UNIT –III

Smart Sensors Introduction – Primary Sensors – Excitation – Amplification – Filters – Converters –

Compensation– Information Coding/Processing - Data Communication – Standards for Smart Sensor
Interface–The Automation.
Sensors–Applications Introduction–On-board Automobile Sensors(AutomotivemSensors)–
Home ApplianceSensors–Aerospace Sensors––Sensors form Manufacturing–Sensors for
environmental Monitoring

Sketch the detailed block diagram of a smart sensor, and explain the function of each block.
OR
Describe the properties of an intelligent field device and how it integrates with the sensor system.
A smart sensor integrates sensor elements with interfacing electronic circuits to perform ranging,
calibration, decision making, and communication tasks. These sensors, combined with actuators,
form intelligent field devices that play a critical role in instrumentation systems. Below is the
block diagram of a typical intelligent sensor and actuator system along with an explanation of
each block.

Detailed Block Diagram

Explanation of Each Block

1. Power Supply:
 o Provides the necessary power for the operation of the sensor and its interfacing
circuits.
2. Sensor Interface:
o Connects the sensor element to the rest of the circuitry, enabling the sensor to
capture the physical or chemical parameter and convert it into an electrical signal.
3. Actuator Interface:
o Connects the actuator element to the rest of the circuitry, enabling the actuator to
perform a mechanical action based on the processed signal from the sensor.
4. Signal Condition:
o Processes the raw signal from the sensor to improve its quality by filtering,
amplifying, and converting it to a suitable form for further processing.
5. Power Amplifier:
o Boosts the conditioned signal to a level suitable for driving the actuator or for
further processing.
6. DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter):
o Converts digital signals from the microprocessor to analog signals for use by the
actuator or other analog interfaces.
7. I/O (Input/Output):
o Manages data exchange between the sensor system and external devices or
systems.
8. Serial Bus:
o Facilitates communication between different components within the sensor
system and external systems using a serial communication protocol.
9. Microcomputer:
o Performs computation and control tasks, processing the signals from the sensor
and managing communication with other systems.
10. Communication Interface:
o Provides the means for the sensor system to communicate with external devices,
typically over a network or bus system.
11. Condition Monitoring:
o Continuously monitors the condition of the sensor and actuator, diagnosing faults,
and ensuring optimal operation.
12. Calibration and Offset:
o Automatically calibrates the sensor to ensure accurate measurements and
compensates for any offsets.
13. Autoranging and Autocalibration:
o Automatically adjusts the sensor range and calibrates it to accommodate different
measurement conditions and ensure accuracy.
14. Digital Signal Processor (DSP):
o Processes the digital signals from the sensor, performing tasks such as filtering,
transforming, and analyzing the data.
15. Microprocessor and Memory:
o The central processing unit that runs the software for managing sensor operations,
data processing, and communication. Memory is used for storing calibration
constants, processing algorithms, and data.
Properties of Intelligent Field Devices

1. Automatic Ranging and Calibration:

o Uses built-in digital systems to automatically adjust the measurement range and
calibrate the sensor.
2. Auto-Acquisition and Storage:
o Automatically acquires and stores calibration constants in the local memory.
3. Auto-Configuration and Verification:
o Configures hardware and verifies correct operation through internal checks.
4. Auto-Correction:
o Automatically corrects offsets, time, and temperature drifts.
5. Auto-Linearization:
o Linearizes nonlinear transfer characteristics of the sensor.
6. Self-Tuning Control Algorithms:
o Uses control algorithms such as fuzzy logic for self-tuning and optimal
performance.
7. Local and Downloadable Control Programs:
o Stores control programs locally or downloads them from a host system for
dynamic reconfiguration.
8. Signal Bus Control:
o Implements control through a signal bus and host system.
9. Condition Monitoring:
o Monitors condition for fault diagnosis, involving additional sensors, digital signal
processing, and data analysis software.
10. Communication via Serial Bus:
o Communicates with external systems through a serial bus.

Sketch the detailed functional block diagram of a smart sensor and explain the function of each

block.

Functional Block Diagram of a Sensor in Production Processes

The sensor functions in production processes involve various tasks which are essential for
maintaining quality, precision, and efficiency. The chart in Fig. below outlines these functions,
which include distance sensing, contour tracking, machine vision/pattern recognition, machine
diagnosis, and process parameter sensing. Here is a detailed functional block diagram of the
sensor functions, along with an explanation of each component:
 Fig:Functional Block diagram of smart sensor.

Explanation of Each Block

1. Distance Sensing:
o Function: Measures the distance between objects, which is crucial for avoiding
collisions between the tool and workpiece during operations. In some processes
like laser cutting, maintaining a constant distance is essential.
o Techniques:
 Tactile Sensors: Physical contact-based measurement.
 Electrical Sensors: Inductive and capacitive sensors.
 Optical Sensors: Use of IR, UV, visible, and laser radiations.
 Acoustic Sensors: Ultrasonic principles.
2. Contour Tracking:
o Function: Scans and tracks the contour of a surface to ensure precision in
machining and other operations.
o Techniques:
 Electrical Sensors: Inductive and capacitive sensors.
 Optical Sensors: Laser-based scanners.
3. Machine Vision/Pattern Recognition:
o Function: Uses imaging and pattern recognition to inspect, guide, and control
production processes.
o Techniques:
 Optical Systems: Binary vision, grey level vision, stereovision.
 Tactile Arrays and Ultrasonic Scanning: Supplementary techniques for
certain applications.
4. Machine Diagnosis:
o Function: Monitors and diagnoses machine conditions by measuring various
parameters to prevent failures and maintain efficiency.
o Parameters Measured:
 Pressure, Force, Torque, Speed (Linear and Rotational),
Temperature, Frequency.
5. Process Parameter Sensing:
o Function: Monitors and controls the key parameters in production processes
under different environmental conditions.
o Parameters Monitored:
 Temperature, Pressure, Flow, Humidity, etc.
Interfacing Sensors to host system.

This setup allows smart sensors to not only capture and process data but also to communicate and
integrate with broader systems, enhancing their utility in various applications.The figure below shows
interfacing sensors to host system.

