, review the orthogonal coordinate system and vector calculus
for better understanding of engineering electromagnetics as this course deals
the fields.

0.2 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Vectors are easy to handle when they are resolved into their components
along three mutually perpendicular directions. Such directions are
represented in terms of various coordinate systems. Cartesian or rectangular,
Cylindrical and, Spherical coordinate systems are discussed here.

0.2.1 Cartesian or rectangular Coordinate System

The Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system is formed by three mutually
perpendicular straight lines named as x, y, and z axes. The point where these
three axes meet together is called origin and usually denoted by O. Once the
x and y-axes are fixed, the z-axis is determined by using cork-screw rule
whereby one curls the fingers of his/her right hand in the direction from x to
y then the thumb points in the z-direction. The location of any point P in
space in this coordinate system can be specified uniquely by defining its x, y
and z coordinates as shown in figure 0.1(a). Let P be the projection of point
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P on the xy-plane at z=0. Then coordinates x and y are, respectively, the
perpendicular distances of P from the y and x-axes. The coordinate z is the
perpendicular distance of P from the xy-plane at z=0. Therefore, the values
of coordinates at O are zeros. The unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes are
defined as ax, ay, and az respectively. The position vector of point P, a vector
directed from the origin O to point P, is expressed as r=x ax+y ay +z az.

(a)
z-axis

O y-axis

x-axis

(b) (c)
Fig. 0.1

A differential volume in this coordinate system is given by dv=dxdydz as

illustrated in Fig. 0.1(b); and the differential surfaces in the positive
direction of the unit vectors are, respectively, dsx=dydz ax, dsy=dzdx ay and
dsz=dxdy az as shown in Fig. 0.1(c). The differential length vector from P to
Q is given as dL=dx ax+dy ay +dz az. The ranges of the coordinate variables
are:    x  ,    y   and ,    z  .
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0.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System
Any point P in this system is specified by assigning its coordinates (ρ, , z)
as illustrated in Fig. 0.2. Here ρ is the perpendicular distance of the point
from z-axis,  (called as azimuthal angle) is the angle between x and ρ axes
and is measured in the anticlockwise direction from the x axis, and z is the
perpendicular distance of the point along z axis from the xy plane at z=0.

Fig. 0.2

Unit vectors along ρ,  and z are aρ, a and az, respectively; note that the unit
vector a is tangent to the cylinder and pointing in a direction of increasing
, at the given point P. The position vector of point P is r= aρ+z az.
A differential volume is dv= ρdρddz as illustrated in Fig. 0.3. A cylindrical
body has two distinct surfaces; the differential surface in the positive
direction of the unit vector aρ is dsρ = ρddz aρ and that in the positive
direction of the unit vector az is dsz= ρdρd az. The vector from P(ρ, , z) to
Q(ρ+dρ, +d, z+dz) is dL= dρ aρ + ρd a +dz az. The ranges of the
coordinate variables are: 0    , 0    2 and ,    z  .
Note that in Cartesian coordinate system, the unit vectors are not dependent
on the coordinates. But in cylindrical coordinate system, aρ and a are
functions of  coordinate as their directions change as  changes.

Fig. 0.3

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0.2.3 Spherical Coordinate System
A point P in space in spherical coordinate system is represented in terms of
r,  and  as shown in Fig. 0.4. Here r is the radial distance from the origin
to the point P,  is the angle that r axis makes with the positive z axis, and 
is the same as defined in the cylindrical coordinate system.

Fig. 0.4
Unit vectors along r,  and  are ar, a and a, respectively; note that the unit
vector a is tangent to the sphere and pointing in a direction of increasing ,
at the given point P. The position vector of point P is r=r ar.
The differential volume is dv= r2sin drdd as illustrated in Fig. 0.5(a). The
differential surfaces in the positive direction of the unit vectors ar is dsr =
r2sindd ar as shown in Fig. 0.5(b). The elemental length vector from P(r,
, ) to Q(r+dr, +d, +d) is dL= dr ar + rd a + r sin d a. The ranges
of the coordinate variables are: 0  r  , 0    2 and ,     .
Note that in spherical coordinate system, all the unit vectors ar, a and a
are functions of  and  coordinates as their directions change as  and 
change.

(a) (b)
Fig. 0.5

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0.3 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES
Sometimes it is easy to handle the problem of electromagnetic field in one
coordinate system but desirable to have an answer in other coordinate
system. The following discussion on transformation between the coordinate
systems, therefore, plays an important role in this subject.

