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Electrical Installation Notes

Nursing (Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology)

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Contents
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4

WIRING MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES ........................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 WIRE AND CABLES ............................................................................................................................................ 4

1.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIALS USED IN CABLES ...................................................................................................... 4

1.3 INSULATING MATERIALS................................................................................................................................... 5

1.4 TYPES OF CABLES USED IN INTERNAL WIRING ................................................................................................. 6

1.5 CONDUITS ......................................................................................................................................................... 8

1.6 CONDUIT ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS ............................................................................................................ 9

1.7 LIGHTING ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS ............................................................................................................ 9

1.8 FUSES .............................................................................................................................................................. 10

1.9 CLRCUIT BREAKERS ......................................................................................................................................... 13

1.10 DISTRIBUTION BOARD .................................................................................................................................... 13

CHAPTER 2 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Electrical wiring circuits, lighting scheme and Bell circuits ............................................................................................ 15

2.1 Distribution of Electrical Energy ..................................................................................................................... 15

2.1.1 Distribution Board System:..................................................................................................................... 15

2.1.2 The Tree System: .................................................................................................................................... 16

2.2 Wiring systems ............................................................................................................................................... 16

2.3 Choice of wiring system.................................................................................................................................. 18

2.4 Drawing representation of electrical circuits ................................................................................................. 19

2.4.1 Wiring Diagram ....................................................................................................................................... 19

2.4.2 Methods of Wiring.................................................................................................................................. 20

2.5 Jointing and terminations of wires ................................................................................................................. 21

2.6 Electric Bell Circuits ........................................................................................................................................ 24

2.6.1Types of Bell ................................................................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 3 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 29

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ILLUMINATION................................................................................................................................................................ 29

3.1 LIGHTING ........................................................................................................................................................ 29

3.2 Illumination Laws............................................................................................................................................ 30

3.2.1 Inverse square law: ................................................................................................................................. 30

3.2.2 Cosine Law .............................................................................................................................................. 31

3.3 Light source and application........................................................................................................................... 33

3.4 PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES ................................................................................................................... 38

3.5 Design of lighting schemes ............................................................................................................................. 40

3.6 Methods of lightning calculation .................................................................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 4 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 43

Electrical Installation Circuit Design ............................................................................................................................... 43

4.1 Wiring Design Criteria..................................................................................................................................... 43

4.2 Design procedure ........................................................................................................................................... 43

4.3 Branch Circuit Design...................................................................................................................................... 45

4.3.1 Guidelines for Residential wiring................................................................................................................... 45

4.3.2 Guidelines for Non-residential wiring .................................................................................................... 46

4.4 Load Tabulation .............................................................................................................................................. 47

4.5 Riser Diagrams ................................................................................................................................................ 50

4.6 Choosing Cable Size ........................................................................................................................................ 51

Cable Size Design procedure .................................................................................................................................. 51

CHAPTER 5 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 60

SERVICE ENTRANCE AND BRANCH CIRCUITS.................................................................................................................. 60

5.1 Service Entrance ................................................................................................................................................... 60

5.2 Branch Circuits ...................................................................................................................................................... 61

CHAPTER 6 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 65

EARTHING ....................................................................................................................................................................... 65

6.1 CONNECTING TO EARTH ....................................................................................................................................... 65

6.2 Testing of Installation ........................................................................................................................................... 70

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6.3 Testing of Earth Continuity Path........................................................................................................................... 73

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CHAPTER 1
WIRING MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES
In order to assemble properly and intelligently the great number of available electrical materials,
devices, fittings, and equipment to form a complete wiring system, we must understand the basic principles
regarding them.

1.1 WIRE AND CABLES

The term wire and cable are used more or less synonymously in house wiring. Strictly speaking,
single wire, may be bare or covered with insulation is known as a wire and several wires stranded together is
known as a cable. But in practice bare conductors, whether single or stranded together are termed as wire
and conductors covered with insulation are termed as cables.

The necessary requirements of a cable are that it should conduct electricity efficiently, cheaply, and
safely. This should neither be so small so as to have a large internal voltage drop nor be too large so as to
cost too much. Its insulation should be such as to prevent leakage of current in unwanted direction and to
minimize risk of fire and shock.

A cable consists of three parts:

a) The conductor or core- the metal wire or strand of wires caring current.

b) The insulation or dielectric- a covering of insulation material to avoid leakage current from
the conductor.

c) The protective covering- for protection of insulation from mechanical damage.

1.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIALS USED IN CABLES

Copper and aluminum are the materials used as conductors in power and lighting cables.

1. Copper: though silver is the best conductor, but due to its higher cost it is hardly used anywhere.
The next best conductor is copper, which is comparatively cheap.

The electrical resistivity of pure copper at 200c is 1.786 x 10-8 ohm .m. It is mechanically strong,
hard, extremely tough, durable and ductile. It is highly resistive to corrosion, oxidation, and pitting.

2. Aluminum: is frequently used in place of copper for bare electric cables used for long distance
power distribution. The electrical conductivity of aluminum is about 60% of that of copper. The only
application of aluminum cables for wiring in buildings is for a continuous bus-bar system of
distribution, used sometimes in blocks of flat or office buildings for rising mains and sub mains of
large sectional area.

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1.3 INSULATING MATERIALS

The insulating material used in electric cable must possess the following properties.

 High resistivity

 High flexibility

 Non-in flammability

 High resistivity to moisture, acid or alkalis qualities. So the type of insulating materials used
depends up on the service for which the cable is required.

Various types of insulating materials used in cables are:

1. Rubber: rubber may be natural or synthetic. Its dielectric strength is 30KV/mm. Though it posses
high insulating qualities, it absorbs moisture readily, softens when heated to a temperature of 600c to
700c, swells under the action of mineral oils and ages when exposed to light. Hence pure rubber
cannot be used as insulating materials.

2. PVC: polyvinyl chloride is a man made thermo-plastic materials, which is tough, incombustible and
chemically uncreative. Its chief drawback is that it softens at a temperature above 80 0c. It does not
deteriorate with age and does not need to be renewed. PVC insulated cables are usually employed
for low and medium voltage domestic and industrial lights and power installation.

3. Vulcanized Indian Rubber: It is prepared by mixing Indian rubber with minerals such as sulphur,
zinc, red lead, etc. The copper conductors used in this cables are tinned to protect them from
corrosive action of rubber or copper. It absorbs water, which reduces its insulation properties and
becomes brittle with age. The use of VIR cables is limited to low voltage distribution and internal
wiring as paper-insulated cables have largely superseded them.

4. Impregnated paper: it is quite cheap, has low capacitance, high dielectric strength (30KV/mm),
and high insulation resistivity (10Mohm-cm). The main advantage of paper insulated cable is that a
cable of given size can be worked out at a higher current density than a VIR cable. Impregnated
paper insulated cable on its own would be too fragile to be used unprotected, and a lead sheath is
applied over the insulation. Paper insulated cables are used for conveying large power in
transmission and distribution and particularly for distribution at low voltage in congested areas.

Mechanical protection

All the insulating materials used in the manufacturing of cables are mechanically weak, so they require
some form of protection for mechanical injury. Mechanical protection is usually provided to power cables
laid direct in the ground by providing two layers of steel tape in such away that upper layer covers the lower
joint in the lower layer.

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1.4 TYPES OF CABLES USED IN INTERNAL WIRING

The wires used for internal wiring of buildings may be divided into different groups according to:

 The type of conductor

 The number of cores

 The voltage grading

 The type of insulation used.

According to the number of cores, the cables may be divided into:

 single core

 twin core

 twin core with ECC (earth continuity conductor)

According to voltage grading the cables may be divided in to two classes:

 250/440 volt

 650/1100-volt cable.

According to type of insulation, cables can be classified into:

1. Vulcanized Indian Rubber: VIR cables are available in 250/440volt as well as 650/1100 volt
grades and are used for general conduit wiring.

2. Lead sheathed cables:

 Available in 250/440 volt grade

 Are used for internal wiring where climatic condition has moisture.

 Is a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous sheath of lead .The
sheath provides very good protection against the absorption of moisture and sufficient
protection against mechanical injury and can be used without casing or conduit system.

 It is available as single core, flat twin core, flat three core and flat twin core with ECC.

3. PVC cables:

 Are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades

 Used in hidden type of wiring system.

 Since PVC cables are harder than rubber, they do not require cotton taping and braiding over
it for mechanical and moisture protection.

4. Weather proof cables:

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 Are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply

 Are not affected by heat or sun or rain.

 Are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber-insulated conductors being suitably taped
(only in case of vulcanized rubber insulated cable) braided and then compounded with
weather resisting material.

 Are available in 250/440 and 650/1100 volt grades.

5. Flexible cords and cables:

- It consists of wires either silk or cotton or plastic covered, plastic cover is more popular as it
is available various pleasing colors. Flexibility and strength is by using conductors having
large number of strands.

- Most stranded conductors are built upon a single central conductor, surrounding this
conductor are layers of wires in a numerical progression of 6 in the first layer, 12 in the
second layer, 18 in the third layer and so on.

Colors of conductors:

Color identification of bare conductors and cable cores are given by EEPCO‟s regulation

- Earthing ---------------------------------------------------- white

- Live of AC single-phase circuit ------------------------- Green

- Neutral of AC single or three phase AC circuit --------black

- Phase R of three-phase ac circuit -------------------------Green

- Phase S of three-phase ac circuit -------------------------Yellow

- Phase T of three-phase ac circuit ------------------------ Red

General specification of cables:

The complete specification of a cable will give the following information:

i. The size of the cable

ii. The type of conductor used in cables (copper or aluminum)

iii. Number of cores that the cable consists of (single core, twin core, twin core with ECC etc,)

iv. Voltage grade

v. Type of insulation (taping, braiding & compounding)

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1.5 CONDUITS

The commonest method of installing cables is to draw them in to a conduit. The conduit can be steel or
plastic. Steel conduit is made in both light gauge and heavy gauge of which heavy gauge is much more
frequently used.

In general, conduits can be classified as:

i. Light gauge steel-plain (unscrewed) conduit.

ii. Heavy gauge steel-screwed conduit.

iii. Flexible conduit

iv. PVC conduit.

I. Light gauge steel conduit:

• This type of conduit is used with special grip fittings.

• It is available with an external diameter of 12mm, 16mm, 19mm, 25mm, 31mm, 38mm, and
50mm.

In general, light gauge is the cheapest and quickest of conduit installations but should be used where
the location is dry and there is little likelihood of mechanical damage.

ii. Heavy gauge screwed steel conduit:

• Though it is very expensive, this type of conduit provides a permanent installation with a
maximum of protection for the cables

• The joints into fittings are by means of screw threads which provide mechanical strength and
good electrical conduit:

• Are available in approximately 3meter lengths and are threaded at the two ends.

iii. Flexible steel conduit:

• This usually consists of light galvanized steel strip spirally wound, and to some extent,
interlocked, so as to form a tube.

• It is made in size from 19mm to 50mm internal diameter and in two grades: non water tight
and water tight.

• Available in lengths up to 250 meters. So no coupling is required and hence no threading.

• Since the conduits are flexible and are easily bent no elbow is required.

• One of the most common uses of flexible conduit is for protecting the final connections to
motors. It has the additional advantage of reducing the transmission of vibration. However,
the flexible conduit is costlier than the rigid conduit.
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Iv. PVC conduit:

This type of conduit wiring is finding wide applications in internal wiring because it is light in weight,
shock proof, anti-termite, fire resistant, acid and alkaline resistant, Can be used for surface, recessed or
concealed type of wiring.

1.6 CONDUIT ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS

Conduit couplers:

- used to join two lengths of conduit

- Are threaded on both ends

Bends elbows and tees: - are generally called conduit fittings.

Bends are usually used for change in direction of conduit. This should never be sharp. The minimum
allowable radius of curvature is 2.5 times the outside diameter of the conduit.

Solid elbows and tees should be used only at the end of the conduit run (e.g. close behind a light fitting or
accessory.).

Conduit boxes

- are used in surface conduit wiring as well as concealed conduit wiring

- are of different designs which serve the following purposes:

i. For providing connections to light, fan, and other points.

ii. The conduit boxes serving the purpose are known as outlet boxes because conduit
terminates at the boxes.

iii. For pulling of cables in to the conduits. The boxes serving this purpose are known as
inspection boxes.

iv. For housing junction of cables. The conduit boxes serving this purpose are known as
junction boxes.

