STUDY NOTES

History of Math

Great Mathematicians
o Appolonius of Perga “The Great Geometer”
- responsible for the study of the Conic Sections
- applied conic sections to his study of Astronomy and its relation to the universe and to
Geometry
- famous book Conics introduced terms which are familiar to us today such as parabola,
ellipse and hyperbola.
o Archimedes
- Calculation of Pi – circle’s ratio of circumference to its diameter
- Volume and Surface area of Sphere
- Archimedes’ Principle (Buoyancy)
- Archimedes screw.
o Aristotle
- Introduced syllogism - a form of logical reasoning that uses deductive reasoning to
arrive at a conclusion based on two premises - major and minor
- Major premise - a general statement or universal truth.
- Minor premise - a more specific statement that applies the major premise to a particular
case or subject.
- Critique Plato’s Ideas (also known as theory of forms)
o Plato believed that true reality lies in an abstract, non-material realm of
perfect Forms, Aristotle believed that reality can be understood by studying
the natural, physical world and the forms inherent within it.
o Erastosthenes
- Sieve of Eratosthenes - an ancient algorithm used to find all prime numbers up to a
given limit.
 List the numbers from 2 up to the desired limit (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, ..., N).
 Start with the first prime number, 2. Cross out all multiples of 2 (e.g., 4,
6, 8, ...), because they are not prime.
 Move to the next number that hasn’t been crossed out (in this case, 3). Cross
out all multiples of 3.
 Continue this process with the next available number, crossing out all its
multiples.
 Repeat until you've processed all numbers up to the square root of the limit.
The remaining uncrossed numbers are primes.
- concept of prime numbers - . A prime number, in his view, is a natural number greater
than 1 that has no divisors other than 1 and itself. In other words, a prime number
cannot be divided evenly by any other number except 1 and the number itself.
o Al-Kwharizmi
- father of algebra
- concepts of multiplying binomials, square roots, squares and roots of equations.
- development of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.
o Brahmgupta
- developed the concept of positive and negative numbers.
- he is responsible for the study of indeterminate analysis.
- he applied his mathematical knowledge to astronomy and number theory.
o Rene Descartes
- Cartesian Coordinate System: Introduced a grid system to locate points, enabling the
link between algebra and geometry.
- Analytic Geometry: Combined algebra and geometry, allowing geometric problems to
be solved algebraically.
- Polynomial Equations: Developed rules and methods to analyze and solve polynomial
equations.
- Algebraic Notation: Improved the clarity and systematic approach of algebraic
methods.
o Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
- Calculus: Developed calculus independently of Newton and introduced essential
notation.
- Binary System: Created the binary number system, crucial for computer science.
- Mathematical Notation: Introduced key notations that are still used in calculus today.
- Theorems and Principles: Contributed to logic and theorems in calculus.
o John Napier
- Logarithms: Invented logarithms to simplify complex arithmetic operations.
- Napier’s Bones: Created a calculating tool for easier multiplication and division.
- Trigonometry: Advanced trigonometric calculations with his tables and methods
o Euclid
- Authored "Elements": The foundational text for geometry, organizing mathematical
knowledge.
- Established Axioms and Postulates: Basic principles used to prove geometric theorems
logically.
 Straight Line: A line can be drawn between any two points.
 Extension: A straight line can be extended indefinitely.
 Circles: A circle can be drawn with any center and radius.
 Right Angles: All right angles are equal.
 Parallel Lines: There is exactly one line parallel to a given line through a
given point.
- Developed Euclidean Geometry: Focused on the properties of flat surfaces, shaping the
study of geometry.
- Golden ratio.
o David Hilbert
- Hilbert’s Problems (1900): Proposed 23 unsolved problems that guided 20th-century
mathematics
- Hilbert Space: Introduced a framework for understanding abstract spaces, essential in
modern math and quantum mechanics.
- Hilbert’s Axioms: Developed a rigorous foundation for geometry.
- Formalism: Advanced the formalist approach, emphasizing rigorous proofs and
systems in mathematics.
o Leonhard Euler
- Euler's Formula: a fundamental equation linking complex numbers, trigonometry, and
exponential functions
- Graph Theory: Introduced concepts such as the Eulerian path, laying the groundwork
for graph theory.
- Mathematical Notation: Popularized the use of e for the base of natural logarithms, i
for the imaginary unit, and the sigma notation (∑) for summation.
- Number Theory: Made significant contributions, including the introduction of the
totient function and work on prime numbers.
o Leonardo Pisano Bigollo
- Fibonacci Sequence: Introduced the sequence where each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones, starting from 0 and 1. Example: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...
- "Liber Abaci" (1202): His book introduced the Hindu-Arabic numeral system to
Europe, replacing Roman numerals and revolutionizing mathematics and commerce.
o Pierre de Fermat
- Fermat’s Last Theorem: proposed that there are no whole number solutions to an + bn =
cn for n > 2. It was solved by Andrew Wiles in 1994, and became one of the most