0.3.1 TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND

CYLINDRICAL
The coordinates of a point P in both Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinate
systems are shown in Fig. 0.6.

Fig. 0.6
The relations among the independent variables are therefore:
Cartesian to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Cartesian
ρ=(x + y )
2 2
x= ρ cos 
= tan (y/x)
-1
y= ρ sin 
z=z z=z

0.3.2 TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND

SPHERICAL
From the projection of r on the z axis and onto the xy-plane as shown in Fig.
0.7, we have x=r sin cos, y= r sin sin and z=r cos.

Fig. 0.7
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The relations among the independent variables are therefore:
Cartesian to Spherical Spherical to Cartesian
2 2
r=(x + y +z )2
x= r sin  cos 
= cos (z/(x + y +z ))
-1 2 2 2
y= r sin  sin 
=tan (y/x)
-1
z= r cos 

0.4 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD

The spatial derivatives of a scalar function led to the definition of the
gradient.
The gradient of a scalar function f is a vector that represents both the
magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of increase of f.
The expressions for the gradient of a scalar function f in Cartesian,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems are, respectively
   
f   a x  a y  a z  f
 x y z 
 1   
  a  a  a z  f
    z 
 1  1  
  ar  a 
r sin   
a f
 r r 

0.5 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD

The divergence of vector A at a given point is a measure of how much the
field represented by A diverges or converges from that point and is defined
by   A . In the following figure, the field is diverging at point P in (a), in (b)
the field is converging, and in (c) whatever the field at P is converging, same
is diverging.

Fig.: 0.9
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For the above example, the divergence of A at P in (a), in (b), and in (c) are,
respectively, positive, negative, and zero. A positive divergence for any
vector field indicates the presence of a source of that field at that point. A
negative divergence for any vector field indicates a sink (absorber) of that
field at that point. A zero divergence indicates there exist no source or sink
at that point; in this case,   A  0 and A is said to be a continuous or
solenoidal vector field.
The divergence of vector A in Cartesian coordinates is given by
 A A A 
  A   x  y  z 
 x y z 
The divergence of vector A in cylindrical system is
 1 ( A ) 1 A Az 
  A     .
     z 
And the divergence of vector A in spherical system is given by
 1 (r 2 Ar ) 1 ( A sin  ) 1 A 
  A   2    .
r r r sin   r sin   

0.5.1 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

The divergence theorem enables us to convert a closed surface integration

into a volume integration and vice-versa. It is

 (  A)dv   A  ds
v s

which states that the volume integral of the divergence of a vector field
equals the total outward flux of the vector through the surface that bounds
the volume provided that A and   A are continuous in the region.

0.6 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD

The curl of a vector field A, defined by   A , provides the maximum value
of the circulation per unit area of the vector field taken around a small area
of any shape. Its direction, determined by the right-hand rule, is normal to
the plane of the surface. If the curl of the vector field is nonzero, we say that
the vector field is rotational. The flow of water out of a tub or a sink is an
example of a rotational velocity field of the flow. On the other hand, if the
curl of a vector field is zero, the vector field is said to be irrotational or
conservative. A common example of a conservative field is the work done
by a force acting on a body.
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The curl of A in Cartesian coordinate system is
ax ay az
  
curl A    A 
x y z
Ax Ay Az
The curl of the vector field A in cylindrical system is
aρ aφ az
1   
curl A    A 
   z
A A Az
The curl of the vector field A in spherical system is
ar raθ r sin aφ
1   
curl A    A  2
r sin  r  
Ar rA r sin A

0.6.1 STOKES’ THEOREM

The Stokes’ theorem enables us to convert a surface integration into a closed

line integration and vice-versa. It is

 (  A)  ds   A  dl
S C

which states that the integral of the normal component of the curl of a vector
field over an area is equal to the line integral of the vector field along the
curve bounding the area provided that A and   A are continuous on S.