1.7 LIGHTING ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS

Switches:

o Are used to control lighting circuits.

o Most are rated at 5/6A, but ratings at 15A are also available.

o Are available in three types: single pole, two-way and four-way (intermediate) each for
control of a practical circuit arrangement.

o To allow true control of a number of different circuits from one position, switches are
contained within the same unit: two-gang, six-gang, etc.

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 Single chord ceiling switch is suitable for installation in the bathroom, where by one pull of the
chord puts the switch ON and the following pull puts the switch off.

 Switches for water-heaters are of the double pole type and rated to carry 20A. Are also available at
32A and 45A rating, the latter being used to control cooker circuits.

 Dimmer switches are used to allow control of the level of lighting from luminaries.

 Splash-proof switches are found in situations where water is present, such as in shower rooms.

Lamp Holders

 Are designed for quick removal and replacement of the lamp and yet they must hold the
lamp in firm metallic contact to prevent overheating.

 There are three main sizes of lamp holders: Bayonet-cap (B, C), the medium Edison screw
(E.S) and the Goliath screw (G.E.S).

 For ordinary tungsten filament lamps up to 200W the lamp caps and lamp holders are B,
C, caps, up to 300W the caps are E.S, and above 300W they are G.E.S. In any case where
the lamp is to be installed, the appropriate size and type of holder must be fitted. Lamp
holders may be either the insulated type of Bakelite or the brass type with porcelain
interior.

Plugs and socket outlets:

These are used to enable portable apparatus to be connected to the fixed wiring and comprises of two or
three contact tubes and terminals. The plug is the movable part connected to the apparatus by flexible wire,
and consists of two or three contact pins to fit in to the contact tubes.

1.8 FUSES

 Consists of a piece of copper or tin-lead alloy wire, which will melt when carrying a
predetermined current. This element with contacts, carrier and base is called a fuse.

 Is placed in series with the circuit to be protected, and automatically breaks the circuit
when over loaded.

 The time for blowing out of a fuse depends on the magnitude of excess current. i.e. the
larger the fault current the more rapidly the fuse blows.

 Three terms are used in connection with fuses.

Current rating: this is the maximum current that a fuse will carry indefinitely without undue deterioration
of the fuse element.

Fusing current: this is the minimum current that will „blow‟ the fuse.

Fusing Factor: this is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current rating

Fusing Factor = minimum fusing current/ Current rating ≥ 1

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Fig.1: Time-current characteristics of a fuse.

 There are two main types of fuses: the re wireble and the cartridge (or high breaking
capacity, HBC) fuses; the high breaking is a development of the cartridge type.

Rewirable Fuses

 This type of fuse consists of a porcelain (usual material) bridge and base. The bridge has
two sets of contacts, which fit in to other contacts in the base. The fuse element usually
tinned copper wire is connected between the terminals of the bridge. An asbestos tube or
pad is usually fitted to reduce the effects of arcing when the fuse element melts.

 The rewirable fuse is a simple and relatively cheap type of over current protective device
and is still widely used despite several disadvantages including:

a. The fact that it is rewirable enables the wrong size of the fuse wire (element) to be used.

b. Undue deterioration of the fuse element due to oxidation.

c. Lack of discrimination. This means that normal starting surges (e.g. when motors, etc are
switched on) are “seen” by the fuse as an over load and will therefore break the circuit.

d. Damage, particularly in conditions of severe short circuit.

* The fusing factor for a rewirable fuse is about 2.

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Fig.2. Typical rewirable fuse.

Cartridge (or High Rapture Capacity, HRC) Fuses

The obvious disadvantages of rewirable fuse led to the development and use of the cartridge type fuse. The
fusing factor of the cartridge type fuse is about 1.5.

Fig.3 Typical cartridge fuse.

The high breaking capacity fuse (HBC) has its fusing characteristics carefully controlled by the
manufacturer. As its name implies it can safely interrupt very large currents. The fuses are often used to
protect large industrial load and main cables. The cartridge barrel is of high-grade ceramic able to with stand
the shock conditions when a heavy fault current is interrupted. Except for very low ratings, the fuse element
is made from pure silver. The filler is powdered silica, carefully dried before use. An indicator is provided
to show when the fuse has blown.

The cartridge type (HBC) fuse is more expensive than the rewirable. The fusing factor of

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HBC fuse is for small loads up to 1.25A, thus a 10 A HBC fuse will blow at 12.5A.

HBC fuses are discriminating; which means that they are able to distinguish between a starting current taken
by a motor (which lasts for a matter of seconds) and a high fault or overload current (which lasts longer).
Motors are normally protected against overloads by the starter trip; the fuses are required only to give
protections against short circuit currents and overloads outside the capacity of thermal trip.

1.9 CLRCUIT BREAKERS

Is a device designed to open and close a circuit by non- automatic means and to open the circuit
automatically on a predetermined over-current with out injury to itself when properly applied within its
rating, so a circuit breaker is a combination device composed of a manual switch and an over – current
device.

A circuit breaker has several advantages over any type of fuse

a. In the event of fault or overload all the poles are simultaneously disconnected from the supply

b. overload and time-lags are capable of adjustment within limits

c. the circuit can be closed again quickly onto the fault safely

Essentially a circuit breaker consists of a carefully calibrated bimetallic strip. As current flows through the
strip, heat is created and the strip beds. If enough current flow through the strip, it bends enough to release a
strip that opens the contacts, interrupting the circuit just as it is interrupted when a fuse blows or a switch
opened. In addition to the bimetallic strip that operates by heat, most breakers have a magnetic arrangement
that open the breaker instantly in case of short circuit. A circuit breaker can be considered a switch that
opens itself in case of overload.

Circuit breakers are rated in amperes just as fuses are rated. Like fuses, breakers are tested in open air to
carry 110% of their rated loads indefinitely without tripping. Most breakers will carry 150% of their rated
load for perhaps a minute, 200% for about 20 sec. and 300% for about 5 sec, long enough to carry the heavy
current required to start most motors.

Standard ratings: both fuse and circuit breakers are available in standard ratings of 6,

10, 16, 20, 25, 35, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 224, 250, 300, and large sizes.

1.10 DISTRIBUTION BOARD

A distribution board is an assemblage of parts, including one or more fuses or circuit breakers, arranged for
the distribution of electrical energy to final circuits or to other sub distribution boards. It consists of a case
inside which is a frame holding a number of fuse (CB) carriers behind the frame or something along side or
above it, is a bus-bar to which the incoming sub-main is connected. From the bus-bar there is connection
provided to one side of each fuse way (CB). The installer to the outgoing terminal of the fuse ways then
connects each final sub-circuit

The standard distribution boards usually have 4, 6, 8, 12, 18 or 24 fuse ways both single phase and three
phases are available. It is not necessary to utilize all the available fuse ways on a board, and in fact it is very
desirable to leave several spare ways on each board for future extension.

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Figure 4 shows the general lay out of a distribution board.

fig 4 Typical distribution board

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CHAPTER 2
Electrical wiring circuits, lighting scheme and Bell circuits
2.1 Distribution of Electrical Energy

There are two methods of distribution of electrical energy beyond energy meter in the domestic and power
installation.
1. Distribution board system
2. The tree system

2.1.1 Distribution Board System:

This method is a common system adopted by consumers of domestic installations. The fuses of various sub-
circuits are grouped together at a place close to main switch known as distribution board. See figure below:

Fig 2.1. Electrical energy distribution (distribution board system)

One wire is taken from bus bar through a fuse and neutral is taken from a neutral link. The pair of wires
(phase and neutral) taken from main distribution boards is fed to a final sub-circuit board.

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The sub-distribution boards are employed near the load center if the building is large. The cable feeding the
sub-distribution board should be large enough to carry a load of points to be fed from there. The sub-
distribution board installed near the load center is mainly to save cable and to prevent too great voltage
drop.
The number of circuits and sub-circuits are decided on the basis of number of points and load to be
connected to the supply.

2.1.2 The Tree System:

In this system, smaller branches are taken from the main branch. A fuse is inserted at the commencement
of each branch. It has the following disadvantages:
i. Voltage across all the lamps doesn't remain the same. The lamp in the last branch will have less voltage
across them due to voltage drop in the leads.
ii. A number of joints are involved in every circuit.
iii. The fuses are not at one place.
iv. Fault location is difficult. If a fault occurs, all the joints in the wiring will be inspected thoroughly to
locate the fault. See figure below:

Fig. 2.2 Electrical energy distribution (Tree system)

2.2 Wiring systems

A wiring system is a net work connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from the
supplier to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices and equipments. It is an assembly of parts
used in the formation of one or more electric circuits. Wiring consists of the conductor with its protection
against mechanical damage (sheathing and/or armoring) and certain wiring accessories for fixing the
system, and joining and terminating the conductors.

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• The most commonly employed wiring systems are:-

- Cleat wiring

 Sheathed cables wiring

 All insulated cables wiring
- Catenaries wiring
- Conduit system
- Trunking system
1. Cleat wiring system - In this system PVC-insulated cables are supported on cleats made of porcelain or
plastic. The system doesn't give any protection against mechanical damage and so it is useful only for dry
situations and where the cables remain inaccessible. The most frequently used cables are sheathed cables and
all insulated cables.

Cleat

a. Sheathed cables wiring system - The two main metal sheathed wiring systems found today include the
lead-alloy sheathed (LAS) and mineral-insulated metal sheathed (MlMS). The cables of the LAS system
are insulated with vulcanized rubber and sheathed overall with a lead-based alloy containing tin and
antimony. LAS systems may be run on the surface or concealed. Generally they require no further
protection, unless they are exposed to mechanical damage.
b. All-insulated cables Wiring System - This wiring system includes TRS (Tough-Rubber Sheathed) and
PVC cables (PVC-sheathed). Their main disadvantage is that they don't offer adequate protection against
mechanical damage, though they are relatively cheap and easy to install. They are used for surface wiring
on the surface of the wall with or without conduits and concealed wiring – buried in walls.

2. Catenaries wiring System - These systems are designed to take supplies from one building to another by
overhead means, or else for building with high ceilings. In this system, insulated cables are carried on a steel
wire strained between two points.

3. Conduit wiring Systems - In this system of wiring, conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means of
saddles or pipe hooks or buried under the walls and cables are drawn into them. In damp situations the
conduits can be spaced from the walls by means of wooden blocks fixed below the pipes at regular intervals.

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In order to facilitate drawing of cables a number of inspection fittings are provided along its length. Conduits
can be of steel or of PVC.

Conduit wiring application - As this system of wiring provides protection against fire, mechanical damage
and dampness, it is used for:-

1) Places where considerable dust is present , such as in textile mills, saw mills, flour mills etc,
2) Damp situations
3) In workshops for lighting and motor wiring
4) Places where there is possibility of fire hazards such as oil mills varnish factories, etc.
5) Places where important documents are kept. ex. Record rooms.
6) Places where appearance is prime importance.

4. Trunking - Trunking is a fabricated casing for conductors and cables, generally rectangular in shape with a
removable lid which allows the conductors to be laid in rather than be drawn in as is the case with conduit. It
is used where a large number of conductors are to be carried, or follow the same route. Both steel and PVC
trunking are available, with a wide range of such accessories as bends, tees, risers and reducers.

2.3 Choice of wiring system

In deciding the type of wiring system for a particular installation, the following basic factors have to be
taken in to consideration.

Safety - Safety is the 1st consideration using electricity against leakage or shock. Where there is possibility
of fire hazards, conduit wiring must be used.

Mechanical protection – the wiring must be protected from mechanical damage during its use.

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Permanency – The wiring must not deteriorate unduly by action of weather, fumes, dampness, etc.

Appearance – It must have good appearance.

Accessibility – In wiring system there should facilities for extension, renewal, or altering.

Cost - Initial and maintenance cost must be low.

Frequently a combination of several wiring systems may be used. For example:- The lighting circuits could
be carried out with PVC cables in plastics trunking or conduit or PVC insulated and sheathed cables fixed to
the surface.