famous unsolved problems in mathematics for over 350 years.
- Fermat’s Little Theorem: Provided for a fundamental result in number theory: If p is a
prime number and a is an integer not divisible by p, then ap-1≡1 ( mod p ) . This theorem
is essential in modular arithmetic and cryptography.
- Fermat’s Principle: In optics, stated that light follows the path that requires the least
time. This principle laid the groundwork for the field of geometrical optics.
- Probability Theory: Made early contributions to probability theory through
correspondence with Blaise Pascal, which helped establish the foundation of this field.
o Blaise Pascal
- Pascal’s Triangle: Developed a triangular array of numbers where each number is the
sum of the two numbers directly above it. This triangle helps with calculations in
algebra and probability.
- Probability Theory: Co-founded probability theory through his correspondence with
Pierre de Fermat, laying the groundwork for modern statistics and gambling theory.
- Pascal’s Theorem: In projective geometry, showed that if you draw a hexagon inside a
conic section (like an ellipse), the points where opposite sides intersect lie on a straight
line.
- Pascal’s Law: In fluid mechanics, stated that pressure applied to a confined fluid is
transmitted equally in all directions. This principle is fundamental to hydraulic systems.
o Isaac Newton
- Law of Motion: Formulated the three fundamental laws of motion, which describe how
objects move and interact. These laws are foundational to classical mechanics.
- Universal Law of Gravitation: Proposed that every particle of matter attracts every
other particle with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. This explains how gravity
works.
 - Calculus: Co-developed calculus a branch of mathematics dealing with rates of change
and areas under curves, with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
- Principia Mathematica: Wrote ‘Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematics,’ a
ground breaking work that laid the ground work for classical mechanics and gravitation.
o Carl Friedrich Gauss
- Gaussian Distribution: (Normal Distribution: a key concept in statistics that describes
how data points are distributed around a mean value.
- Gaussian Elimination: Introduced a method for solving systems of linear equations,
known as Gaussian elimination, which is widely used in algebra and computer
algorithms.
- Magnetism: Made important contributions to the study of magnetism and electricity,
including the development of Gauss’s Law, which relates electric fields to the
distribution of electric charge.
- Non-Euclidean Geometry: Worked on the foundations of non-Euclidean geometry,
exploring geometries that do not follow the traditional rules of Euclidean geometry.
o Pythagoras
- Pythagorean Triples: Discovered sets of three whole numbers that satisfy the
Pythagorean Theorem, such as (3, 4, 5) and (5, 12, 13).
- Influence on Mathematics: His ideas on numbers and geometry laid the groundwork
for many mathematical concepts and theories.
- Philosophy and Beliefs: Founded the Pythagorean Brotherhood, which combined
mathematics with philosophy, believing that numbers were the essence of all things.
o Diophantus
- Arithmetica": His most famous work, a collection of problems and solutions involving
algebraic equations. It laid foundational work for algebra.
- Diophantine Equations: Studied equations where solutions are required to be whole
numbers (integers). He is known for his work on solving these types of equations,
o Hypatia
- Mathematics: Commented on important works by Diophantus and Apollonius, helping
to advance algebra and geometry.
- Astronomy and Inventions: Worked on astronomical theories and designed tools like an
astrolabe.
- Teaching: Taught mathematics and philosophy in Alexandria, influencing many
students.
- Legacy: One of the first known female mathematicians, known for her contributions to
science and education.
o Galileo Galilei
- Telescopic Discoveries: Improved the telescope and made groundbreaking
observations, such as the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus, supporting the
heliocentric model.
- Kinematics and Dynamics: Developed fundamental principles of motion, including the
laws of falling bodies and the concept that the speed of a falling object increases over
time.
 - Scientific Method: Advocated for empirical evidence and experimentation, laying the
groundwork for modern scientific methods.
- Support for Copernican Theory
o Emmy Noether
- Noether’s Theorem: Links symmetries to conservation laws, such as energy
conservation related to time symmetry.
- Abstract Algebra: Advanced the theory of rings and fields, shaping modern algebra.
- Noetherian Rings: Introduced key concepts for easier handling of algebraic structures.
o Gregorio Y. Zara
- He is renowned for devising a videophone or "photo phone signal separator network"-
Zara's video telephone invention enabled the caller and recipient to see each other while
conversing, laying the foundation for video-conferencing.
- Zara Effect or law of electrical kinetic resistance, Story: Zara’s work often focused on
how actual outcomes can deviate from expected probabilities due to underlying
complexities in systems. His research aimed to understand and model these deviations,
which can help in better predicting and managing real-world phenomena.
- Assisted in the creation of the Marex X-10 robot - Marex X-10: A communication
system that Zara developed for use in aviation. It was designed to improve
communication and data transmission in aircraft.