Explanation of each block in the smart sensor system described:

1. Sensors:
o Function: Detect physical, chemical, or biological quantities and convert them
into electrical signals.
o Types: Examples include temperature sensors, pressure sensors, proximity
sensors, and accelerometers.
o Role in Smart Sensor: Serve as the primary element for capturing real-world
data that needs to be processed.
2. Analog Signal Processing Unit (ASPU):
o Components:
 Supply: Provides the necessary power to the sensor elements and
maintains a constant voltage or current.
 Amplification: Boosts the small electrical signals from the sensors to
levels suitable for further processing. This amplification is typically
analog but may be digitally controlled for precision.
 Filters: Removes unwanted noise from the sensor signals. Earlier systems
used analog filters, but modern systems employ digital filters for greater
accuracy and flexibility.
o Function: Ensures that the raw sensor signals are clean and strong enough for
conversion and processing.
3. Convertor:
o Types:
  Analog to Digital (A/D): Converts the cleaned and amplified analog
signals from the ASPU into digital form.
 Frequency to Digital (F/D): Converts frequency-based signals into digital
data.
o Function: Facilitates the transition from analog signals, which are susceptible to
noise and degradation, to digital signals, which are more robust and easier to
process by digital systems.
4. Microcontroller:
o Components: Includes a microprocessor, memory, and sometimes additional
peripherals.
o Function:
 Information Processing: Executes algorithms to analyze the digital data
from the converter, perform necessary computations, and make decisions.
 Control Operations: May control other system components based on the
processed data.
 Data Storage: Stores calibration data, processing algorithms, and the
processed sensor data.
o Role in Smart Sensor: Acts as the brain of the smart sensor, handling complex
processing tasks and enabling advanced functionalities such as auto-calibration
and self-diagnostics.
5. Bus Interface:
o Function: Facilitates communication between the microcontroller and external
systems (e.g., host computers, networks).
o Types: Can include various communication protocols like I2C, SPI, UART,
CAN, or other serial/parallel bus systems.
o Role in Smart Sensor: Ensures seamless data exchange between the smart sensor
and other devices, enabling integration into larger systems for monitoring,
control, or data analysis.
6. Host:
o Function: Represents an external system or computer that receives data from the
smart sensor, issues commands, and potentially further processes the data.
o Role in Smart Sensor System: Acts as a central point for data collection,
analysis, and decision-making beyond the capabilities of the individual sensor.
7. Power Supply:
o Function: Provides the necessary power to all components of the smart sensor
system.
o Role in Smart Sensor System: Ensures that the sensor, ASPU, converter,
microcontroller, and bus interface have a reliable power source to function
correctly.

 Primary Sensors: Sensors respond to external stimuli (e.g., strain, temperature, electric
fields) by changing the behavior of materials at the atomic or molecular level. The challenge is to
design materials that respond maximally to a specific stimulus while minimizing response to
other variables.
 Sensor Characteristics: Sensors are characterized by:

 Static: Behavior under constant conditions.

 Dynamic: Response to changing conditions.
 Reliability: Consistency and robustness.
 Response/Sensitivity: Ability to detect and measure stimuli accurately.

 Silicon-Based Sensors: Silicon is widely used due to its electrical behavior changes with
temperature, stress, and other factors. Silicon-based sensors include:

 Pressure Sensors: Utilize a silicon diaphragm with piezoresistors in a bridge circuit.

 Temperature Sensors: Include single transistor sensors and thermopiles.

 Thermoelectric Effect: Thermoelectric sensors operate based on the Seebeck effect, where a
temperature difference between two semiconductors generates a voltage. The Seebeck
coefficient as describes this effect, with dependencies on temperature, charge carrier density,
and other factors.

 Equations and Parameters:

 Seebeck Coefficient: The voltage generated ( ΔV\Delta VΔV ) is related to the Seebeck
coefficient asa_sas and temperature difference ( ΔT\Delta TΔT ).
 Temperature Effects: Silicon’s intrinsic behavior changes with temperature, affecting its
electrical properties.

 Integrated Sensors: Advances in micromachining and IC technology allow for the creation
of integrated sensors with built-in signal conditioning, improving accuracy and reliability.

7.3 Excitation

 Definition: Excitation refers to the supply of power required for the sensor and
processing units.
 Requirements:
o Thermocouples: No external excitation needed.
o Resistive Bridges: Require a stable power supply.
o Processing Units: May need AC or pulsed supplies for phase-sensitive detection.

7.4 Amplification

 Purpose: To boost the typically small output signal from sensors.

 Challenges: High gain can introduce noise, so a stage-wise approach with noise
compensation is critical.

7.5 Filters
  Types: Analog filters are commonly used because digital filters consume significant
processing power.
 Purpose: Filters are needed at conversion stages to manage signal quality.

7.6 Converters

 Role: Facilitate the interface between continuous (analog) and discrete (digital)
processing units.
 Types:
o Analog to Frequency: For easier transmission and digital conversion.
o Voltage-Controlled Oscillators: Used for converting voltage to frequency.

Key Components:

o Multivibrator: Converts analog voltage to frequency. The time period T and

frequency f of the square wave generated are given by:

o
o Ring Oscillator: Uses an odd number of cascaded logic gates. The frequency is
determined by the gate delays and number of stages. MOS technology can use
piezoresistance to alter frequency based on pressure.

Applications:

o Frequency to Digital Conversion: Direct digital converters (ADCs) can be used

if the sensor outputs a voltage. For sensors with frequency outputs, like ring
oscillators integrated with piezoresistive effects, frequency-to-digital conversion
is necessary.
o Examples:
 Capacitive/inductive sensors controlling oscillator frequencies.
 Photoresistances used in harmonic/relaxation oscillators.
 Quartz tuning forks as frequency standards.

Compensation in Smart Sensors

Compensation techniques in smart sensors are crucial for maintaining accuracy and reliability by
addressing various imperfections and environmental influences. These methods ensure that
sensors deliver precise and consistent readings despite potential sources of error.

Compensation addresses imperfections and environmental influences on sensor performance.

Key issues include:

1. Nonlinearity: The deviation of sensor output from a linear response.

 2. Noise: Unwanted signals or fluctuations that affect accuracy.
3. Response Time: Delay or sluggishness in sensor response.
4. Drift: Slow changes in sensor characteristics over time.
5. Cross Sensitivity: Response to unintended variables.
6. Interference: External signals or disturbances affecting sensor readings.

7.7.1 Nonlinearity

Nonlinearity can be compensated using various methods:

 Look-Up Table Method: Stores characteristic values in ROM and refers to these values
to correct nonlinearity. Requires significant memory.
 Polygon Interpolation: Divides the nonlinear range into linear sections for
approximation. Suitable for soft nonlinearity but not for hard nonlinearity.
 Polynomial Interpolation: Fits a polynomial to the sensor's characteristic curve using
measured points. Techniques include:
o Lagrange Interpolation: Polynomial fitting through selected points.
o Complementary Curves: Generate a complementary curve for linearization.
 Cubic Spline Interpolation: Uses cubic polynomials to fit sections of the characteristic
curve between reference points, ensuring smooth transitions and continuity in first and
second derivatives.