2.4 Drawing representation of electrical circuits

2.4.1 Wiring Diagram

A wiring diagram or connection diagram shows the detailed connections between components or items of
equipment. They do not indicate how a piece of equipment or circuit works. The purpose of a wiring
diagram is to help someone with the actual wiring of the circuit.

Fig. Wiring diagram

Schematic Diagram - A schematic diagram shows most clearly how a circuit works. All the essential parts
and connections are represented by their graphical symbols. The purpose of a schematic diagram is to help
us to understand the working operation of the circuit. It does not show us how to wire the components.
Therefore, it may not indicate the most convenient way to wire the circuit.

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Schematic diagram

Single Line Diagram: A diagram showing number of conductors needed accessories and lay out (electrical)
symbols of the accessories.

Single line diagram

2.4.2 Methods of Wiring

There are two methods by which connections to various electrical points are given:
-Junction box (Joint box) method
-Loop in method
1. Junction box method: In junction box method, the connections to electrical points are given through
joints made in junction boxes by means of suitable connectors or joint cut-outs. See figure below: In this
system the length of wire required may be less but the same offset by extra cost of joint boxes. The other
disadvantage, fault location may be difficult and as such, all joint boxes have to be inspected to locate the
fault. The fixing of joint box may require skill and may not give good look. Joint boxes should be located in
accessible positions.

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Junction box

2. Loop-in method: Most commonly employed for domestic installations .In this system when a connection is
required for a lamp through switch, the feeding conductor is looped - in by ringing it direct to the terminal of
the switch and then carrying it forward again to the next switch. The phase wire is looped-in from one switch
to the other and neutral are looped - in from one point to another. See figure below:

The main advantages are:

i. No junction boxes are required
ii. Since no joints are concealed in walls and roof spaces, they are made only at outlets and switch
boards.
iii. The connections are accessible for inspection and hence fault location is easy.

The main disadvantage is:

The cable required is more and hence voltage drop and copper losses are comparatively more.

2.5 Jointing and terminations of wires

Jointing - Whenever a conductor is to be joined to another conductor, or to accessories, or to bus-bars; a

safe and effective termination or joint must be made. There are many different ways of joining two
conductors together. Here we will discuss some of the more popular methods.

i. The screw connector

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ii. Junction box

iii. Soldered joints

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Terminations - When a cable conductor is finally connected to the apparatus it is supplying, a safe and
effective termination of that conductor must be made.

PVC singles into screw terminals - The insulation should be removed only far enough to allow the

conductor to enter the terminal. Do not leave bare conductor showing outside the terminal

Lug terminations - Lug terminations are frequently used for connecting a conductor to a bus-bar.

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Termination into appliances – Usually termination of cable into appliances, especially the portable
type, should be firmly connected at or near the point of entry.

2.6 Electric Bell Circuits

If an electric current is passed through a coil of insulated wire wound in a form of helix, a weak
electromagnet is produced. If a soft iron core is now introduced into the centre of the coil, a much stronger
electromagnet is produced which may be used to attract other pieces of iron or steel. The strength of the
magnetic field produced depends upon the number of turns of wire, the strength of the current and the size,
shape and type of iron used for the core.
The electric bell works using electromagnetic effect and consists essentially of a U-shaped electromagnet, a
soft iron armature, a striker, and a gong. The magnet comprises two pole-pieces of soft iron wound with
insulated copper wire, either enameled or silk covered, the pole-pieces being fixed to an iron frame, which
acts as the magnet yoke. The armature is a piece of soft iron so supported by a flat spring as to be attracted
by the pole-pieces when current passes through the coils.

2.6.1Types of Bell

There are about three types of bell divided according to their operation.
- Single-stroke bell
- Trembler bell
- Continuous ringing bell

Single-stroke Bell
In this bell, there are two pole-pieces and frame or yoke of soft iron, to which the two pole-pieces are fixed.
The yoke is made with extensions to which are fixed the armature flat spring and the gong pillar. There are
two terminals which are directly connected to the magnetic coils. The external circuit includes a push or
switch, and a source of electric supply which can be a battery or AC supply.

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When the push button is operated, the circuit is closed and current flows in the bell from one of the
terminals through the magnetic coil to the other terminal. Here the coil become magnetized and attract the
armature towards the pole-pieces. The striker attached to the armature hits the gong once. The armature
remains in the attracted position as long as the current flows, that is, as long as the bell-push is pressed. The
circuit should be opened and remade before the gong can be struck again. The position of the armature is so
adjusted that the striker remains clear of the after the stroke to prevent muffling of the sound.
This type of bell is frequently used on railways and mines, as it can be used for signaling purposes. It may
also be used in many other situations where a longer signal would disturb clerical workers.

Trembler Bell

This type of bell is essentially similar to the single stroke bell. Here the flat spring is attached to the back of
the armature, and in the rest position bears against an adjustable screw. The connection is made from one of
the terminals through the adjustable screw to the magnetic coils. When the bell push is operated, current
flows from one of the terminals through magnetic coils and along the flat spring to the adjustable spring and
back to the other terminal.
When the current flows the armature is attracted, the gong is struck, the spring is drawn away from the
contact screw, and the circuit is opened. The cores become demagnetized and the armature returns to the
original position. The circuit is once again made at the contact screw and the bell is again struck. The cycle
of operation is repeated constantly until circuit is opened at the bell push. The frequency of the striking of
the bell may be controlled to some extent by adjusting the width of contact gap. The contacts are made of

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some material as silver or platinum, which does not oxidize easily. The trembler bell is the one most
commonly used as a door bell for houses and offices.

Continuous Ringing Bell

This is a trembler bell with mechanical and electrical arrangements such that the bell continues ringing after
the bell- push has been released.

There are three terminals connected to the external circuit. The bell as connected to the first two terminals is
the normal trembler bell. The extra terminal is provided, connected externally directly to the supply
terminal, and internally to the second contact screw.
This type of bell is useful for alarm circuits of various kinds.

Bell Push buttons and Contacts

In preference to the use of switches, most bells are operated by means of bell-pushes, which are liable to be
left on. The push contains two contacts, one fixed and one movable. The movable contact is either spring
controlled or is itself in the form of spring, and is operated by press-knob or button.
Bell contacts are used for such purposes as ringing a bell upon the opening of a shop door. They may be
fixed above the door, with the contacts so arranged that they are pressed together when the door opens,
closing the circuit and ringing the bell. In other cases they are arranged below a portion of loose flooring so
that the contacts are closed when a caller stands upon the floor.

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The electric bell will operate not only from direct current, but also from alternating current. When a direct
current passes through the coils of an electromagnet, the magnetic poles formed have fixed polarity
according to the direction of the current. If the current direction is reversed, the polarities of the poles will
be changed; the N-pole becoming S-pole and vice versa.

In each case, however the action of the electromagnet is to attract the armature in an attempt to shorten the
magnetic path of the flux. This being so, the bell will work on reversing of alternating current. Therefore,
the bell circuit can be operated from AC supply and is usually connected through a step down transformer.
Bell transformers are cheap and are economical. The standard primary voltage is from 200V to 250V, with
the secondary tapping giving the following voltages:-

Class A 4V, 8V and 12V

Class B 6V

Buzzers: - Are installed, where noisy sounds of bells are not suitable. The buzzers operate on the same
principle of trembler bells, except they have no hammer and no gong . The characteristic of
buzzing is provided by the vibration of the contact breaker movement. They can be obtained with
different pitches.

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A buzzer is often used in an office or in a similar situation as a quite signal. The armature is much lighter
however and its movement is very small, giving a fairly high-pitched buzz.

Announciators
When a single bell operated from a number of positions of bell pushes in separate rooms, it is necessary that
the place of origin of each call should be known. Visual indicator elements (flags) are attached to one of the
contact circuits. The movement of the indicator circuit may be seen through a hole in a glass screen, each
indicator element or flag being marked or painted with the respective name or number designating the call
area.

Typical 3 points Annunciators circuit.

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CHAPTER 3
ILLUMINATION
3.1 LIGHTING

Light is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body, which produces the visual sensation upon the
human eye. The sensation of color is due to the difference in wavelength of the light radiations.
White light, such as given by the sun, is composed of different colors each having different wavelengths.
These are:

0.300 – 0.436 micrometer-----------Violet

0.436 - 0.495 >> ------------Blue

0.495 - 0.566 >> -------------Green

0.566 - 0.589 >> --------------Yellow

0.589 - 0.627 >> ---------------Orange

0.627 - 0.780 >> ---------------Red

In general, light is an electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, x-rays e.t.c. We can classify
electromagnetic waves as visible and invisible waves.

 Visible waves: daylight, radiations from candles and lamps.

 Invisible waves: x-rays, gamma rays, radio waves.

We know that, v = fλ (v is speed of light, f is frequency and, λ is wave length )

Angstrom unit (Ǻ): 1Ǻ = 10-8cm = 10-10m

λ of red light = 7500 Ǻ

λ of violet light = 4000 Ǻ

λ of blue light =5000 Ǻ

λ of yellow light =6500 Ǻ

Those colors of white light having wave lengths of less than 0.3 micro meter belongs to the
ultra violet range and those with wave lengths greater than 0.8 micro meter belong to the infrared range.
The visible spectrum ranges is from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers. Human eye is most sensitive to light having
wavelengths of about 0.555 micrometer in the green portion of the spectrum.

Maximum power of light is radiated when the wavelength is about 0.5 micrometer which is approximately
the wavelength at which the human eye is most sensitive.

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Illumination refers to the provision of sufficient lighting either by natural means (e.g. sun
light) or artificial light sources (e.g. electric lamps).

3.1 Terms used in Illumination

1. Luminous Flux: It is the total quantity of light energy radiated/ produced from a luminous body in the
form of light waves. It is measured in lumens. It is represented by symbol φ.
2. Luminous Intensity (I): It is the amount of luminous flux emitted by a source per unit solid angle. The
illuminating power of a light source. It is measured in candela or lumens per Steradians. i.e.
I = φ / ω,
1Candela = 1 Lumen / Steradians

Where, (ω) - the solid angle is measured in Steradians. It is the angle generated by the
surface passing through the light point in space and periphery of the area. It was denoted by ω. Solid
angle was given by the ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the distance
between the area and the point. I.e. A / r2 . Since the surface of a sphere has an area equal to 4πr2; and the
surface area of a Steradians is r2.

∴ Total angle of a sphere in Steradians, = 4πr2 / r2 = 4π Steradians

3. Illuminance (intensity of illumination) (E) - it is the luminous flux received by a surface per unit area
of the surface. Its unit depends upon the units in which area is measured. It is measured in lumens per
square meter or lux or meter candle. Mathematically,
E = φ/A
4. Luminous efficiency (k): a measure of unit lumens per watt (lm/W). It can be thought of as the
„efficiency‟ of the light source.
5. Luminance, L: The luminous intensity (I) per unit of the apparent area of the
source of light (or illuminated areas). The measured brightness of a surface.

L = I/A [cd/m2 ]

6. Coefficient of utilization: This is a factor showing the ratio of the lumens reaching on the working
plane to the total lumens generated by the source. It depends on the dimension of the room to be
illuminated, the reflectance of the walls, ceilings, and floors, the lamp output of reflectors and
diffusers used and the position of the lamp.
7. Maintenance Factor: The light obtained from a light source may be affected by
variables due to dire (obstacles, terrible), ageing of the lamp, e.t.c. The maintenance factor (MF) takes
in to account such effects.

3.2 Illumination Laws

There are two major laws:

3.2.1 Inverse square law:

The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the distance between source

& surface, provided that the distance between the surface & the source is sufficiently
large so that the source can be regarded as a point source. This is known as Inverse square Law.

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9A

4A
A
P

1d
2d
3d

Let, E1 be the illumination on surface A1,

E2 be the illumination on surface A2,
Since exactly the same luminous flux falls on A1 & A2 we can have the relation,
φ = E1A1= E2A2
E2 = E1A1/A2 = E1 (d1/d2)2

i.e., E ~ 1/d2, where d is the perpendicular distance from the light source.

Thus, the illumination of a surface varies inversely as the square of the distance from the light source.