Origins of Mathematics: Egypt and Babylonia

BABYLONIA
- Developed by the people of Mesopotamia.

 From the Old Babylonian period (1830–1531 BC) to the Seleucid period (last 3-4 centuries BC).
 Babylonian mathematics significantly impacted later civilizations.
 The Sexagesimal System (Base 60)

- One of the most important contributions by the Babylonians.

- Used a base 60 system (unlike today's decimal system which is base 10).
- Advantages:
o Allowed for greater flexibility.
o Enabled precision in representing fractions.

 Plimpton 322 (cataloged under the number 322. The name comes from George Arthur
Plimpton, an American publisher and collector of historical manuscripts, who donated his
collection to the university)
- A Babylonian clay tablet that demonstrates an example of Babylonian mathematics.
- Part of the G.A. Plimpton Collection at Columbia University.
- Written around 1800 BC.
- Contains a table with 4 columns and 15 rows of numbers.
- The numbers are written in cuneiform script.
 YBC 7289
- A Babylonian clay tablet known for its accurate approximation of the square root of 2
(the diagonal of a unit square).
 - Provides a sexagesimal approximation of √2.
- Accurate to the equivalent of six decimal digits.
- Considered the greatest known computational accuracy in the ancient world.
- Likely created by a student in southern Mesopotamia.
- Dated between 1800 and 1600 BC.
 Regular Numbers
- Numbers that evenly divide powers of 60 (or equivalently, powers of 30).
- Prime Divisors: These numbers have only 2, 3, and 5 as their prime divisors.
- Example:

1. 602 = 3600
Can be factored as 48×75, meaning both 48 and 75 are regular numbers, as they
divide a power of 60.

2. Consider 603=216,000
This can be factored as 16×13,500.
Both 16 and 13,500 are regular numbers because their prime divisors are only 2, 3,
and 5.
16=24 (only prime divisor is 2).
13,500=22×33×53 (prime divisors are 2, 3, and 5).

EGYPT

 Dates back to predynastic period (c. 3200 BCE).

 Ivory labels from Abydos show early number inscriptions.
 Base-10 System:
- First depicted on the Narmer Macehead (a large, ceremonial macehead made of stone,
which was discovered at the temple of Horus in Hierakonpolis. This artifact is
significant because it depicts King Narmer, one of the earliest rulers of a unified
Egypt), which shows offerings (e.g., 400,000 oxen).