7.7.2 Noise and Interference

 Sources: Thermal noise, external magnetic fields, and interference from processing
stages.
 Minimization Techniques:
o Filtering: Removes unwanted frequencies.
o Signal Averaging: Reduces random noise.
o Correlation: Improves signal-to-noise ratio, especially for periodic signals.

7.7.3 Response Time

 Dynamic Correction: Uses algorithms to correct for delays or slow response times.
Techniques include:
o Deconvolution: Applies inverse operations to correct sensor output.
o Difference Equations: Used in digital systems for real-time correction.

7.7.4 Drift

 Causes: Ageing, oxidation, or other long-term changes in sensor materials.

 Correction: Re-evaluate interpolation coefficients regularly and update sensor
calibration.

7.7.5 Cross-Sensitivity
  Issue: Sensors may respond to unintended variables, such as temperature for non-thermal
sensors.
 Correction:
o Mathematical Models: Model the effect of interfering variables and correct
sensor readings.
o Structural Compensation: Design sensors to minimize cross-sensitivity through
differential or common mode responses.

Compensation Methods

1. Monitored Compensation: Adjusts sensor responses based on measured data to account

for interference.
2. Structural Compensation: Designs sensors with built-in features to reduce sensitivity to
interfering variables.
3. Tailored Compensation: Custom compensation for individual sensors based on their
specific performance.
4. Deductive Compensation: Uses model-based approaches when direct compensation is
not possible.

7.8 Information Coding/Processing

The process of information coding and processing in smart sensors ensures that the data is accurately
transformed from raw sensor readings into a digital format suitable for various applications, including
display, control, and further processing. The choice of encoding technique depends on the specific
requirements and conditions of the system.

In smart sensors, the processing and coding of information are crucial for accurate signal
transmission and interpretation. Here's an overview of the key concepts:

Information Coding System

Once sensor signals are processed to correct for errors such as drift, nonlinearity, and noise, they
need to be converted into a format suitable for display or further processing. This conversion is
handled by the information coding system. The key tasks include:

1. Encoding: Transforming processed signals into a digital format.

2. Storage and Transmission: Deciding whether signals are to be stored, transmitted, or
discarded.
3. Display: Providing information in a readable format for users or systems.

Display and Control

For display purposes, signals are often coded and shown on digital meters, indicators, and
recorders. This allows users to read and interpret the sensor data visually.
For control and surveillance applications, the sensor data must be encoded in a form that can be
used by control systems. The encoded data is then sent to the communication unit for integration
into a broader system.

Encoding Techniques

1. Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC):

o Voltage Range Encoding: Convert the analog signal into a digital signal by
mapping the voltage range into corresponding digital values. This digital output is
used for further processing or display.
o 4-20 mA Output: Traditional method where the signal is converted to a current
range of 4-20 mA for analog transmission. In some cases, this current signal is
then converted to a voltage range and encoded into a digital signal.
2. Voltage-to-Frequency Conversion:
o Frequency Encoding: The analog voltage is converted into a frequency signal
using a voltage-to-frequency converter. The frequency is then encoded, which can
be more efficient for certain types of communication.
3. Mark-to-Space Ratio Control:
o Square Wave Coding: Adjust the mark-to-space ratio of a square wave to encode
information. This method is less commonly used but can be employed based on
specific requirements.

Example

Fig. 7.15: A Typical IC-Temperature Based Smart Sensor

 Components: LCD display, reference source, temperature sensor, microprocessor or

microcontroller, voltage-to-frequency (V/F) converter.
 Operation: The temperature sensor measures temperature and converts it to a
corresponding voltage. This voltage is then converted to a frequency signal using the V/F
converter. The frequency is encoded and displayed on an LCD or used for further system

.
7.9 Data Communication

Data communication in smart sensors and transmitters is crucial for transmitting sensor outputs
to a host system via a bus system. This section details the key aspects of data communication,
protocols, and hardware requirements.

It looks like you’re describing a typical transmitter setup with HART protocol and mentioning
other advanced communication protocols. Here’s a brief overview of the components and their
roles based on your description:

Typical Transmitter with HART Protocol

Components and Functions:

1. Sensors: Measure the physical quantity (e.g., temperature, pressure) and convert it into
an electrical signal.
2. Signal Conditioning: Processes the raw signal from the sensors to correct, filter, or
amplify it to a suitable level.
3. DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter): Converts digital signals from the microprocessor
into an analog signal that can be transmitted.
4. 4-20 mA Output: Standard output for analog signals in industrial sensors, representing
the measured quantity over a current loop.
5. Microprocessor: Manages the sensor data processing, communication protocols, and
overall system control.
6. Isolators: Provide electrical isolation between different sections of the transmitter to
protect against interference and ensure safety.
 7. Serial Data Interface: Handles communication between the transmitter and other
devices or systems using serial communication protocols.

Protocols:

 HART Protocol: Superimposes a digital signal onto the 4-20 mA analog output,
allowing for digital communication and configuration over the same wiring.
 HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control): A bit-oriented protocol for reliable data
transfer across networks, used in various communication applications.
 SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control): Similar to HDLC but with specific framing
and error handling methods, also used in network communication.
 FIP (Factory Instrumentation Protocol): Designed for factory automation and
instrumentation, enabling communication in industrial environments.

Schematic Representation:

The schematic diagram for such a transmitter would typically show:

 Sensors connected to a Signal Conditioning module.

 The conditioned signal being converted to a digital format by the DAC.
 The Microprocessor managing the signal and communication.
 The 4-20 mA Output for analog transmission and a Serial Data Interface for digital
communication.
 Isolators to ensure signal integrity and safety.

This setup ensures that the transmitter can communicate effectively with control systems, display
devices, and other components using the chosen communication protocol.