3.2.2 Cosine Law

Cosine law states that, reflected energy from a small surface area in a particular direction is proportional to
the cosine of the angle between that direction and the surface normal

Ey = IcosӨ/h2 =I/ h2 at point y Ө =

cosӨ = h/d, d = h/cosӨ

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b
c

This method allows us to calculate the

illuminance with one or more lamps or with θ
reflection from surroundings.
I
Ex  2
cos 
d a

I
Ex  2
cos 
 h 
 
 cos  
I
Ex  2 cos3 
h

This is Lambert‟s cosine Law

Fig 3.1

Thus illumination depends not only on the perpendicular distance from the light source but also on the angle
that the light falls on the area to be illuminated.

Example: - A standard incandescent lamp having a luminous intensity of 100 cd in all directions gives an
illuminance of 40 lux at the surface of a bench vertically below the lamp. What distance is the lamp above
the bench?
Solution: -
I
E
d2
I 100
d   1.58m
E 40
Example: A 250W sodium-vapor street lamp emits a light of 22,500 cd and is situated 8m above the road.
Calculate the luminance.

a) Directly below the lamp

b) At a horizontal distance along the road of 6m.

Soln: Given I=22,500 cd,h=8m ,ox=6m

d= =10m

a)E= I*cosӨ/h2 but cosӨ=1 because Ө=0

E= 22,500*1/64=351.56 lm/m2

b) Ex=I*cosӨ/d2 and cosӨ=h/d=8/10=0.8

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Ex=22,500*0.8/100=180 lm/m2

Exercise: Two light sources each having a uniform intensity of 64,000 cd is mounted 8m high. If the
illumination midway between the lamps on ground level is same as the illumination level produced by one
of the lamp vertically below it, calculate the distance between the poles.

3.3 Light source and application

Light is a form of energy, which is radiated or sent out from a source in a waveform. It is part of a whole
family of electromagnetic wave. Light sources can either be natural (sun) or artificial (e.g.
electric lamps). When an electric current passes through a fine metallic wire, heat is produced
and the temperature of the wire increases. At low temperature the wire radiates heat energy. As the
temperature of the wire increases due to heating, it radiates heat as well as light energy. Generally, electric
lamps can be classified in to:

a) Incandescent lamps

b) Discharge lamps.

Incandescent lamps

The incandescent lamp consists of a glass globe completely evacuated or gas filled and a fine wire known as
filament, which is heated to white heat by the passage of electric current. The filament of modern lamps is
normally made of tungsten since this material has a very high melting point (340 0C) and can be
manufactured in the form of a suitably thin wire. The bulbs of smaller lamps are evacuated to prevent
oxidization of the filament. But, in many lamps, an inert gas such as argon is introduced. This enables
the filament to operate at a higher temperature without undue deterioration due to the evaporation, which
tends to take place in a vacuum.

The materials, which can be used as a filament are; carbon, osmium, tantalum and tungsten. These metals
are selected due to their high melting points.

The main advantages of incandescent lamp are:

a) The filament has a more compact formation.

b) Heat losses due to conviction currents in the gas are reduced, thus giving a higher
efficiency.

There are two types of incandescent lamps:

1. Vacuum lamps - air is evacuated from the glass bulb.

- operates only up to around 20000 c.

2. Gas-filled - the glass bulb is filled with inert gases(Ne or Ar)

- operates up to around 2500 c.

- in gas-filled lamps, the bulb is so bright that it is given an opaque coating internally.

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 The light output of incandescent lamps is about 10 to 15 lm/W. Thus,

- a 25W incandescent lamp produces about 250 to 375 lm.

- a 40W incandescent lamp produces about 400 to 600 lm.

- a 60W IL produces about 600 to 900 lm.

 The average lifetime of incandescent lamps is about 2000 hours when operating at rated voltage.
 An incandescent lamp gives out light at all frequencies including „DC‟.
 Incandescent lamps suffer from two disadvantages;
- Low efficiency and
- Colored light.

Fluorescent lamp (Low pressure mercury vapour lamps):

Certain materials, such as calcium phosphate, emit visible light whenever they absorb ultra-violet light.
This phenomenon is known as fluorescence and may be used to produce a very efficient type of lamp. If a
tube of a discharge lamp containing mercury vapour is coated internally with an even layer of fluorescent
material a considerable proportion of the ultra-violet light caused by the discharge is converted into useful
visible light.

Low- pressure mercury vapour lamp consists of:

- glass tube filled with mercury vapour at low pressure.

- is provided with two electrodes coated with electron emissive material.

- the inner wall of the tube is coated with fluorescent powder which transforms

Ultraviolet radiation in to visible radiation or light.

 The light output of a fluorescent lamp is 70 lm/w and has an average life of about 7500 hrs.
 The application includes lighting of shops, homes, factories, streets, ships, transport (buses and
trains), e.t.c.
 Using these tubes is quite possible to achieve high lighting intensity without
excessive temperature rise and, owing to the nature of light sources; the danger of glare is
minimized.
 The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumens per watt, which is about three times the
efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp.

Fluorescent tubes are available in different sizes:

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When the supply is switched ON with the starter switch, s, closed; a current flows through the inductor, L,
and through the lamp electrodes. The initial current heats the lamp electrodes in readiness for striking the
lamp. The starting switch is now opened making a sudden interruption in the current flowing
through the inductor and so causing a high voltage to be momentarily induced (Note that breaking an
inductive circuit causes high voltage to appear across the break in contacts, and energy is released in
the form of an arc. in this case, however, there is an easiest way for the energy to dissipate- via the gas, and
the high voltage appears across the end of the tube). This voltage starts a discharge between the two lamp
electrodes and the current rapidly rises to a value determined mainly by the inductance of the inductor. The
starter left open while the lamp is lighting; the electrodes maintain their operating temperature as long as
they continue to pass the discharge current.
In practice, the starter switch is made to operate automatically, switching ON when the supply is first ON,
then switching OFF to strike the lamp and remaining OFF all the time the lamp is lighting. Due to the
inductor, the lamp current lags the supply voltage (at approximately 0.5 PF) thus, a capacitor, C, is
usually connected between the lamp terminals to improve the overall power factor to an
acceptable value.

Starters

Three methods are commonly available for starting the discharge in a fluorescent tube: the thermal start, the
glow start and the quick start.

 Thermal type start

The thermal type starter switch has two contacts mounted on bi-metal strips, a small heating coil being
fitted very close to the bi-metal strips but with no electrical contact between them. The contacts are
normally closed so that the main supply is first switched ON and the full heating current passes through the
lamp electrodes. The current also flows through the starter heater and so warms the bi-metal strips. After a

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short period of time, the bi-metal strips warm sufficiently to bend and open the contacts, thus striking the
lamp. As long as the lamp remains lighting, current flows through the starter heater keeping the contacts
apart. A small capacitor is often connected in parallel with the starter switch contacts to suppress radio
interference.

Fig. 3.3 Thermal type starter

Glow type start

The glow type starter switch consists of a small bulb filled with inert gas (Argon, helium) and containing
two contacts, one of which is mounted on a bi-metal strip. The contacts are normally open so that when the
main supply is firs switched on full main voltage is applied to the starter contacts. This causes a glow
discharge, which warms the bi-metal strip making it to bend and close the starter contacts. The closing of
the starter contacts allows full heating current to pass through the lamp electrodes and also extinguish
the glow discharge. After a short time, the bi-metal strip cools sufficiently to open the circuit thus striking
the lamp. As long as the lamp remains a light, the voltage applied to the starter is insufficient to initiate a
glow discharge and so the starter contacts remains open until the next starting operation. A small
capacitor is often connected in parallel with the starter switch contacts to suppress radio interference.

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Stages in striking of a fluorescent tube, using glow-type starter switch

(a) Contacts snap open, causing arc to strike between electrodes

(b) Glow discharge between bimetal contacts

(c) Bimetal heated; contacts close, bimetal then cools

Quick start or Instant type start

In the case of quick start or instant start, starting is achieved by the use of autotransformer and an earthed
metal strip in close proximity to the tube. When the supply is switched on, mains voltage appears across the
end of the tube, and the small part of the winding at each end of the transformer energizes the filaments,
which heat up. The difference in potential between the electrodes and the earthed strip causes
ionization, which spreads along the tube.

Fig. 3.4 Quick type starter

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Stroboscopic Effect

The disadvantage of fluorescent lamp is that, as the alternating discharge current passes through zero twice
every cycle, the light produced tend to flicker at twice of main frequency, although this effect is
not noticeable to the eye, machinery rotating at certain speed may appear to be stationary or
moving more slowly than it really is. This is known as the stroboscopic effect and is
obviously a cause of danger in situations such as workshops where rotating machinery is in use.

If a three-phase supply is available the stroboscopic effect can be minimized by connecting lamps to
alternate phases. As the lamps in the circuit attains their maximum and minimum values, the light output
in sequence of overall illumination is kept practically constant thereby keeping the stroboscopic effect to a
minimum.

If only a single-phase supply is available then the „lead lag‟ circuit may be us

3.4 PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES

A good lighting system should produce uniform illumination of not less than the required
value. It should be free from glare and hard shadows. In fact attempt should be made to have quality of light
as close to day light as possible.

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as: -

1. Direct light: - the most commonly used type of lighting scheme. In this scheme more than 90% of
total light flux is made to fall directly on the working plane with the help of deep reflectors. Though
it is more efficient but causes hard shadows and glare. It is mainly used for industrial and general
out-door lighting.
2. Semi-direct lighting: - in this lighting scheme 60-90% of the total light flux is made to fall down
wards directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors. The remaining light is used to illuminate the
ceiling and walls. Such a lighting scheme is best suited to rooms with high ceiling where there is a
high level of uniformity of illumination is desired. Besides, this scheme avoids glare, it also
improves the efficiency of the system with reference to the working plane.
3. Semi indirect lighting: -in this scheme 60-90% of total light flux is thrown up wards to the ceiling
for reflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly except for some
absorption by the bowl. This lighting scheme has soft shadows and is glare free. It is mainly used for
indoor decoration purpose.
4. Indirect lighting scheme: - in this scheme more than 90% of total light flux is
thrown upwards the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflector. In this
scheme the glare is reduced to minimum. The resulting illumination is soft and more diffused. The
shadows are less prominent and the appearance of the room is much improved. It is used for
decoration purpose in cinemas, theatres and hotels etc. and in areas where troublesome
shadows are produced if direct light in lighting is employed.
5. General lighting: - in this scheme lamps made of diffusing glass are used, which
gives nearly equal illumination in all directions. All fittings may be reduced to five basic
types according to their light distribution as shown in Fig below.

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3.5 Design of lighting schemes

The lighting scheme should be such that it should provide,

1. Adequate illumination
2. Light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible

3. Light of suitable colour.

4. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible

1. Illumination level: - In order to see the details of the things that surround us, the light source has to
illuminate them very well in order the objects take the necessary brightness. For each type of work there
is a range of brightness most favourable to output in terms of quality and quantity. Level of illumination,
which gives necessary brightness to objects depends upon:

I. The size of the object and distance of the observer.

II. Contrast between the object and background. Greater the contrast greater will be the
illumination required to distinguish the object properly.
III. The speed of the object - Speedy object require more illumination.
IV. Duration of gazing - Object seen for long duration of time require more illumination.

2. Uniformity of Illumination: - It has been found that visual performance is best if the range of brightness
within the field of vision is not greater than 3:1, which can be achieved by employing general lighting in
addition to localized lighting. Otherwise due to the frequent accommodation of pupil or iris of
the eye, fatigue is caused and it creates psychological felling of loneliness, gloom and
unfriendliness.

3. Color of light: - The appearance of the body color entirely depends upon the color of the incident light.
In general the composition of the light should be such that the color appears natural.

4. a) Shadows: - In lighting installation, formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue and are
undesirable. However a certain amount of shadow is desired as it helps to give shapes to solid objects
and make them easily recognized. But there is one exception to these i.e. in drawing offices, where we
are to see flat surfaces. Hard and long shadow can be avoided by:

i) rising a large number of luminaries mounted at a height not less than 2.5m.
ii) by using wide surface of light - using globes or indirect lighting system.

b) Glare: - Glare is generally produced by very bright sources of light, which emit light
directly or at very low angle towards the viewer. This causes the person to neglect
the other surrounding objects, as they appear darker and is a major cause of road accidents. Glare is
also caused by highly polished surfaces when the angels are incorrect. This also tends to damage
retina of the eye. Glare may be direct or indirect. Motorcar headlights produces direct glare.