0.7 THE LAPLACIAN

The operator that results by taking the dot product of the del operator with
itself is denoted by 2 and is called the Laplacian operator.
The Laplacian of a scalar field f is obtained by taking the divergence of the
gradient of the scalar field f. Thus, in Cartesian system,
2 f 2 f 2 f
Laplacian f    (f )   f  2  2  2
2

x y z
The Laplacian of f in cylindrical and spherical are given, respectively, by
1   f  1  2 f  2 f
2 f    
      2  2 z 2

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 1   2 f  1   f  1 2 f
2 f   r    sin   
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2
If the Laplacian of a scalar field f in a region is zero, that is if 2f=0
(Laplace equation), then the solution of f is harmonic (sine/cosine function).
The Laplacian of a vector field A is defined as the gradient of the divergence
of A minus the curl of the curl of A. That is,
 2 A  (  A)      A

SUMMARY
1) A point P is represented as P(x, y, z), P(, , z), and P(r, , ) in
Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical coordinate system respectively.
2) The following conversion tables can be used to transform coordinate
variables from one system to another:
Cartesian to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Cartesian
ρ=(x + y )
2 2
x= ρ cos 
= tan (y/x)
-1
y= ρ sin 
z=z z=z

Cartesian to Spherical Spherical to Cartesian

2 2
r=(x + y +z ) 2
x= r sin  cos 
= cos (z/(x + y +z ))
-1 2 2 2
y= r sin  sin 
=tan (y/x)
-1
z= r cos 
3) The position vectors in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical system
are respectively: r=x ax+y ay +z az, r= aρ+z az, and r=r ar.
4) The distance vector between two points in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and
Spherical system are respectively: dL=dx ax+dy ay +dz az, dL= dρ aρ
+ ρd a +dz az, and dL= dr ar + rd a + r sin d a.
5) The differential volumes in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical
system are respectively: dv=dxdydz, dv= ρdρddz, and dv= r2sin
drdd.
6) There are three distinct surfaces in Cartesian system. In the positive
direction of x, y, and z axes these are, dsx=dydz ax, dsy=dzdx ay and
dsz=dxdy az respectively.
7) There are two distinct surfaces in Cylindrical system. In the positive
direction of  and z axes these are, dsρ = ρddz aρ and dsz= ρdρd az.
respectively.

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8) The only distinct differential surface is in the positive direction of the
unit vectors ar and given by dsr = r2sindd ar.
9) The gradient of a scalar function f in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and
Spherical system are:
   
f   a x  a y  a z  f
 x y z 
 1   
  a  a  a z  f
    z 
 1  1  
  ar  a 
r sin   
a f
 r r 
10) The divergence of a vector field A in Cartesian, Cylindrical,
and Spherical system are:
 A A A 
  A   x  y  z 
 x y z 
 1 ( A ) 1 A Az 
  A     
     z 
 1 (r 2 Ar ) 1 ( A sin  ) 1 A 
  A   2    .
 r r r sin    r sin   
11) The curl of a vector field A in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and
Spherical system are:
ax ay az
  
curl A    A 
x y z
Ax Ay Az
aρ aφ az
1   
curl A    A 
   z
A A Az
ar raθ r sin aφ
1   
curl A    A  2
r sin  r  
Ar rA r sin A
12) The Divergence theorem:  (  A)dv   A  ds
v s

13) The Stoke’s theorem:  (  A)  ds   A  dl

S C

14) The Laplacian in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical system:

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 2 f 2 f 2 f
2 f   
x 2 y 2 z 2
1   f  1  2 f  2 f
 f 
2
  
      2  2 z 2
1   2 f  1   f  1 2 f
 f  2 r   sin  
2

r r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2

List of some important integration

If a>0, then


dx
a2  x2
 x
 sinh 1    C
a

or ln x  x 2  a 2  C 
dx x
 a2  x2
 sin 1    C
a
( x  a)

 x2  a2
dx  x
 cosh 1    C
a
 
or ln x  x 2  a 2  C , x  a

1 1  x 
 a tanh  a   C , x  a
dx    1 xa
 a2  x2  1  or ln    C, x  a
2a  x  a 
 coth 1  x   C , x  a
a  
 a
dx 1 1  x 
 a 2  x 2  a tan  a   C
dx x
 ( x 2  a 2 )3 / 2   a 2 ( x 2  a 2 )  C
xdx 1
 (x 2
a )
2 3/ 2

x2  a2
 tan xdx  ln sec x  C
 sec xdx  ln sec x  tan x  C
 cot xdx  ln sin x  C
x
 cos ecxdx  ln cos ecx  cot x  C  ln tan 2  C
 sec x tan xdx  sec x  C

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