Connection and Hardware

1. Multiloop Bus:
o Basic Setup: Devices connected in parallel, with the twisted pair converting to a
multiloop bus. Limited to 15 devices due to current and bus specifications.
o Power Source: Provides a maximum of 60 mA to power all devices.
2. Hardware Requirements:
o Microprocessor-Based Field Devices: These devices are equipped with various
components to handle communication, signal processing, and control tasks.
3. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs):
o Usage: ASICs are increasingly used for internal operations of smart sensors,
enhancing their design and capabilities by providing customizable and integrated
solutions

Standards for Smart Sensor Interface

The IEEE 1451 series of standards are designed to ensure interoperability and interchangeability
of smart sensors and their interfaces across different networks and systems. Here's a breakdown
of the key standards:

IEEE 1451 Overview

1. IEEE P 1451.1:
o Purpose: Defines a common object model and software interface specifications
for smart transducers.
o Components:
 Transducer Block Interface: Details hardware implementation and
provides a programming model similar to an I/O driver.
 NCAP Block Interface: Deals with network protocol implementation
schemes.
o Goal: To enable network-capable applications and facilitate communication
between transducers and networked systems.
2. IEEE P 1451.2:
o Purpose: Establishes communication protocols and formats for transducers to
interact with microprocessors.
o Components:
 Transducer Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS): Standardizes data format for
transducers.
 Digital Interface and Communication Protocols: Define how
transducers communicate with microprocessors.
3. IEEE P 1451.3:
o Purpose: Provides standards for distributed multiloop systems.
o Components:
 Digital Communication and TEDS Formats: Standardize
communication between multiple, physically isolated transducers in a
multidrop configuration.
4. IEEE P 1451.4:
o Purpose: Develops standards for mixed-mode communication and TEDS
formats.
o Components:
 Bidirectional Communication: Facilitates digital TEDS communication
in both directions.
 Mixed Mode Interface: Supports communication with transducers that
use both analog and digital signals.

Communication Schemes

 NCAP (Network Capable Application Processor): Manages the smart transducer's

network communication and interfaces with network protocols.
 TEDS (Transducer Electronic Data Sheet): Contains the sensor’s metadata, calibration
data, and other information required for its operation and communication.
Figures for Illustration

 Figure 7.17: Illustrates a basic multiloop connection, showing how multiple devices can
be connected in parallel.


 Figure 7.18: Demonstrates the hardware requirements for an intelligent field device,
including components like modems, data buses, and communication interfaces.

These standards aim to provide a standardized approach to integrating and communicating with
smart sensors, improving system compatibility and simplifying the deployment of sensor
networks.
Smart sensor Applications

Automation and Smart Sensors

1. Concept of Smart Sensors

Concept: Smart sensors are advanced sensors equipped with processing capabilities that can
perform tasks such as signal conditioning, calibration, and communication. They not only
measure physical quantities but also process and transmit data with minimal external
intervention.

Essential Elements:

 Sensor Element: Measures physical parameters (temperature, pressure, etc.).

 Signal Processing Unit: Converts and processes the raw signal.
 Communication Interface: Transmits processed data to other systems or displays.
 Microcontroller/Microprocessor: Manages sensor operations, data processing, and
communication.

Diagram:

Distributed Control Structure

1. Supervisory Minicomputer:

 Function: Acts as the central control unit for overseeing and managing the entire system.
It aggregates data from various local controllers and provides higher-level control and
monitoring.

2. Operator Console:
  Function: Provides a user interface for operators to interact with the control system.
Operators use this console to monitor system status, issue commands, and respond to
alerts.

3. Hardwired Alarms:

 Function: Physical alarms connected directly to the system for immediate alerting of
critical conditions. They provide a basic level of safety by signaling when parameters
exceed predefined limits.

4. Multiplexer:

 Function: Used to combine multiple signals into one data stream for transmission. This
helps in managing and reducing the number of communication lines needed.

5. Local Controllers (Autonomous):

 Function: Controllers located at various points in the plant that manage specific
processes or equipment. They operate autonomously to perform local control tasks and
report back to the supervisory system.

6. Interface:

 Function: Connects different parts of the control system, such as local controllers,
sensors, and actuators. It facilitates communication and integration between various
components.

7. Plant Interface:

 Function: Connects the control system to the actual plant equipment. This includes
interfaces for sensors, actuators, and other devices that directly interact with the physical
processes.

Diagrams
(a) Instruments and Actuators Star-Connected to Junction Box (JB):

(b) Intelligent Instrumentation and Actuators Linked by a Field Bus System:

Evolution in Manufacturing and Automation

 .

System Representation:

 Formula:


o Negative Feedback: Traditional control method where the system adjusts itself
based on deviations from a set point.
o Integrated Low Cost: Achieved through advancements in semiconductor

 Modern automation integrates advancements in instrumentation, programmability, and

communication, driven by the capabilities of semiconductor technology. This integration
has led to more cost-effective and flexible manufacturing systems, with standardized
protocols like the IEC(IEC stands for the International Electrotechnical Commission)
field bus enhancing efficiency and connectivity across different automation applications.
 By focusing on these integrated technologies and standards, manufacturing and process
automation can achieve greater efficiency, adaptability, and compliance with regulatory
requirements.

On-Board Automobile Sensors (Automotive Sensors): Automotive sensors are designed to

handle extreme conditions such as vibrations, dust, temperature variations, and electromagnetic
interference. Key considerations for these sensors include environment, reliability, cost, and
innovation.

1. Flow-Rate Sensors:
 o Conventional Engines: Traditionally, flow-rate sensors were not needed for
carburettor engines, as the air-to-fuel ratio adjusts automatically.
o Electronic Fuel Injection Engines: Flow-rate sensors become essential,
measuring air volume based on engine revolution and intake pressure.
o Types of Flow Sensors:
 Ultrasonic Flowmeters: Measure flow rate by comparing sound speeds
upstream and downstream, though their success is limited by flow rate
changes and temperature.
 Microsensors: Solid-state sensors using semiconducting technology and
micromachining are increasingly used for sensing air and fuel flows.
2. Pressure Sensors:
o Applications: Measurement of intake manifold, engine oil, brake oil, and tire
pressures.
o Types:
 Traditional Devices: Diaphragms, bellows with strain gauges, LVDTs,
and capacitive elements.
 Advanced Devices: Semiconductor capacitive and SAW devices; these
use changes in crystal oscillator frequency or PZT types.
 Example: A semiconductor pressure sensor with an etched diaphragm and
silicon wafer, showing integrated amplification and calibration.
3. Temperature Sensors:
o Types: Various sensors are used based on the temperature range and application,
such as engine coolant, exhaust gases, and interior temperatures.
 Bimetallic Elements: Used as thermorelays for temperatures ranging
from –40°C to 140°C.
 Thermistors: Negative temperature coefficient thermistors are used for
coolant and oil.
 RTDs: Platinum resistance thermometers are preferred for cylinder heads.
 Quartz Sensors: Used for temperatures up to 140°C with high accuracy.
 Thermocouples: Used for exhaust gas temperatures up to 1200°C.
4. Oxygen Sensors:
o Importance: Essential for monitoring exhaust emissions and improving fuel
efficiency.
o Types:
 Zirconia and Titania Sensors: Traditional for air-to-fuel ratio detection.
 Niobium Oxide Sensors: Newer with potentially better performance.
 Design Variations: Limiting current sensors with designs to control
oxygen diffusion, such as pinhole or porous layer designs.
The operation of an RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is based on the principle that the
electrical resistance of a metal changes with temperature. Here’s how it works:

1. Sensing Element: The core of an RTD is typically a thin wire or film of pure platinum,
which is chosen for its stable and predictable resistance-temperature relationship.
Platinum is used because its resistance changes in a nearly linear fashion with
temperature, allowing for precise measurements.
2. Construction: The platinum wire or film is wound around a ceramic core (like Al2O3) or
deposited onto a ceramic substrate. This construction helps protect the sensitive platinum
element from physical damage and ensures accurate thermal conductivity.
3. Electrical Resistance Measurement: The RTD is connected to a measuring device via
terminals. An electrical current is passed through the platinum wire, and the resulting
voltage drop is measured. As the temperature changes, the resistance of the platinum wire
changes proportionally.
4. Resistance-Temperature Relationship: The resistance of the platinum wire increases
with temperature according to a well-defined relationship. For platinum, this is typically
described by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation, which provides a mathematical model of
how resistance varies with temperature.
5. Calibration and Output: The measured resistance is then converted into a temperature
reading using calibration data. The RTD can be integrated into a system that converts this
temperature information into a readable format or directly into a control system for
temperature regulation.
6. Temperature Compensation: To ensure accuracy, RTDs are often designed with built-
in compensation for factors like lead wire resistance and temperature drift.

Quartz Temperature Sensors

Quartz temperature sensors use the property of quartz crystals to measure temperature. The key
principles and components involved are:
 1. Quartz Crystal: Quartz crystals are chosen for their predictable and stable frequency
response to temperature changes. As temperature varies, the frequency at which the
quartz crystal oscillates changes correspondingly.
2. Hybrid Circuit: The sensor integrates a quartz crystal with an electronic processing unit
on a ceramic hybrid system. This hybrid circuit often includes amplification, signal
processing, and calibration components to convert the frequency changes into
temperature readings.
3. Heat Conducting Glue: To ensure accurate temperature measurements, the quartz
crystal is bonded to the ceramic substrate with heat-conducting glue. This glue helps in
effectively transferring heat from the environment to the sensor, improving response time
and accuracy.
4. Electronic Processing Unit: This unit is responsible for converting the frequency
changes from the quartz crystal into a temperature value. It processes the signal to
account for any noise or inaccuracies, and can be adjusted using laser trimming for
precision calibration.
5. Operation: As the temperature changes, the resonance frequency of the quartz crystal
shifts. The electronic processing unit detects this frequency change and translates it into a
temperature reading.
6. Accuracy: Quartz temperature sensors offer high accuracy, often within ±1°C, which is
suitable for applications requiring precise temperature monitoring, such as in automotive
coolant, engine oil, and air temperature measurements.

Schematic Overview: The schematic typically includes:

 Quartz Crystal: Central component that responds to temperature changes.

 Hybrid Circuit: Incorporates the quartz crystal and additional electronic components.
 Heat Conducting Glue: Ensures efficient thermal transfer to the quartz crystal.
Applications: These sensors are well-suited for environments where high accuracy and stability
are critical, such as monitoring temperatures in automotive systems and other industrial
applications.

Automobile Sensors

Automotive on-board sensors are designed to meet the demanding conditions of

the vehicle environment, such as vibration, dust, electrical noise, extreme
temperature variations, water, oil, and mud. The key characteristics for these
sensors are environment, reliability, cost, and the need for innovative designs.

General Considerations:

• 1. Environment: Sensors must withstand extreme temperatures (-40°C to

150°C) and high vibrational acceleration (3g-30g), as well as exposure to
water, oil, mud, and electromagnetic interference.
• 2. Reliability: Sensors should maintain accuracy and performance over at
least ten years to ensure vehicle safety and functionality.
• 3. Cost: While reducing costs is important, it should not compromise safety
and accuracy.
• 4. Innovation: Sensors need to be designed innovatively to handle the
specific conditions of automotive applications.

• 1. Engine Control
• 2. Manoeuvering Control
• 3. Room and Operational Comfort Control
• 4. Safety and Reliability
• 5. Fuel Consumption Control

Flow rate control

• Use: Primarily for engines with electronic fuel injection to estimate air
volume input based on engine revolutions and intake pressure.
• Examples:
• - Ultrasonic Flowmeters: Measure flow-rate by comparing speeds of sound
upstream and downstream.
 • - Microsensors: Solid-state sensors using semiconducting technology. A
heating element (transistor or semiconductor resistance bridge) is used to
measure air and fuel flows.

Pressure Sensors

• Use: Measure pressures in the intake manifold, engine oil, brake oil, tires,
and cabin atmosphere.
• Technologies:
• - Conventional: Diaphragms, bellows, strain gauges, LVDT, capacitive
elements.
• - Semiconductor Devices: Capacitive devices and Surface Acoustic Wave
(SAW) devices.
• - MEMS: Silicon-based sensors with internal amplification, calibration,
and temperature compensation.
• - Negative Pressure Sensing: Uses silicon diaphragm chips for intake
manifold pressure sensing.

Temperature Sensors

• Use: Measure temperatures in engine coolant, oil basin, gear box, exhaust
gas, and cabin.
• Technologies:
• - Bimetal Elements: Used for thermorelays in engine coolant and oil.
• - Thermistors: Negative temperature coefficient thermistors for analog
signal output.
• - RTDs(RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS): Platinum
resistance for cylinder head temperatures.
• - Quartz Sensors: Used for coolant, oil, and air temperature
measurements.
• - Thermocouples: Ni-Cr/Ni thermocouples for exhaust gas temperature
sensing up to 1200°C.

Oxygen Sensors

• Use: Measure oxygen levels in exhaust gases and inside the automobile.
• Technologies:
• - Zirconia and Titania Sensors: Measure air-to-fuel ratios.
 • - Niobium Oxide Sensors: Recently introduced with better performance.
• - Designs: Various designs limiting diffusion rate using pinholes or porous
layers, often incorporating a heater for optimal operation temperature
(610-700°C).

Torque and Position sensors

• Torque Sensors: Measure torque generated in the engine and distributed

to wheels through the power train. Non-contact sensors (magnetoresistive
effect) are preferred for their precision and adaptability.
• Position Sensors: Detect shaft position, engine speed, throttle position, etc.
Non-contact sensors like Hall effect, magnetoresistive, ferromagnetic,
electromagnetic pick-up, optical modular devices, and capacitive devices
are used.