In designing a good lighting scheme which fulfills the above requirements, , we have to consider

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i. The intensity of illumination required

ii. The selection of the required lamps and fittings

iii. The size of the room

iv. The conditions under which the illumination is used etc. The following are some of the conditions
that should be considered when the illuminations are used:

 Utilization Factor (ηβ) - the whole light radiated by the lamps doesn‟t reach the working
plane. The ratio of lumens reaching the working plane to the total light given out by the lamp or
lamps, when the installation is new, is known as utilization factor or coefficient of
utilization. The value of utilization factor depends upon :

i) The mounting height of lamps

ii) Area to be illuminated

iii) Type of lighting scheme

iv) Colour of the surrounding, etc.

 Spacing Luminaries: - correct spacing is of great importance to provide uniform

illumination over the whole area. The ratio of the horizontal spacing between rows to the
height of the luminaries above the working plane, called space to height ratio, depends quite on
luminous output, type of lighting scheme and on the extent of candlepower distribution
curve of the luminaries. Mounting height is largely governed by the type of the building and type of
lighting scheme employed

 Color of Surrounding Walls: - the illumination in a room depends upon the light reflected from walls and
ceilings. White walls and ceilings reflect more light as compared to colored ones.

 Maintenance Factor - as we are to continue to use the installation, the illumination produced considerably
decreases due to ageing of the lamps and accumulation of dusts on the lamps, reflectors, ceiling and
walls. Its value is more if there is much as the ageing problem increases, etc. The value is mostly ranges
between 0.8 and 1. The other term used is depreciation factor, which is merely the inverse of the
maintenance factor. Its value is more than unity.

3.6 Methods of lightning calculation

In order to estimate the number and the type of light fittings required to suit a particular environment, it is
necessary to know what level of luminance is required, the area to be illuminated, the maintenance factor
and the coefficient of utilization, and the efficiency of the lamps to be used. A number of methods have
been employed for lighting calculations among which may be mentioned:

1. Watts per square meter method

2. Lumen or Light flux method

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Watts per Square Meter method: - applicable for rough calculations. It consists in making an allowance of
watts per square meter of area to be illuminated accordingly to the illumination desired on the assumption
of the average figure of an overall efficiency of the system. According to NEC 220- standard
illumination is about 3 watt per ft2.

Example: - A house has an external dimension of 30ft by 50ft. If an 80w fluorescent lamps, and 220V
supply is used, determine the size of the service wire and the number of lamps required.
Solution:
A = 30ft X 50ft
= 1500ft2
Total wattage required = 1500 X 3w
= 4500w ⇒ 4.5Kw
No of lamps required = 4.5Kw/80w = 56.1
⇒ 56 lamps - each 80w
Current carrying capacity = 4.5Kw/220V = 20.5A
Therefore, the size of the cable will be conductor if there is no any correction factor.

Lumen or Light flux method: - it is the most advisable method to be used. Lumens' reaching the working
plane is calculated as:

Required Level of

Illumination in the room =

OR

Required Level of

Illumination in the room = /

OR

Required Level of

Illumination in the room =

E – Required Illumination level

N  n    CF
Where,
Thus,
E N – no of fixtures
A
n – no of lamp /fixture
E A
N A - Working surface area in m2
n    CF
φ - Luminous flux of one lamp in lm

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CHAPTER 4
Electrical Installation Circuit Design
4.1 Wiring Design Criteria

Flexibility: every wiring system should incorporate sufficient flexibility of design in branch circuitry,
feeders, and panels to accommodate all portable, patterns, arrangements and locations of electric loads. The
degree of flexibility to be incorporated depends in large measure on the type of facility. As part of the
design for flexibility, provision for expansion must be provided.

Reliability: the reliability of electrical power within a facility is determined by two factors: the utility‟s
service and the building‟s electrical system.

Safety: the designer must be constantly alert to an initial safe electrical installation and such factors as
electrical hazards caused by misuse of equipment or by equipment failure after installation.

Energy saving and control consideration: includes limiting voltage drops, power factor correction, use of
switches for control, etc

Economic cost: includes initial cost and operating cost.

Space allocation: concerned with maintenance ease, ventilation, expandability, centrality, limitation of
access, and noise, in addition to the basic item of space adequacy.

4.2 Design procedure

The steps involved in the electrical wiring design of any facility are outlined below. These
may in some instances be performed in different order, or two or more steps may be
combined, but the procedure normally used is those listed below.

a) Determine with the client the usage of all areas, and type and rating of all client furnished equipments
including their specific electric ratings.

b) If the designer could not get the exact electrical rating of all the equipments that are going to be
installed in the building such as plumbing, elevators, kitchen, motors etc, determine their ratings from other
consultants.

c) Make an electrical load estimate based on the above collected data, areas involved,
previously installed similar installation data and any other pertinent data.

Load Estimation: - When initiating the wiring design of a building, it is important to be able to estimate the
total building load in order to plan such spaces as transformer rooms, chases, and closet. This information is
also required by the local power company well in advance of the start of construction. Of course, an exact
total load can be made after completing the design. But such estimation can be made from the knowledge of
the loads the building uses.

The electrical loads in any facility can be categorized as:

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(i) Lighting.

(ii) Miscellaneous power, which includes convenience outlets and small motors.

(iii) Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning.

(iv) Plumbing or sanitary equipment: house water pump, air compressors, and vacuum pumps etc.

(v) Vertical transportation equipment: elevators, moving stairs, and dumbwaiters.

(vi) Kitchen equipments.

d) In cooperation with the local electric utility, decide upon the point of service entrance, type of

service run, service voltage, metering location, and building utilization voltage.

The above considerations and general rules affecting service equipment are listed below:

i. A building may be supplied at one point by either a single set or parallel sets of service
conductors.
ii. All equipments used for service including cable, switches, meters, and so on, shall be
approved for that purpose.
iii. It is recommended that a minimum of 100-amp, 2-wires/4- wires, and 220/380V service be
provided for all individual residences.

iv. No service switch smaller than 60 amps or circuit breaker frame smaller than 50 amp shall

be used.

v. In multiple occupancy buildings tenants must have access to their own

disconnect means.

vi. All building equipment shall be connected on the load side of the service

equipment except that service fuses, metering, fire alarm, and signal

equipment and equipment serving emergency systems may be connected

ahead of the main disconnect.

In computing the size of the service equipment bus, a total is taken of the various feeder loads. Although
application of a Diversity Factor to this total is permissible, good practice dictates the use of a unity
Diversity Factor in order to provide a measure of spare capacity in the service equipment.

(e) Determine the location and estimate the size of all required electric equipment spaces including
switchboard rooms, emergency equipment spaces, electric closets, and so forth.

NOTE: - Panel boards are normally located in closets but may be located in corridor walls or elsewhere.
This work is necessary at this point to enable the architect to reserve these spaces for the electrical
equipment. Once the design is accomplished in detail, the estimated space requirements can be checked and
necessary adjustments made.

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(f) Design the lighting for the facility. This step is complex and involves a continued interaction between
the architect and the lighting designer.

(g) On the same plan, or on a separate plan, as decided, locate all electrical apparatus including receptacles,
switches, motors, and other power consuming apparatus. Under floor duct and ceiling track systems would
be shown at this stage. If extensive, a separate plan is made.

(h) On the plan, locate signal apparatus such as phone outlets, speakers, microphones, TV outlets, fire and
smoke detectors, and so on.

(i) Make drawing showing all lightings, devices, and power equipments circuit connection to the
appropriate panel board.

(j) Prepare the panel schedule (table). This table shows the load distribution over the three phases and the
type of load which is connected on each circuit. At this step, include the separate circuitry for emergency
equipments and for spare circuit.

(k) From the panel schedule (table) compute panel loads, and make connection rearrangement so that you
will be able to an optimum power balance over the three phases R, S and T.

(l) Prepare the riser diagram. This includes design of distribution panels, switchboards, a service
equipment.

(m) Compute feeder sizes and all protective equipment ratings.

(n) Cheek the preceding work.

4.3 Branch Circuit Design

4.3.1 Guidelines for Residential wiring

(a) The NEC requires for residences sufficient circuitry to supply a load of 3w/sq ft in the building,
excluding unfinished spaces such as porches, garages, and basements.

(b) The NEC requires a minimum of two 20-amp appliance branch circuits to feed all the small appliance
outlets in the kitchen, pantry, dining room, family room etc. Furthermore, all kitchen outlets must be
fed from at least two of these circuits (Avoid placing all the lighting in a building on a single circuit).
Also receptacles should be circuited with preferably two, but not more than four on a 20-amp circuit.

(c) The NEC requires that at least one 20-amp circuit supply to be set for laundry outlets. This requirement
satisfies good practice. If electric clothes dryer is anticipated an individual branch circuit should be
supplied to serve this load, via a heavy-duty receptacle.

(d) Do not combine receptacles and switches into a single outlet except where convenience of use dictates
high mounting of receptacles.

(e) Circuit the lighting and receptacles so that each room has parts of at least two circuits. This includes
basements and garages.

(f) Supply at least one receptacle in the bathroom and one outside the house

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(g) Provide switch control for closet lights.

(h) In bedrooms supply two duplex outlets at each side of the bed location to accommodate electric blanket,
clocks, radios, lamps, and other such appliances.

(i) Since receptacles are counted as part of general lighting and no additional load is included for them, no
limit is placed on the number of receptacle outlets that may be wired to a circuit. But for good practice
they should be limited to 6 on a 15-amp circuit and 8 on a 20-amp circuit.

(j) Kitchens should have a duplex appliance outlet every 36 in. of counter space, but no less than two in
addition to the normal wall outlets.

(k) A disconnecting means, readily accessible, must be provided for electric ranges, cook tops, and ovens
It is better practice to utilize a small kitchen panel recessed into a corner wall to control the large
kitchen appliances and to provide completely safe, accessible disconnecting means. Such an
arrangement can also be cheaper.

4.3.2Guidelines for Non-residential wiring

(a) Schools. Since schools comprise an assembly of varied use spaces, including lecture hall, laboratory,
shop, assembly, office, gymnasium, plus special areas such as swimming pools, photographic labs,
and so on, it is not possible to generalize on branch circuit design considerations except for the
following:

i. To accommodate the opaque and film projectors frequently used in the classroom, 20-amp outlets
wired two receptacles on a circuit are placed at the front and back of each such room. A similar
receptacles, wired 6 or 8 to a circuit is placed on each remaining wall. if the length of run between
the main panel and the kitchen is appreciable.

ii. Light switching should provide:

1) High-low levels for energy conservation and to permit low-level lighting for film viewing.
With fluorescent lighting this can be accomplished by alternate ballast wiring and switching,
thus avoiding the high cost of dimming equipment.
2) Separate switching of the lights on the window side of the room, which is often lighted
sufficiently by daylight

iii) Provide appropriate outlets for all special equipment in labs, shops, cooking rooms, and the like.

iv) Use heavy-duty devices and key operated switches for public area lighting (corridors, etc.), plastic
instead of glass in fixtures, and vandal-proof equipment wherever possible. All panels must be locked and
should be in locked closets

v) The NEC requires sufficient branch circuitry to provide a minimum of 3 w/sq ft for general lighting in
schools. Refer to the NEC Article No. 220. Unlike residential occupancy this figure does not include
receptacles. Receptacles are calculated separately at 180 w each for ordinary convenience outlets.

vi) Keep lighting and receptacles completely separate when circuiting.

(b) Office Space

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i. In small office spaces (less than 400 sq ft) provide either one outlet for every 40 sq ft, or one outlet for
every 10 linear ft of wall space, whichever is greater. In larger office spaces, provide one outlet every 100
to 125 sq ft beyond the initial 400 sq ft (10 outlets). These should comprise wall outlets spaced as above
plus floor outlets sufficient to make up the required total. In view of the increasingly heavy loads of office
machines, these receptacles should be circuited at no more than 6 to a 20-amp branch circuit, and less if the
equipment to be fed so dictates.

ii. Corridors should have a 20-amp, 220-v outlet every 50 ft, to supply cleaning and waxing machines.

iii. As with all non-residential buildings, convenience receptacles are figured at 180 w each.