- Used hieroglyphs for numbers:

10 (hobble for cattle)
100 (coiled rope)
1,000 (lotus flower)
10,000 (finger)
100,000 (frog)
1 million (god with hands raised).

 Key Mathematical Texts:

1. 12th Dynasty (1990–1800 BCE):

- During this time, Egyptians created several important mathematical texts that show how
they did math. Here are some of the key documents:
 Moscow Mathematical Papyrus:
o
 This is a collection of math problems and solutions. It gives us insight into how
the Egyptians solved various mathematical questions.
o Egyptian Mathematical Leather Roll:
 This is a scroll made of leather that contains mathematical problems and
methods. It was discovered later and provides valuable information about
Egyptian math.
o Lahun Mathematical Papyri:
 These are fragments of papyrus (a type of paper made from plants) that also
include math problems and examples. They show practical uses of math in
everyday life.
o Berlin Papyrus 6619:
 This is another important document that contains mathematical problems. It helps
us understand the techniques used in ancient Egyptian mathematics.
2. Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (c. 1650 BCE):

- This document is a bit later than the 12th Dynasty but is very important.
- It is believed to be based on earlier texts from the 12th Dynasty. This means it may
have used knowledge from those earlier documents.
- The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus contains a variety of math problems and shows
how Egyptians handled calculations, including fractions and geometry.

These documents are like textbooks from ancient Egypt. They show us not only the math that Egyptians
used but also how they thought about and solved problems in their daily lives.

 Mastaba Slope Guidelines:

o Egyptians used math to design and build structures like mastabas, which are flat-topped
tombs.
o They created guidelines to figure out the correct slope (angle) for these buildings,
ensuring they were stable and well-constructed.

 Additive Number System:

o Egyptians represented large numbers by adding up symbols (glyphs).
o For example, if they wanted to show 123, they would use one symbol for 100, two
symbols for 10, and three symbols for 1.
o This means they combined different glyphs to create the total value instead of having a
single symbol for each number.

Fractions:

1. Fractions in the Form 1/n:

o The Egyptians mainly used fractions that looked like 1 divided by a number. For
example:
 1/2 means one half.
 1/3 means one third.
o They focused on fractions that had 1 on the top and a whole number on the bottom.
2. Special Fractions:
 They had special symbols for 2/3, which means two parts out of three, and this was more
o
common.
o They rarely used a symbol for 3/4 (three parts out of four).
3. Symbol for 1/2:
o For the fraction 1/2, they used a symbol that looked like a folded piece of linen. This was
their way of representing one half visually.

This system is different from what we use today. Instead of writing fractions like 3/4, the Egyptians
mainly focused on using 1/n fractions, which made it easier for them to perform calculations related to
things like food, land, and trade.

Geometry:

 Developed to handle surveying after annual Nile flooding.

Important Documents:

 Lahun Mathematical Papyri: Part of the Kahun Papyri, discovered by Flinders Petrie,
containing administrative and mathematical texts.
 Egyptian Mathematical Leather Roll (EMLR): A Middle Kingdom text with hieratic
characters.

The Development of Mathematics: Mathematics of Ancient Greece

 Early Greek Period (600–400 BCE)