9.4 Aerospace Sensors

Sensors used in aerospace applications must endure a wide range of physical conditions, such as
varying air density, fluid flow temperatures, and environmental factors like rain and ice. The
essential parameters to be monitored include pressure, flow and flow direction, temperature,
aircraft speed, fluid velocity, strain, thrust, force, and acceleration. Although the sensors
themselves are not unique, their installation, data acquisition, and processing are crucial.

9.4.1 Static Pressure Sensors

Static pressure sensors monitor altitude and the vertical speed of aircraft. Probes, such as Pitot
tubes, are used to measure static (ps) and total pressure (pt), with proper alignment being critical.
The differences between actual static pressure (ps) and indicated static pressure (psi) are
corrected using Mach number versus psi/pti and psi/ps curves.

9.4.2 Temperature Sensing

Static temperature (Ts) is needed to establish acoustic speed and gas velocity, while total
temperature (Tt) is acquired if the gas is isentropically stagnated. Probes like RTDs and
thermocouples are used to measure these temperatures. High-temperature measurements use
Type K, B, R, or S thermocouples, while optical methods such as absorption-emission methods
or spectral scanning are used for very high temperatures. For cryogenic temperatures, metallic
resistance thermometers are utilized.

9.4.3 Fluid Velocity Sensors

Fluid velocity sensors measure local linear velocity and bulk flow-rate. Devices such as Pitot
tubes, hot wire anemometers, and laser Doppler velocimeters (LDV) are used for local velocities,
while orifice-type sensors measure bulk flow-rates by creating differential pressure at two points
along a flow path.
9.4.4 Sensing Direction of Air-flow

Determining air-flow direction is essential for aerospace applications. Probes with holes on
inclined surfaces measure the difference in pressures to determine the angles of pitch and yaw.
Various designs exist, but the principle remains the same.

9.4.5 Measuring Air-speed on Aircrafts

Air-speed is calculated using measurements of total pressure (pt), temperature (Tt), and static
pressure (ps) combined with ideal gas equations. Deviations at high Mach numbers due to
changes in specific heats, time lags in equilibrium, and molecular ionization require corrections.

9.4.6 Monitoring Strain, Force, Thrust, and Acceleration

Monitoring strain, force, thrust, and acceleration is vital for aerospace research and safety. Strain
gauges and load cells measure these parameters, with careful placement and temperature
compensation being necessary. Engine thrust is measured dynamically, while acceleration is
monitored using standard seismic devices, often positioned near the aircraft's center of gravity or
main spar.

In aircraft, temperature is measured at various critical points to ensure safe operation, optimize
performance, and maintain comfort for passengers and crew. Here are some key areas where
temperature measurement is essential:

1. Engine Monitoring:
o Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT): Monitors the temperature of gases leaving
the engine to optimize fuel efficiency and prevent overheating.
o Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT): Measures the temperature of air entering the
turbine to ensure engine performance and longevity.
o Oil Temperature: Monitors the temperature of engine oil to ensure proper
lubrication and prevent overheating of engine components.
2. Environmental Control Systems (ECS):
o Cabin Temperature: Sensors monitor cabin temperature to ensure passenger
comfort.
o Environmental Sensors: Measure external temperatures and conditions to
manage aircraft systems and ensure safe operation.
3. Avionics and Electronics:
o Avionics Cooling: Sensors monitor temperatures in avionics bays to ensure
electronics operate within safe temperature ranges.
o Battery Temperature: Monitors battery temperature to prevent overheating and
ensure optimal performance.
4. Hydraulic Systems:
o Hydraulic Fluid Temperature: Monitors temperature to ensure proper viscosity
and prevent system failures.
5. Structural Monitoring:
 o Composite Materials: Sensors monitor temperatures in composite materials to
prevent delamination and ensure structural integrity.
6. Flight Instruments:
o Air Temperature: Measures external air temperature for accurate altitude and
airspeed calculations.
7. De-icing Systems:
o Surface Temperature: Sensors monitor wing and tail surface temperatures to
detect icing conditions and activate de-icing systems.
8. Fuel Systems:
o Fuel Temperature: Monitors fuel temperature to prevent fuel freezing and ensure
proper combustion in engines.

Temperature sensors used in aircraft must be highly accurate, reliable, and capable of operating
in extreme environmental conditions encountered during flight, including high altitudes, varying
air pressures, and temperature extremes. These sensors play a critical role in ensuring the safety,
efficiency, and comfort of aircraft operations.

Fluid velocity sensors play a crucial role in aircraft for monitoring and controlling airflow, which
is essential for several reasons:

1. Aerodynamic Performance:
o Pitot Tubes: Measure local airspeed, crucial for determining aircraft speed
relative to the surrounding air (indicated airspeed).
o Total Air Temperature (TAT) Probes: Measure total temperature for accurate
airspeed calculations and performance monitoring.
2. Engine Performance:
o Mass Airflow Sensors: Monitor airflow into engines to optimize fuel-to-air ratio,
ensuring efficient combustion and engine performance.
o Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) Sensors: Monitor air temperature entering the
turbine for engine performance and health monitoring.
3. Environmental Conditions:
o Environmental Control Systems: Measure airflow for cabin pressurization and
temperature control to maintain passenger comfort.
4. Safety and Navigation:
o Angle of Attack Sensors: Measure the angle between the aircraft's longitudinal
axis and the relative airflow to prevent stalling and enhance flight safety.
o Wind Speed and Direction Sensors: Provide real-time data on wind conditions
for accurate navigation and flight planning.
5. Research and Development:
o Used in aerodynamic research to study airflow patterns and optimize aircraft
design for efficiency and performance.