(c) Stores. In stores, good practice requires at least one convenience outlet receptacle for every 300 sq ft in
addition to outlets required for loads such as lamps, show windows, and demonstration appliances.

4.4 Load Tabulation

While circuiting the loads, a panel schedule is drawn up which lists:

 The circuit numbers

 Load description (the type of the load)
 Wattage (actually in volt-amperes)
 The current ratings
 Number of poles of the circuit-protective device feeding each circuit and the like

Spare circuits are included to the extent that the designer considers them necessary and consonant with
economy, but normally no less than 20% of the number of active circuits. Finally, spaces are left for future
circuit breakers, in approximately the same quantity as the number of spare circuits, but always to round off
the total number of circuits. A typical panel schedule is shown on the next page as an example.

In calculating panel loads, the following rules apply:

(a) Each specific appliance, device, lighting fixture , or other load is taken at its nameplate rating, except
certain kitchen and laundry appliances for which the NEC allows a demand factor. (See NEC Article 220.)

(b) Each convenience outlet, in other than residential spaces, is counted as1.5 amp (180 W).

(c) Spare circuits are figured at approximately the same load as the average active circuits.

(d) Free spaces are not added into the load.

(e) Loads for special areas and devices such as show window lighting, heavy-duty lamp holders, and multi
outlet assemblies, are taken at the figures given in NEC Article 220.

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Elect. Panel 220/380 3

No. Services Load in watts

R S T

1 Lighting 1050

2 Lighting 1050

3 Lighting-corridor 700

4 Lighting 1050

5 Lighting 800

6 Receptacles 900

7 Receptacles-corridor(single 900
pole)

8 Receptacles 900

9 Spare 1050

10 Spare 1050

Phase total 3150 3000 3300

Panel total 9450

Max.phase current 15 A

Main breaker_______________________

Feeder size________________________

Diversity factor______________

Schedule for lighting panel (example)

Note: 1) In calculating total panel load, no demand factors may be applied except specifically stated in the
NEC. This is because feeders are calculated for maximum load to be carried, i.e. 100% demand factor is
used.

3) The phase loads have to be approximately equally distributed over the three phases (if a three-
phase supply is utilized in an installation). It is the responsibility of the designer (or contractor) to
circuit the loads so that the phases are as closely balanced in load as possible. If this is not done,

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one phase will carry considerably more current than the others. Since the panel feeder must be
sized for the maximum phase current, this may lead to an over sized feeder and therefore a waste
of money.

Feeder Capacity

The electric line (cable) that is running from the main distribution line to each sub distribution board is
known as Feeder. To achieve economy, the panel feeder must accommodate the initial load plus some
portion of the future load. One or more of the following procedures provides spare capacity in feeders:
(a) Provide feeder for initial plus spare, with properly sized conduit. This method is generally most
economical.
(b) Provide feeder for initial plus spare, with conduit oversized by one size. Some additional cost is
entailed here. This is only used where large load expansion is anticipated.
(c) Provide for initial load plus spare, with an empty conduit for future. This method is expensive because
of high conduit cost, and it is infrequently advisable.

EXAMPLE: - Assume a single floor of an office building 10 m X 20 m. Calculate the required number of
panels, circuits for lighting.
Solution

Office space- illumination=300lux from table (EBCS-10)

First calculate the number of lamps required.

N= ,
Where cu=coefficient of utilization=0.55(semi direct lighting), MF=maintenance factor=0.9
n* shows luminous flux produced per lamp.

Let‟s select single fluorescent lamp which has efficiency of 60.(you can revise properties of fluorescent
lamps over incandescent)

So, N= , n* =2400 luminous flux per lamp

N=51 single fluorescent lamps

Total wattage=51*40=2040W

Assuming that each lightening branch circuit is 1300 W rated.

Number of branch circuit for lightening= =1.5~2ckt

Receptacles:

To get the number of socket outlet in a given room, we simply take into account the furniture, electronic
equipments that located in that room and the functions of rooms.

Let‟s take total number of receptacles =6(mostly 6 receptacles supplying from one branch ckt)

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So, one branch ckt for socket is required.

Total wattage of receptacles=6*200=1200W (Each socket outlet point has wattage of 200 W for one gage.)

The total no of circuits for lighting plus receptacles is 2 + 1 = 3 ckts

Spares is = 20% of total circuits

3*20% = 3*0.2 = 0.6 ~ 1ckt ~1200W

Total of 4 ckts.

The feeder current is

I= =20.18A

Thus, the above feeder current 20.18amp.

4.5 Riser Diagrams

When all devices are circuited and panels are located and scheduled, we are ready to prepare a riser
diagram. A typical diagram, shown in Figure below, represents a block version of a single-line diagram, as
the name implies, vertical relationships are shown. All panels, feeders, switches, switchboards, and major
components are shown up to, but not including, branch circuiting. This diagram is an electrical version of a
vertical section taken through the building.

The main switchboard shown in the figure below constitutes a combination of service equipment and feeder
switchboard. The service equipment portion of the board comprises the metering and the 4 main switches
feeding risers, motor control center (MCC), roof, machine room, and elevators.

NEC: - National Electrification Code.

EBCS: - Ethiopian Building Code Standard.

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4.6 Choosing Cable Size

Cable Size Design procedure

The correct choice of cable size for any installation is dependent upon fundamental aspects of

a) Environmental conditions and characteristics of protection,

b) Current-carrying capacity of the cable and
c) Voltage drops of the cable.

When current flows through a conductor, the resistance offered by the conductor produces heat. The
increase in heat is proportional to the cable resistance, which in turn depends upon the cross-sectional area
of the cable. Since overheating damages the insulation, the conductor size must be of adequate size to
prevent this from occurring.

The requirements of IEE Regulations make it clear that circuits must be designed and the design data made
readily available. How then can we begin to design? Clearly, plunging into calculations of cable size is of
little value unless the type of cable and its method of installation are known. This in turn will depend on the

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installation‟s environment. At the same time, we would need to know whether the supply was single or
three phases, the type of earthing arrangements, and so on. Here then is our starting point.

Having ascertained all the necessary details, we can decide on an installation method, the type of cable, and
how we will protect against electric shock and over currents. We would now be ready to begin the
calculation part of the design procedure.

Basically, there are eight stages in such a procedure. These are the same whatever the type of installation,
be it a lightening circuit, cooker circuit or a sub main cable feeding a distribution board in a factory. Here
they are the eight basic steps in a simplified form:

1. Determine the design current Ib.

2. Select the rating of the protection In

3. Select the relevant correction factors (CFs).

4. Divide In by the relevant CFs to give cable current-carrying capacity (Iz)

5. Choose a cable size to suit Iz

6. Check the voltage drop

7. Cheek for shock risk constraints

8. Cheek for thermal constraints.

Let us now examine each stage in detail.

Design current

In many instances, the design current Ib is quoted by the manufacturer, but there are times when it has been
calculated. In this case there are two formulae involved, one for single phase and one for three phases:

Single phase: Ib = P/V

Three phase: Ib = P/( √3 V)

If an item of equipment has a power factor and/or has efficiency (eff), it will have been taken into account.
Hence:

Single phase: Ib = (Px1000)/(V*PF*eff)

Three phase: Ib = (Px1000)/ (√3*V L/*PF*eff)

Nominal setting of protection:

Having determined Ib, we must now select the nominal setting of the protection In such that In>I b. This
value may be taken from IEE regulations.

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Correction factors

When a cable carries its full load current, it can become warm. This is not a problem unless its temperature
rises further due to other influences, in which case the insulation could be damaged by overheating. These
other influences are:

 high ambient temperature

 cable grouped together closely
 uncleared over currents and
 contact with thermal insulation.

For each of these conditions there is a correction factor (CF) which will respectively called Ca, Cg , Cf and
Ci, and which de-rates cable current carrying capacity or conversely increases cable size.

Ambient temperature Ca

The cable rating in the IEEE regulations are on an ambient temperature of 300C, and hence it is only above
this temperature that an adverse correction improvement is needed.

Grouping Cg

When cables are grouped together they impart heat to each other. Therefore the more cables there are, the
more heat they will generate, thus increasing the temperature of each cable. IEEE regulation also gives
factors for such groupings of the same cable sizes.

Protections by BS 3036 fuse Cf

Because of the high fusing factor of BS 3036 fuses, the rating of the fuse In, should be less than or equal to
0.725Iz. Hence 0.725 is the correction factor to be used when BS 3036 fuses are used.

Images of BS 3036 fuses

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Thermal Insulation Ci

With the modern trend, towards energy saving and the installation of thermal insulation, there may be a
need to derate cables to account for heat retention. IEE Regulation gives these factors for situations when
thermal insulation touches one side of a cable. However, if a cable is totally surrounded by thermal
insulation for more than 0.5 m, a factor of 0.5 must be applied to the tabulated clipped direct ratings. For
less than 0.5 m, derating factors should be applied.

Application of correction factors

Some or all of the onerous conditions just outlined may affect a cable along its whole length or parts of it,
but not all may affect it at the same time. If all conditions are to appear at the same time consider all
correction factors, otherwise take the worst.

Having chosen the relevant correction factors, we now apply them to the nominal rating of the protection In
as divisors in order to calculate the current carrying capacity Iz of the cable.

Current carrying capacity

The required formula for current carrying capacity I z is

Iz= In/(relevant CFs)

Choice of cable size

Having established the current carrying capacity Iz of the cable to be used, it now remains to choose a cable
to suit that value. The IEE regulation also lists all the cable sizes, current carrying capacity and voltage
drops of varies types of cables. (These data is read from table).

Voltage drop

The resistance of a conductor increases as th e length increases and/or the cross-sectional area decreases.
Associated with an increased resistance is a drop in voltage, which means that a load at the end of a long
thin cable will not have the full supply voltage available. The IEE regulation requires that the voltage drop
Vd should not be so excessive that equipment does not function safely. They further indicate that a drop of
no more than 4% of the nominal voltage at the origin of the circuit will satisfy. The voltage drop will be
calculated using a formula (adopted by IEE regulation):

Vd = mV * I b * L where mV- voltage drop in mV obtained from IEE table

L- total length of the cable in consideration.

Fundamental 3-phase Voltage-drop Calculations:

These are all based on the basic formula R =ρ l/A where ρ (rho) stands for resistivity.

 for copper conductor, ρ = 1.72x10-8

 for Aluminum conductor, ρ = 2.83x10-8

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If resistance of a conductor at any temperature different from room temperature is required it can be
calculated using:

RT= RO (1+ αΔT) Where RT resistance at the required temperature

RO =ρ l/A resistance at room temperature; α -Expansion coefficient; α = 0.00393 - for copper;

α = 0.0039 - for Aluminum; ΔT- Change in temperature

Resistivity is defined as the resistance between two opposite faces of a unit cube of the conductor material.
Many voltage-drop problems involve the determination of resistance by this means and then multiplying by
the current to obtain the IR drop. The weakness of this method, as against that adopted by use of the I.E.E.
Tables, is that the Tables are much more realistic since they take into account the actual type of cable and
conditions of service.

Diversity Factor

The diversity factor has an important place in the design of an installation and its final costing. IEE
regulation 311-01 deals with this subject. Diversity factor is a factor which is applied to sub main and main
cables and their associated switch gears to reduce:

a) the cross sectional area of the cable conductor, and

b) the capacity of the switch gears.

The factor is based on the assumption that the whole of the connected load will not be turned on at the same
time. For example, the total lighting load in a dwelling house is rarely switched on at a time. Thus, it can be
taken that if the total lighting load is 1000W during the life of the installation, only 66% of the load (660W)
will be switched on at any one time. The factor in this instance is 0.66. A factor for diversity shall not be
allowed for calculating the size of circuit conductor and switchgears of final sub circuits, other than
specified circuits such as cooker circuits. It is noted that the provision of an allowance for diversity is a
matter of calling for a special knowledge and experience. Indeed, the application of the diversity should be
decided by the engineer responsible for designing each particular installation. The amount by which they are
increased or decreased for each installation is a matter for the installation engineer to decide.