- Thales of Miletus (ca. 624–546 BCE): Considered the first Greek mathematician,
known for geometric propositions, such as the ‘Thales Theorem’ and the ‘Intercept of
Theorem’
- Pythagoras of Samos (ca. 570–495 BCE): Developed the famous Pythagorean
Theorem; founded the Pythagorean school, which linked mathematics to philosophy
and mysticism.
o Pythagoreans followed strict rules, both in philosophy and daily life:
o Vegetarianism and a belief in the transmigration of souls
(reincarnation).
o They lived in a communal society with shared property and adhered to a
code of secrecy.
o The School of Pythagoras greatly influenced later Greek philosophers
like Plato and Aristotle.
 o Their work laid the foundation for geometry, number theory, and
connections between math and music.
 Classical Greek Period (400–300 BCE)
- Hippocrates of Chios (ca. 470–410 BCE): Worked on the quadrature of the lune, an
early attempt at squaring curvilinear shapes.
- Plato (ca. 428–348 BCE): Established the Academy, emphasizing mathematics for
intellectual development and linking it to the study of ideal forms.
- Eudoxus of Cnidus (ca. 408–355 BCE): Developed the method of exhaustion, a
precursor to integral calculus, and contributed to theories of proportions.
 Golden Age of Greek Mathematics (300–200 BCE)
- Euclid of Alexandria (ca. 300 BCE): Wrote Elements, a comprehensive collection of
definitions, postulates, and proofs that formed the basis for modern geometry.
- Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287–212 BCE): Made advances in geometry, such as
calculating areas and volumes using infinitesimals; invented the lever and pulley
system.
- Apollonius of Perga (ca. 262–190 BCE): Studied conic sections and laid groundwork
for future astronomical models.
 Hellenistic Period (200 BCE–100 CE)
- Hipparchus (ca. 190–120 BCE): Developed trigonometry and applied it to astronomy.
- Hero of Alexandria (ca. 10–70 CE): Known for Heron’s formula for the area of a
triangle and mechanical inventions.
 Decline of Greek Mathematics (100–500 CE)
- Mathematical progress slowed due to political instability and the rise of the Roman
Empire.
- Pappus of Alexandria (ca. 290–350 CE): Last significant Greek mathematician,
known for his work in geometry and the Pappus’s Collection summarizing earlier work.

The Development of Mathematics: Islamic, Hindu and Chinese Mathematics

ISLAMIC [8th to 14th centuries CE (often called the Islamic Golden Age)]
- Islamic mathematicians preserved and expanded on Greek and Indian mathematics,
influencing the European Renaissance.

 Translation of Greek and Indian works: Islamic scholars translated important mathematical
texts from Greek (like works of Euclid and Archimedes) and Indian sources into Arabic.
 Development of algebra: The word "algebra" comes from the title of the work "Al-Kitab al-
Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wal-Muqabala" by Al-Khwarizmi. Algebra was formalized and
became a major branch of mathematics.
 Introduction of Hindu-Arabic numerals: Islamic scholars adopted and spread the decimal
place-value system and zero from Indian mathematics.
 Astronomy and trigonometry: Islamic mathematicians developed sine, cosine, and other
trigonometric functions for use in astronomy.
 Famous scholars:
o Al-Khwarizmi - father of algebra, worked on algorithms
o Al-Biruni - worked on geometry, trigonometry, and accurate measurements of the Earth
 o Omar Khayyam - developed geometric solutions for cubic equations

HINDU (Flourished from 400 CE to around 1200 CE.)

- Indian mathematics influenced both Islamic and European mathematicians,

particularly through the transmission of numerals and algebraic ideas.

 Decimal system: Indians were the first to use the decimal place-value system with zero. This
was critical for the development of modern arithmetic and algebra.
 Brahmagupta: Introduced rules for zero, negative numbers, and methods for solving quadratic
equations.

 Aryabhata: Developed approximate value of pi, trigonometric tables, and methods for solving
quadratic equations. Although Archimedes was the first to rigorously approximate pi using
geometry, Aryabhata offered a more accurate value using a different method, continuing the
historical development of pi.

 Sine function: Indian mathematicians introduced the sine function, which was later passed to
Islamic scholars and developed further.
 Bhaskara II: Worked on number theory, and cyclic methods to solve equations, and provided
solutions to the Pell’s equation.

o Cyclic Methods (Chakravala method): Ann algorithm for solving quadratic

Diophantine equations, particularly those of the form x2−Ny2=1 (Pell’s equation).
o The method is called "cyclic" because it involves repeating a process in a loop until the
solution is found.
o It was considered efficient and elegant for solving equations that seemed difficult for
earlier mathematicians.
-

CHINESE (Developed independently from ancient times, with notable texts around 200 BCE to
1400 CE.)
- Chinese mathematical techniques, particularly in algebra and geometry, influenced the
development of mathematics in East Asia and were foundational in solving practical
problems like land surveying