These sensors are critical for ensuring safe and efficient flight operations, providing pilots and
engineers with essential data to monitor and control various aspects of aircraft performance and
environmental conditions. They help maintain optimal aerodynamic performance, engine
efficiency, and passenger comfort throughout all phases of flight.
aircraft and aerospace applications, cone or wedge type probes with pressure taps are used to
determine the direction and characteristics of airflow. Here’s how they work and their uses:

Cone or Wedge Type Probes with Pressure Taps

1. Design and Functionality:

o Probe Shape: Typically cone-shaped or wedge-shaped with pressure taps
positioned strategically on the surface.
o Pressure Taps: These are small openings on the probe's surface that allow air
pressure to be measured at different points.
2. Measurement Principle:
o Differential Pressure: By comparing the pressures measured at different taps, the
probe can determine the direction and magnitude of the airflow relative to the
probe’s axis.
o Pitch and Yaw Angles: Pitch (up-down) and yaw (side-to-side) angles of the
airflow can be calculated based on the differential pressures sensed at the pressure
taps.
3. Applications:
o Flight Dynamics: Used to measure angles of attack (AOA), which is the angle
between the aircraft’s longitudinal axis and the direction of the airflow.
o Aerodynamic Testing: Essential in wind tunnel testing and flight testing to
analyze the aerodynamic behavior of the aircraft and optimize its design.
o Navigation and Control: Provides critical data for autopilot systems and flight
control surfaces to maintain stability and control during flight.
4. Accuracy and Calibration:
o Precise calibration of the pressure taps and understanding of the probe’s
aerodynamic characteristics are crucial for accurate measurement of pitch and
yaw angles.
o Factors such as probe geometry, surface roughness, and alignment of pressure
taps affect the accuracy of airflow direction measurement.

Importance in Aircraft Operations

 Safety: Accurate measurement of airflow direction helps pilots avoid stalling and ensures
safe flight operations, especially during critical maneuvers.
 Performance Optimization: Enables engineers to optimize aircraft design for improved
aerodynamic efficiency and stability.
 Navigation: Provides real-time data on airflow conditions, contributing to accurate
navigation and flight planning.

In summary, cone or wedge type probes with pressure taps are integral to measuring pitch and
yaw angles based on differential pressure, making them essential for ensuring safe and efficient
aircraft operations, aerodynamic research, and flight testing.

Monitoring Strain, Force, Thrust, and Acceleration

 1. Strain: Monitoring strain involves measuring the deformation or elongation of structural
components under load to ensure they remain within safe operational limits.
2. Force: Monitoring force allows for the measurement of external loads applied to aircraft
structures, critical for assessing structural integrity and durability.
3. Thrust: Monitoring thrust involves measuring the propulsive force generated by engines,
crucial for determining engine performance and efficiency.
4. Acceleration: Monitoring acceleration tracks changes in velocity over time, essential for
flight dynamics, navigation, and ensuring passenger comfort in aircraft.

Sensors in Manufacturing

In manufacturing, sensors are crucial for controlling automated processes and ensuring quality
control through computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Sensors perform various functions
such as distance sensing, contour tracking, machine vision/pattern recognition, machine
diagnosis, and monitoring process parameters.Functional block digram of sensor is shown in
figure

1. Distance Sensing: Ensures accurate spacing between tools and workpieces, preventing
collisions and maintaining precision in operations like laser cutting. Sensors can be
tactile, electrical (inductive and capacitive), optical, or acoustic.
2. Contour Tracking: Involves scanning the workpiece using inductive, capacitive, or
laser-based optical sensors to follow the contour of the object.
3. Machine Vision/Pattern Recognition: Utilizes video cameras and image processing
techniques to scan objects and recognize patterns, aiding in quality control and robotic
actions.
4. Machine Diagnosis: Involves measuring parameters like pressure, force, torque, speed,
temperature, and electrical variables to diagnose the machine's health and performance.
5. Process Parameters: Monitoring environmental conditions and specific operational
parameters to maintain the desired quality and efficiency in production processes.

Detailed Sensor Functions

  Distance Sensing: Contact sensors (e.g., pins, gauge blocks, dial gauges) and non-contact
sensors (e.g., inductive, capacitive, acoustic, optical) measure the distance between tools
and workpieces.
 Contour Tracking: Uses inductive, capacitive, or laser-based optical sensors to scan the
object's contour and track its profile.
 Machine Vision/Pattern Recognition: Employs tactile arrays, ultrasonic scanning, and
optical systems for visual inspection and pattern recognition.
 Machine Diagnosis: Sensors measure various parameters like force, torque, speed,
temperature, and noise to diagnose and monitor machine health.
 Process Parameters: Sensors measure operational parameters under different
environmental conditions to ensure process control and quality.

Example Sensors

1. Inductive Proximity Sensor: Measures distance using inductive coils to detect changes
in magnetic fields caused by the proximity of metallic objects.
2. Ultrasonic Distance Sensor: Measures distance based on the time delay between emitted
and reflected ultrasonic pulses.
3. Optoelectronic Distance Sensor: Uses laser beams and photodiodes to measure distance
and angle of approach via optical triangulation.

Importance of Sensors in Manufacturing

 Automation: Sensors enable automation of processes, enhancing efficiency and

consistency.
 Quality Control: Ensures products meet specifications by monitoring and adjusting
processes.
 Safety: Prevents collisions and equipment damage by accurately measuring distances and
positions.
 Process Optimization: Provides data for optimizing manufacturing processes and
improving productivity.

Sensors for home automation.

Homes are increasingly moving towards automation, necessitating the development of new
sensors alongside existing ones. This development is already in progress. Home automation
focuses on three main categories: (i) house control, (ii) energy control/optimization, and (iii)
home security. Here’s a block schematic of a home automation system with various sensors and
some examples for each component:
1. Main Controller: The central unit that manages the overall system.
o Example: A smart home hub like Amazon Echo or Google Nest Hub that
coordinates various devices and sensors.
2. Secondary Controllers: Additional controllers that manage specific areas or functions.
o Example: A secondary controller for a specific room or area, such as a bedroom
or living room, that controls lights, temperature, and security for that space.
3. Air Conditioners: Controlled for maintaining the desired indoor climate.
o Example: Smart thermostats like the Nest Thermostat that learn user preferences
and optimize temperature settings for comfort and energy efficiency.
4. Current Sensors: Monitor and manage electrical usage.
o Example: Smart plugs with energy monitoring capabilities that track the power
consumption of connected devices and can turn them off when not in use.
5. Light Control: Automates lighting based on occupancy, time of day, or user preferences.
o Example: Philips Hue smart bulbs that can be scheduled, dimmed, or changed in
color via a smartphone app or voice command.
 6. Smoke Control: Detects smoke and triggers alarms and ventilation systems.
o Example: Nest Protect smoke and carbon monoxide detector that sends alerts to
your phone and can work with smart ventilation systems to clear smoke.
7. Ventilation: Manages airflow and air quality within the home.
o Example: Smart ventilation systems like the Ecovent that adjust airflow in
different rooms to maintain optimal air quality and comfort.
8. Security: Includes sensors for intrusion detection, surveillance cameras, and alarm
systems.
o Example: Ring Video Doorbell and security cameras that provide real-time video
feeds and alert users to any suspicious activity.
9. Gas Sensors: Detects gas leaks and alerts occupants or triggers shutoff mechanisms.
o Example: Natural gas detectors that send alerts and can be integrated with smart
shutoff valves to prevent gas leaks from causing harm.
10. Thermal/Electrical Keys: Manage heating and electrical systems.
o Example: Smart thermostats and circuit breakers that can be controlled remotely
to optimize heating and electrical use.
11. Bathroom Automation: Controls various aspects like water temperature, lighting, and
ventilation.
o Example: Smart shower systems that allow users to set their preferred water
temperature and flow rate from a smartphone app.
12. Earthquake Protection: Sensors that detect seismic activity and initiate safety protocols.
o Example: Seismic sensors that automatically shut off gas lines and open garage
doors in the event of an earthquake.
13. Air Adaptors: Regulate air quality and manage air purification systems.
o Example: Air purifiers with smart sensors that detect pollutants and adjust their
operation accordingly, such as the Dyson Pure Cool.
14. Lighting (Secondary): Additional lighting controls for specific areas or tasks.
o Example: Motion sensor lights in hallways or closets that turn on when movement
is detected and turn off after a set period.