There are ten types of final circuit fed from wiring to which diversity applies:

 lighting
 heating
 cooking appliances which are permanently connected
 motors (other than lifting motors)
 instantaneous-type water heater
 thermostatically controlled water heater
 floor-warming installation
 thermal-storage space-heating installation
 13A fused socket outlets and appliance fed there from and
 Other socket outlets such as 15A sockets.

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The general groups of installation premises are also recognized:

1) Individual domestic installation, including individual flats of a block.

2) Hotels, boarding house, lodging houses etc.
3) Shops, stores, offices and business premises

In the case of lighting for each type of installation, it will be noticed that the more the total lighting load is
likely to switched on over definite periods, the smaller is the allowance made for diversity. In a domestic
installation, it is estimated that some two- thirds (0.66) of the lighting load will be on at any one time. In a
hotel, the figure is 75%(0.75), and in a shop, where virtually all the lights are on for most of the time when
the shop is open, the figure is 90% (0.90). It should be noted that no diversity is allowable in the relevant
wiring supplying certain types of load.

Example 1

From EBCS-10. Table B.1, select cables of suitable current-carrying capacity for the following loads and
conditions (p.v.c. cables to BS 6004 into screwed conduit).

(a) 240 V single-phase sub-mains of lighting load totaling 10.5 kW. Length of run 10 m. Average ambient
temperature 25oC, diversity 66%

(b) 400 V balanced 3-phase power circuit. Load 18.65 kW, efficiency, 80%, power factor 0.69. Average
temperature 30oC. Length of runs 100 m.

Solution : (a) Current taken by load = Power / Voltage

= = 43.75 A

Allowing for diversity, maximum current through cables = = 28.88 A

 If BS 88 32-A circuit breaker is chosen for protection, 32 A rated circuit breaker can be selected
from table 9.1.

→ In = 32 Amp

 The correction factor for ambient temperature from Table A.4 for250C is 1.06.

Therefore the required cable rating:

Iz = = 30.2 A

From Table B.1, choose a 4 mm2 conductor which carries 32A.

 Testing for Voltage drop = (mV/Am) * I * l

→ From table B.2 voltage drop for 4mm2 conductor size = 11mv/Am
→ Voltage drop on cable = 11 mv/Am * 28.8 A * 10 m = 3.168 V
→ Maximum allowable voltage drop = 2.5% of 240 V = 6V.

Since the actual voltage drop is less than from the allowable maximum voltage drop, selected size is 4 mm2

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 If BS 3036 fuse is chosen for protection, this fuse type requires a correction factor of 0.725.
In = 32 Amp
 ƒ Therefore the load current will be :
→ Iz = In/CF CF- Correction Factors.
Ca = 1.06, Cf = 0.725
 ƒ Required cable rating Iz = = 41.64 Amp.
From Table B.1, a 6mm2 conductor carries 41 A. And a 10mm2 conductor carries 57 A. Take 10mm2
diameter conductor.
 Testing for Voltage drop = (mV/Am) * I * l
→ From table B.2 voltage drop for 6mm2 conductor size = 7.3mv/Am
→ Voltage drop on cable = 4.4 mv/Am * 28.8 A * 10 m = 1.27 V
→ Maximum allowable voltage drop = 2.5% of 240 V = 6V.
Since the actual voltage drop is less than from the allowable maximum voltage drop, selected size is
10mm2.

Comment: you can easily observe that the conductor size deference in using Circuit breaker and fuses.

Solution of (b):

efficiency =

I= = 48.77 A.

 From table 9.1, 50 A circuit-breaker of type BS 3871 can use for protection.

→ In = 50 Amp

 Load current will be :

→ Iz = In/CF CF- Correction Factors.
CF = 1 because Ca = 1.
→ Iz = 50 A
 Choose 16 mm2cable which is capable of carrying 52 A.
 Testing for Voltage drop:
Maximum voltage drop = 2.5% of 400 V = 10V.
Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l
= 2.3 * 48.77 * 100
= 11.22 V this is beyond the allowable voltage drop.
So, choose the next cable size, which is 25mm2.
Voltage drop for 25 mm2 = 1.7 * 43.77 * 100 = 8.29 V
Therefore selected size is 25 mm2.

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Comment: This is one of the situations where the voltage drop becomes the main determining Factor of the
from table 9.1, 50 A BS 3036 fuse can used for protection.

→ In = 50 A

→ Correction factor for the fuse is Cf= 0.725

→ Load current Iz = In / CF = In / Cf

→ Iz = 50 A / 0.725 = 68.966 A

From table B.3 select 25mm2 cable which carries 97 A

 Testing for Voltage drop:

Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l

Voltage drop for 25 mm2 = 1.7 x 48.77 x 100 = 8.29 V

Therefore selected size is 25 mm2 conductor sizes.

Example 2

A 30 m run of twin and earth p.v.c. non-armored four touching copper cables are situated in an ambient
temperature of 35 0C. Determine the minimum size of cable to supply a 220-V 10-kW load. Protection
given by:

(a) Miniature circuit-breaker (m.c.b.)

(b) Rewritable fuse.

Solution of (a)
Ib =

Ib = = 41.67 A.

Ib = 41.67 A. 50-Amp m.c.b. is adequate for protection of 41.67 Amp.

In = 50 A. And from Table B.1 correction factor for 35 0C=0.94

Ca = 0.94.
From table A.1, Correction factor for cables group together is 0.75
Cg = 0.75
Required cable current rating Iz = = 70.9 A

→ Iz = 70.9 A
From Table B.3 (for multi core cable) 16mm2 cable carries 69A.
Testing for Voltage drop:
Maximum voltage drop = 2.5% of 220 V = 5.5V
Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l
= (2.8 mV/A m) * 41.67 A * 30m

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= 3.50 V this is within the allowable voltage drop. so, choose cable size of 16mm2
Solution of (b)
Ib = 41.67 A.
Assume that a rewirable fuse type that requires a correction factor of 0.725 is
used. So Cf = 0.725
→ In = 50 A.
Required cable rating Iz = = 97.8 A

→ Iz = 97.8 A
From Table B.3 (for multi core cable) 35 mm2 cable carries 111 Amp.
Testing for Voltage drop:
Voltage drop on the cable = (mV/Am) * I * l
= ( mV/A m) * 41.67 A * 30m
= V < 5.5V
2.
So, choose cable size of 35mm
Comment. The example exhibits once again the considerable economic savings which can be
gained by fitting an m.c.b. or correct cartridge fuse in place of the rewirable type..

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CHAPTER 5
SERVICE ENTRANCE AND BRANCH CIRCUITS
5.1 Service Entrance

Power is transmitted from generating station or substation to the place of public utility by means of
transmission lines and there from power is further distributed by means of distributors or distributing lines.
The consumers are supplied with power by taking connections (tappings) from distributing lines. For
connecting consumers premises (consumers wiring) to the distributing lines use of cables (surface or
underground ) and over head lines (when distance of consumer's premises from the nearest distribution line
support exceeds 50 meters) is made. The conductors and equipment used for delivering electric energy
from the supply system to the wiring system of the premises is called the service.

Service lines are of two types

1. Overhead service lines.

2 Underground Cable Service Lines

In overhead-line distribution for premises, the service cables are connected to the line conductors by means
of mechanical connectors called line-taps .Conductors to the premises are always insulated, and are in most
instances pvc-insulated. The service cables are taken to insulators mounted on D-irons, cleated to the walls
of the house, and then run to the supply-intake position.

Use of underground cable is usually made for service connection when the power to be supplied to the
consumer is large (say above 25kw). Usually a two-core, pvc-insulated steel-wire armored and pvc-
sheathed cable is used as under ground cable.

The junction which this cable makes with the street-main is contained in a tee-box generally buried under
the pavement just outside the premises or fitted on the pole. The service cable conductors are joined to two
of the main cable cores: one to the neutral and the other to one of the phase conductors. The connectors are
either soldered using the usual cable tee-joint or by crimping.

Whether overhead or underground services, three- phase, four-wire connections are made in a similar
manner to the two-wire services.

Any installation must be provided with control and protective equipment. The service conductors terminate
in a main fuse cut out and a connector-block for the neutral conductor. The supply cutouts are connected to

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the energy meter. The cut outs and energy meters are usually in the same board called meter board. The cut-
outs are sealed to prevent tampering by unauthorized persons.

From the meter the installation main cables are taken to the main switch or switch fuse. The consumer's
main switch must be of the double-pole, linked blade type which will isolate the complete installation from
the supply when the switch is operated. If the supply is single-phase, or three-phase and neutral, then all
three, or four poles will be broken. The main switch can be a switch unit or a switched fuse depending on
the size of the installation. In larger types of installations, a CB is used, which acts not only as a main switch
but offers the necessary protection against fault currents.

5.2 Branch Circuits

The branch circuits are supplied power from the distribution board. DBs contain circuit protective devices
like BS 1361 cartridge fuses or MCBs. In domestic installations, the DB is combined with the main switch
and is known as the consumer unit. They vary in capacity from 4-way to 12-way units.

Main cables are those which carry the total current of the installation. Sub-main cables carry current to
sections of large installations to SMDB. A final circuit feeds one type of circuit and is not split up to feed
another circuit. In a domestic installation a supply is often required for a building which is detached from
the main building, such as a garage. In this case a final circuit in the consumer unit feeds a cable taken into
that building which must be terminated in a SMDB. It is a requirement of the regulations that every
detached building is provided with its own means of isolation.

A final circuit can range from a pair of 1.5mm2 cables feeding a light to a very heavy three-core cable
feeding a large motor from a CB or switch at the main DB. Each circuit should have its own protective fuse
or CB. The rating of the protective device must not be less than the designed load current of the circuit and,
also, that rating should not exceed the current-carrying capacity of the lowest-rated conductor in a circuit.

The final circuits include:

1. lighting circuits

2. socket outlet circuits (general purpose)

3. socket outlet circuit for water heater

4. socket outlets for cookers

5. Power outlets feeding a motor

6. Bell circuits.

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General purpose socket outlet circuits and socket outlet circuits supplying 3kw water-heaters are usually
rated at 16A. Lighting circuits are rated at 10A. For socket outlet circuits feeding cookers , a 20/25A CB is
used for protection.

General purpose socket outlet circuits can be connected in ring or radial. The number of SOs to be included
in one circuit can be known from tables of EEPCO's regulation.

The current rating of cables feeding a motor is based on the full-load current taken by the motor. More than
one motor may be connected to a 16A final circuit, provided that the full-load rating of the motors doesn't
exceed the rating of the smallest cable in the circuit. If, however, the rating of the motors exceeds 16A, then
the circuit must supply one motor only.

Diversity [Demand] Factors

Diversity [Demand] factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a load to the total connected load. This
factor is also called factor of power utilization.

The service equipment and conductors do not need to have an ampere rating equal to the total ampere
ratings of all the individual branch circuits. It is unlikely that every circuit in the installation is loaded to its
maximum capacity at the same time. Therefore demand factor have been established, based on many tests
and past experiences, that represent the maximum part of various types of loads that are likely to be in use at
any one time . As every single load or group of loads in a circuit are not operating simultaneously, and
normally working under partial load, the power demand factor is always less than 1.0.

The DF for various loads are given below:

Type of load DF estimate

1. Lighting Circuits 0.7-0.9

2. Heating loads

2.1. Water Heaters 0.2-.3

2.2. Ovens/stoves 0.2

2.3. Electric Iron 0.3

3. Motor Loads 0.7-0.9

4. Office equipment 0.3-0.5

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5. General purpose SOs 0.2-0.5

Example

Consider the SDB shown below

Load Description I(A) A(mm)2

Lighting 10 2 x 1.5

" 10 2 x 1.5

" 10 2 x 1.5

" 10 2 x 1.5

Socket Outlet 16 3 x 2.5

" 16 3 x 2.5

" 16 3 x 2.5

Water Heater 16 3 x 2.5

Space Heater 25 3x4

Pmax = ?