 Counting rods: Used for calculating large numbers and performing arithmetic.
 The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (c. 200 BCE): A foundational text that includes
methods for solving linear equations, fractions, and basic geometry.
 Magic squares and geometry: The Chinese worked on magic squares (grids where numbers
add up to the same total) and practical geometry for land measurement.
 Liu Hui: Improved pi approximations and wrote detailed commentaries on mathematical texts.
 Zhu Shijie: Worked on the Chinese Remainder Theorem and polynomials, developing
methods to solve systems of equations.
 Early development of negative numbers: The Chinese used negative numbers in their
calculations before they became widely accepted elsewhere.
 The Development of Mathematics: Medieval Period and the Renaissance

MEDIEVAL PERIOD

- A time of preservation and expansion of mathematical knowledge, with significant

contributions from Islamic scholars.
- During this period, much of the mathematical knowledge from Greek, Roman, and
Indian civilizations was preserved and expanded upon by Islamic scholars.

o Al-Khwarizmi developed algebra (his work "Al-Kitab al-Mukhtasar" introduced the

term al-jabr, from which algebra is derived).
o Translation efforts: Islamic scholars translated Greek and Indian texts, preserving the
works of Euclid, Ptolemy, and Archimedes.

 Islamic Contributions:
o Introduction of the decimal number system and Arabic numerals (adapted from Indian
mathematics).
o Advancements in geometry, trigonometry, and algebra.
o Notable mathematicians: Al-Khwarizmi, Omar Khayyam (worked on cubic equations),
and Al-Battani (trigonometry).

 European Developments:
o European mathematics stagnated during the early medieval period but was later
revitalized by the work of Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa), who introduced the Fibonacci
sequence and popularized Arabic numerals in Europe through his book Liber Abaci
(1202).
o Quadrivium: Part of medieval education, including arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
and music.

RENAISSANCE PERIOD
- Witnessed the rebirth of classical knowledge and new advances in algebra, geometry,
and trigonometry, laying the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution.

 Rediscovery of Greek Texts:

o The Renaissance saw the revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts because of
the printing press and translations of Euclid and Archimedes.
o Mathematicians revisited and built upon classical knowledge.

 New Mathematical Developments:

o The solution to cubic and quartic equations was discovered by Niccolò Fontana
(Tartaglia) and Lodovico Ferrari in the 16th century.
o The rise of symbolic algebra: François Viète introduced the use of letters to represent
unknowns and constants, which laid the foundation for modern algebraic notation.

 Contributions from Mathematicians:

o Girolamo Cardano: Published the first comprehensive algebra book "Ars Magna"
(1545), containing the solutions to cubic and quartic equations.
 o John Napier: Invented logarithms in the early 17th century, simplifying complex
calculations, especially in astronomy and navigation.
o Kepler and Galileo: Used mathematics to advance astronomy and physics during the
Scientific Revolution, blending geometry and algebra with observations of the natural
world.

 Geometry and Perspective:

o Artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer applied mathematical principles in
the perspective and proportions of their artwork, bridging art and mathematics.

The Development of Mathematics: Birth of the Calculus

1. Isaac Newton (1643–1727):

o Newton's Version of Calculus:
 Developed calculus as a way to describe motion and change in the physical
world.
 Focused on fluxions (his term for derivatives) and fluents (the functions being
differentiated).
 Used calculus to explain the laws of motion, gravity, and planetary orbits,
formalized in his work "Principia Mathematica" (1687).
 Developed methods to calculate rates of change (derivatives) and the area
under curves (integrals).
 Applied calculus to solve real-world problems in physics, such as motion and
gravity.

2. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716):

o Leibniz’s Version of Calculus:
 Developed calculus independently of Newton, but with a different approach.
 Introduced the modern notation for calculus, including the use of d for
derivatives (e.g., dydx\frac{dy}{dx}dxdy) and the integral sign ∫\int∫.
 Focused on the concept of infinitesimals—very small quantities that are almost
zero but not exactly zero.
 His work laid the foundation for the formal rules of calculus used today,
particularly in algebraic form.