SENSORS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

The entire living world is now at risk due to hazards arising from biological, chemical, and
radiation effects on the environment, which can spread globally through transportation. These
hazards pose serious environmental problems and require the measurement of selective
parameters to assess their impact on human and other living entities. Environmental monitoring
involves several steps beyond simple temperature measurements. Pollutants must be identified,
and their concentrations in specific samples need to be determined. The spread of these hazards
occurs primarily through the atmosphere, surface water, and groundwater, affecting normal
health activities through various pathways, including atmospheric pollutants, surface water
contamination, groundwater pollution, sediment deposits, and food contamination.

Monitoring environmental pollution involves three main steps: (i) the collection of samples
representative of environmental pollution content, (ii) the pre-treatment of samples through
extraction and separation, and (iii) the analysis for identification and quantification of pollutants
in the samples, expressed in proper concentration levels. Sampling, which includes both
collection and preparation, is crucial and varies depending on the time and situation. Analysis
techniques also differ based on the sample type. The sensors and instrumentation in analyzers
must match the characteristics of the pollutants and their sources to ensure accurate monitoring
and assessment. The manner in which these hazards affect human/living being can be given by simple
chart as shown

Explanation of Each Block

1. Atmospheric Pollutants:
o Explanation: Pollutants released into the air from sources such as factories,
vehicles, and agricultural activities. These can include gases like carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and volatile organic
compounds.
o Impact: They contribute to air pollution, which can lead to respiratory issues,
cardiovascular diseases, and other health problems in humans. They also affect
climate change and harm ecosystems.
2. Surface Water:
o Explanation: Contaminants that enter rivers, lakes, and oceans from industrial
discharge, agricultural runoff, sewage, and urban runoff.
o Impact: Polluted surface water can harm aquatic life, disrupt ecosystems, and
make water unsafe for drinking, recreation, and irrigation. It can also lead to the
accumulation of toxins in fish and other marine organisms.
3. Accumulation in Food Items:
o Explanation: Pollutants that enter the food chain through contaminated soil,
water, and air, leading to the presence of harmful substances in crops, livestock,
and seafood.
o Impact: Consuming contaminated food can lead to serious health issues such as
poisoning, cancer, and developmental problems. It also affects food safety and
security.
4. Individual Exposure:
o Explanation: Direct contact with pollutants through inhalation, ingestion, or skin
absorption. This includes exposure to contaminated air, water, food, and soil.
 o Impact: Individual exposure can result in acute or chronic health effects,
depending on the level and duration of exposure. It can cause respiratory,
cardiovascular, neurological, and other systemic health issues.
5. Sediment Deposits:
o Explanation: Pollutants that settle in the sediments of water bodies, including
rivers, lakes, and oceans. These can come from industrial discharge, agricultural
runoff, and urban runoff.
o Impact: Sediment pollution affects the health of aquatic organisms, disrupts
habitats, and can release contaminants back into the water column under certain
conditions. It also poses risks to human health through the food chain and water
use.
6. Groundwater:
o Explanation: Contaminants that seep into underground water sources from
landfills, agricultural activities, septic systems, and industrial operations.
o Impact: Polluted groundwater affects drinking water supplies, posing health risks
such as poisoning and long-term illnesses. It is challenging to clean up and can
have lasting impacts on water quality and availability.
7. Affecting Normal Health Activity:
o Explanation: The overall impact of environmental pollutants on the health and
well-being of humans and other living organisms.
o Impact: Continuous exposure to pollutants can lead to a decline in public health,
increased healthcare costs, reduced quality of life, and ecosystem degradation. It
can affect normal physiological functions and increase the prevalence of diseases.

 Pollution Hazards:

 Biological Effects: Hazards affect biological wastes like urine, stool, breath, and blood.
Analyzing these can reveal toxic levels of pollutants.
 Chemical Analysis: Detects toxic levels of chemicals (e.g., lead in blood, creatinine in
urine) using standard chemical or spectroscopic techniques.
 Radiation Hazards: Include ionizing (alpha, beta particles, X-rays, gamma-rays) and
non-ionizing radiation (infrared, ultraviolet, microwaves, ELF). Both types can cause
various health issues.

 Sensing Environmental Pollution:

 Ionizing Radiation: Detected by different sensors depending on the radiation type—

alpha particles with ionization counters, beta particles with Geiger counters, and gamma-
rays/X-rays with scintillators.
 Non-Ionizing Radiation: Sensed using thermopiles, bolometers, diodes, and
photoconductors.
 Biological Pollutants: Challenging to detect; traditional methods include culture and
microscopy, but immunoassays with microsensors are becoming more common.

 Ecological Studies of Air:

  Air Pollutants: Include gases (CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, etc.) and particulates.
 Sensing Techniques: Vary by pollutant and include chemical reactions, electrochemical
methods, flame ionization, photoionization, and spectrophotometry.
 Elemental Analysis: Techniques like inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
spectroscopy and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy are used for detecting
metal pollutants.

Previous paper Questions

1.Discuss various sources of pollution hazards and their impacts? Explain how sensing of
environmental pollution is performed?

2.Explain working of oxygen sensors in Automobile systems

3.What are steps involved in monitoring environmental pollution?

4.Where is sensing majorly performed in Automobile system? 2M

5.What are the steps involved in monitoring environmental pollution.2M

6.a)Explain the functional block diagram of Smart Sensor in detail. 5M

(b) Briefly discuss the sensors used for Home Appliance.5M

7. Explain the working of oxygen and temperature sensor.5M