No. of light points (lamps) per lighting circuit = 4

No. of sockets per circuit = 3

No. of space heater = 1

No. of water heater = 1

Determine

a) The estimate of maximum power demand, Pmax

b) the rating of the main switch

c) the size of the feeder cable

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Solution:

a. Circuit Power without DF Power with DF

Lighting 4 x 220 x 10 = 8800W 0.7 x 8800 = 6160W

Socket outlet 3 x 220 x 16 = 10560W 0.2 x 10560 = 2112W

Water heater 220 x 16 = 3520W 0.2 x 3520 = 704W

Space heater 220 x 25 = 5500W 0.2 x 5500 = 1100W

28380 Pmax 10076W

b. P 3 VL I L Cos
P
 IL  ; Cos 1 because most of the loads are resistive
3 VL Cos
10076
  15.3 A
3 x 380

Rating of main switch (MCB) is 32 A

c. Assuming that the copper cable is enclosed in conduit, choose cable size of A = 4 x 6mm2.

Standard Ratings for fuses and CBs 6,10,16,20,25,35,50,63,80,100,125,160, 224,250,300,etc.

Maximum load estimate = 10,676 VA

10,676
IL   16.2 A (Cos  1)
3 x 380 x 1

In = 32A

A = 4 x 6mm2

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CHAPTER 6
EARTHING
The definition of earth is the conductive mass of earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero. Hence if we connect a voltmeter between a live part (e.g. the phase conductor
of, say, a socket outlet) and earth, we would probably read 220V; the conductor is at 220V, the earth at zero.
And Earthing means connection of the neutral point of a supply system or the non-current carrying parts of
electrical apparatus such as metallic frame work, metallic covering cables, metal covers of switches, metal
casing of portable apparatus, frame of every generator and motor etc. to the general mass of earth in such a
manner that at all times immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place without danger. Note the
connection of the supply neutral in Fig. 5.1, to earth, which makes it possible to have complete circuit via
the earth. Supply authority neutrals should be at around zero volts, and in order to maintain this condition
they are connected to the zero potential of earth.

Fig. 5.1
This also means that a person in an installation touching a live part while standing on the earth would take
the place of the voltmeter in Fig. 5.1, and could suffer a severe electric shock. Remember that the accepted
lethal level of shock current passing through a person is only 50 mA or 1/20 A. One method of providing
some measure of protection against these effects is to join together (bond) all metallic parts and connect
them to earth. This ensures that all metalwork in a healthy situation is at or near zero volts, and under fault
conditions all metalwork will rise to the same potential. So, simultaneous contact with two such metal parts
would not result in a shock, as there will be no p.d between them. This method is known as earthed
equipotential bonding.

6.1 CONNECTING TO EARTH

There are several methods of making a connection to earth, including the use of rods, plates and tapes. By
far the most popular method in everyday use is the rod earth electrode. The plate type needs to be buried at
a sufficient depth to be effective and, as such plates may be 1 or 2 meters square, considerable excavation
may be necessary. The tape type is predominantly used in the earthing of large electricity substations, where
the tape is laid in trenches in a mesh formation over the whole site. Items of plant are then earthed to this
mesh.

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Rod electrodes
These are usually of solid copper. The choice of length and diameter of such a rod will depend on the soil
conditions. For example, a long thick electrode is used for earth with little moisture retention. Generally, a
1–2 m rod, 16mm in diameter, will give a relatively low resistance (Fig.5.2).

Fig.5.2 copper earth electrode

Earth electrode resistance

If we were to place an electrode in the earth and then measure the resistance between the electrode and
points at increasingly larger distances from it, we would notice that the resistance increased with distance
until a point was reached (usually around 2.5 m) beyond which no increase in resistance was seen (Fig. 5.3).

Fig.5.3 resistance area of electrode

The value of this electrode resistance will depend on the length and cross-sectional area of the electrode, the
type of soil and its moisture content. Any soil that holds moisture such as clay or marshy ground has a

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relatively low resistivity, whereas gravel or rock has a high resistivity. Typical values for soil resistivity in
ohms are as follows:

Table 5.4 soil resistivity

Earthing systems
Contact with metalwork made live by a fault is called indirect contact. One popular method of providing
some measure of protection against such contact is by earthed equipotential bonding and automatic
disconnection of supply. This entails the bonding together and connection to earth of:
1. All metalwork associated with electrical apparatus and systems, termed as exposed
Conductive parts. Examples include conduit, trunking and the metal cases of apparatus.
2. All metalwork liable to introduce a potential including earth potential, termed as extraneous
conductive parts. Examples are gas, oil and water pipes, structural steelwork, radiators, sinks and
baths.
The effect of all this bonding is to create a zone in which all metalwork of different services and systems
will, even under fault conditions, be at a substantially equal potential. If, added to this, there is a low-
resistance earth return path; the protection should operate fast enough to prevent danger. The resistance of
such an earth return path will depend upon the system. These systems have been designated in the IEE
Regulations using the letters T, N, C and S. These letters stand for:
T - Terre (French for earth) and meaning a direct connection to earth.
N - Neutral
C - Combined
S -Separate
When these letters are grouped they form the classification of a type of system. The first letter in such a
classification denotes how the supply source is earthed. The second denotes how the metalwork of an
installation is earthed. The third and fourth indicate the functions of neutral and protective conductors.
Hence:
1. A TT system has a direct connection of the supply source to earth and a direct connection of the
installation metalwork to earth. An example is an overhead line supply with earth electrodes, and the
mass of earth as a return path (Fig. 5.5).

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Fig.5.5 TT system
2. A TN–S system has the supply source directly connected to earth, the installation metalwork
connected to the earthed neutral of the supply source via the metal sheath of the supply cable, and
the neutral and protective conductors throughout the whole system performing separate functions
(Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.6 TN–S system

3. A TN–C–S system is same as the TN–S system but the supply cable sheath is also the neutral, i.e. it
forms a combined earth/neutral conductor known as a PEN (Protective Earthed Neutral) conductor
(Fig. 5.7). The installation earth and neutral are separate conductors. This system is also known as
PME (Protective Multiple Earthing).

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Fig 5.7 TN–C–S system

Earth fault loop impedance

As we have seen, circuit protection should operate in the event of a direct fault from phase to earth. The
speed of operation of the protection is of extreme importance and will depend on the magnitude of the fault
current, which in turn will depend on the impedance of the earth fault loop path.

Fig. 5.8 earth fault loop path.

Starting at the fault, the path comprises:
1. The circuit protective conductor (CPC).
2. The consumer‟s earthing terminal and earth conductor.
3. The return path, either metallic or earth.
4. The earthed neutral of the supply transformer.
5. The transformer winding.
6. The phase conductor from the transformer to the fault.

Fig. 5.9 is a simplified version of this path.

We have
Zs = Ze + R1 + R2
Where: Zs- is the actual total loop impendence,

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Ze- is the impedance external to the installation,

R1- is the resistance of the phase conductor and
R2- is the resistance of the CPC.
We also have:

I= /Zs

Where: I- is the fault current and is the supply transformer open circuit voltage

(Usually 220 V) and is the voltage to earth at consumer terminals.

Determining the value of total loop impedance Zs

The IEERegulations require that when the general characteristics of an installation are assessed, the loop
impedance Ze external to the installation shall be ascertained. This may be measured in existing installations
using a phase-to-earth loop impedance tester. However, when a building is only at the drawing board stage
it is clearly impossible to make such a measurement. In this case, we have three methods available to assess
the value of Ze:
1. Determine it from details (if available) of the supply transformer, the main distribution
Cable and the proposed service cable; or
2. Measure it from the supply intake position of an adjacent building having service cable
Of similar size and length to that proposed; or
3. Use maximum likely values issued by the supply authority as follows:
TT system: 21 ohms maximum
TN–S system: 0.8 ohms maximum
TN–C–S system 0.35 ohms maximum.
Method 1 will be difficult for anyone except engineers Method 2, if it is possible to be used; will give a
closer and more realistic estimation of Ze. . Method 3 can, in some cases, result in pessimistically large
cable sizes. However, if in any doubt, use method 3. Having established a value for Ze, it is now necessary
to determine the impedance of that part of the loop path internal to the installation. This is, as we have seen,
the resistance of the phase conductor plus the resistance of the CPC, i.e. R1 + R2. Resistances of copper
conductors may be found from tables in the guidance notes to the Regulations, which give values of
resistance/meter for copper and aluminum conductors at 20°C in milliohms/meter.

6.2 Testing of Installation

The tests to be performed before a new installation or an addition to an existing installation are connected to
the supply mains are as follows:
1. Insulation Resistance
 The insulation resistance between the wiring and earth with all fuses
(breakers) and lamps in and all switches „ON‟
 The insulation resistance between the conductors with all lamps out and all
switches „ON‟

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2. Testing of polarity of non-linked single pole switches.

3. Testing of earth continuity path.
4. Testing of earth-electrode resistance.

1. Insulation Resistance
The aim of this test is to know whether the wires or cables used in the wiring are sufficiently insulated to
avoid leakage current. Test is performed by a DC source not less than twice of working voltage but not
exceeding 500 V. A 500 V tester, known as „Megger‟ is used for this purpose. Since installation circuits are
wired in parallel, one can see that for a very large Installations an insulation resistance test at the intake
position may show a low value, which isn‟t actually due to bad insulation. In order to overcome this
problem, EELPA regulation (SECTION E-2) permits such installation to be broken down into smaller units
of not less than 50 outlets.
• Testing of Insulation Resistance between the Wiring and the Earth.
The resistance offered to leakage from conductors to earth is known as insulation resistance test between the
wiring and earth. Before making insulation test ensures that:
a) Supply is isolated, i.e. the main switch, breaker or fuse is in OFF position.
b) All protective devices are in place.
c) All the switches are in ON position.
d) All the lamps are in their positions or the holders are short-circuited.
e) Link all the poles of the supply together i.e. line and neutral terminals are shorted onthe
installation side.

Fig5.10 insulation resistance to earth

The line terminal of the Megger (marked as L) is connected to the point where the conductors have been
shorted at the main switch and the E terminal is connected to the earth. Now the handle of the tester is
turned so that it begins to slip and the reading on the dial gives the insulation resistance between the wiring
and earth. The insulation resistance to earth measured should not be less than 1 Mega ohm Very small
leakage current .

•Testing of Insulation Resistance between Conductors

The objective of this test is to ensure that the insulation is sound between conductors so that there may not
be an appreciable leakage between them. In this test the circuit diagram remains the same as in Fig.1 except
that the entire lamp and all metallic connections between the two wires of the installation are removed from

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the holders. With the supply isolated, all protective devices in place, and all single pole switches in „ON‟
position; the terminals of the Megger are connected between poles (i.e. R to S, R to T, S to T, and each pole
in turn to N). The reading should not be less than 1 Mega ohm.

Fig 5.11 between pole tests

2 Testing of polarity of Single Pole Switches

Section E-2 of EELPA‟s regulation states that “A verification of polarity shall be made and it shall be
ensured that all fuses and all single pole control devices are connected in the live conductor only, that the
outer contacts of center-contact bayonet and Edison-type lamp holders are connected to the neutral or
earthed conductor, and that wiring has been correctly connected to plugs and socket outlets”. A convenient
and quicker method of performing this test is by means of a small neon tube tester.

Fig 5.12
An alternative method is by means of a test lamp. In this method one end of the test lamp is connected to
earth and the other end is tapped to each contact of the switch in turn. If the test lamp is in the live wire i.e.
gives light, otherwise the installation is wrong (see fig 5.12).

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6.3 Testing of Earth Continuity Path

For safely all metal pieces or covering such as conduits, metal covers of switches, metal casing of portable
apparatus, frame of every generator and motor, etc, must be solidly connected to earth otherwise on the
damage of insulation, the leakage current will start giving severe shock to the person touching it.
In case of conduit wiring there is a possibility of the conduit joints to become loose to be separated
resulting in high resistance in the earth path.
The test shall be made when the normal supply is disconnected from the final sub-circuit under test. One
end of the earth-continuity conductor shall be connected to a cable of known resistance. An AC voltage not
exceeding 40 V at approximately the frequency of supply shall then be applied between the other end of the
earth conductor and the other end of the cable. Subject to the requirement for the total earth loop impedance,
it is satisfactory if, after allowance has been made for the return conductor, value not exceeding 0.5 ohm for
the ratio voltage/current is obtained where steel conduit or pipe form part or whole of the earth-continuity
conductor, or a value of 1 ohm where the earth-continuity conductor is composed entirely of copper, copper
alloy or aluminum.

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