3. The Newton-Leibniz Controversy:

o Both Newton and Leibniz independently developed calculus, but their approaches and
notations differed.
o A famous dispute arose over who invented calculus first. Modern historians credit both
for their contributions, acknowledging that each had a significant impact on the field.
CALCULUS CORE CONCEPTS:

1. Derivatives (Differentiation):
o The derivative represents the rate of change of a function.
o Example: The derivative of a position function gives the velocity of a moving object.

2. Integrals (Integration):
o The integral represents the accumulation of quantities, such as the area under a curve.
o Example: The integral of a velocity function gives the total distance traveled.

3. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

o States that differentiation and integration are inverse processes: finding the derivative of
a function and integrating that derivative will return the original function.

SOME APPLICATION

o Physics:
- Calculus is essential in understanding and describing motion, forces, and energy.
Newton used calculus to formalize the laws of motion and universal gravitation,
which are the foundation of classical mechanics.
- It's used to analyze the movement of objects, from the motion of planets (orbital
dynamics) to the behavior of particles in physics.
- Calculus is also key in understanding fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, and
electricity and magnetism.
o Engineering:
- Engineers use calculus to optimize systems, analyze structures, and design
technologies.
- For example, calculus is used to calculate the forces acting on structures like bridges or
to design electrical circuits.
- It helps in analyzing rates of change in heat transfer, chemical reactions, and
mechanical processes.
o Economics:
- calculus is used to find maxima and minima for profit, cost, and revenue functions.
- It's applied to model economic growth, optimize production, and analyze market
behavior.
- Concepts like marginal cost and marginal revenue involve differentiation to
determine the impact of small changes in quantity produced or sold.
o Computer Science:
- Calculus is used in algorithms, graphics rendering, and machine learning models.
- It's critical for optimization in artificial intelligence and data analysis.

The Development of Mathematics: Euler, Fermat and Descartes

1. Leonhard Euler (1707–1783):

o Swiss mathematician known for his prolific output and contributions across many areas
of mathematics.
o Major Contributions:
 Graph Theory: Introduced concepts of graphs and the famous Seven Bridges
of Königsberg problem, laying the foundation for topology and graph theory.
  Calculus: Developed important techniques in calculus, including the Euler’s
formula connecting complex analysis with trigonometry.
 Notation: Introduced much of the modern notation used in mathematics today,
including f(x) for functions, the letter e for the base of natural logarithms, and the
Greek letter π\piπ for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
 Number Theory: Made significant advancements in number theory, including
the Euler’s theorem on modular arithmetic.

2. Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665):

o French lawyer and amateur mathematician known for his work in number theory and
probability.

o Major Contributions:

 Fermat’s Last Theorem: proposed that there are no whole number solutions to an
+ bn = cn for n > 2. It was solved by Andrew Wiles in 1994, and became one of
the most famous unsolved problems in mathematics for over 350 years.
 Fermat’s Little Theorem: Provided for a fundamental result in number theory: If
p is a prime number and a is an integer not divisible by p, then ap-1≡1 ( mod p ) .
This theorem is essential in modular arithmetic and cryptography.
 Analytical Geometry: Worked on the principles of analytic geometry, which
links algebra and geometry.

3. René Descartes (1596–1650):

o French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, often called the father of modern
philosophy and analytical geometry.
o Major Contributions:
 Cartesian Coordinate System: Developed the Cartesian coordinate system,
which allows the representation of geometric shapes using algebraic equations,
bridging geometry and algebra.
 Analytical Geometry: His work laid the groundwork for the field, allowing the
use of equations to describe curves and surfaces.
 Philosophical Works: His philosophical approach emphasized the use of reason
and deduction in mathematics, encapsulated in his famous statement, "I think,
therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum).

CORE CONCEPT

1. Graph Theory:
o Study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations
between objects.
o Applications include computer science, social science, and biology.

2. Analytic Geometry:
 o Merges algebra and geometry, allowing for the representation of geometric figures in a
coordinate system.
o Fundamental for calculus and mathematical analysis.

3. Number Theory:
o Branch of mathematics dealing with integers and their properties.
o Includes the study of prime numbers, divisibility, and Diophantine equations.