LIFE AND FAITH OF THE PEOPLE OF GOD

1. Mark:-
a) Discipleship and the Way motif: Discipleship, in the context of the Gospels, refers to the
whole Christian experience that can be identified from the relationship between Jesus and his
disciples. It is the teaching on the meaning of Christianity in terms of the life and experiences of
Jesus and his disciples.
In Mark, the most important theme that distinguishes him is the emphasis on servant hood.
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, can only be understood and accepted as the suffering Son of Man at
the Cross. This is explained in 8:31-33; 9:30-32; 10:32-34. Thus if the disciples were to follow
him, they must embrace the essence of discipleship as servanthood, as Jesus himself announced in
10:45 “For the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve.” And this was announced in the
context of James and John expressing their desire for glory.
8:27; 9:33,34; 10:1, 17, 32. This motif portrays Jesus as moving towards the goal set for him
by God.
b) Passion, Death and Resurrection: Passion narrative is the narrative of Jesus’ suffering and
death. All the three Gospels dedicate a significant stretch of their whole narrative for this section.
This is true specially for Mark. Scholar Martin Kahler says that Mark is a passion narrative with a
long introduction! In any case, for Mark, the suffering of Jesus is a confirmation of the identity of
Jesus, as the suffering Son of Man, whom Isaiah had prophesied about in Is. 53. Therefore the Son
of Man motif is important in Mark’s Passion Narrative.
Mark’s interest in Jesus’ suffering and death is evident also from the brevity of his
resurrection narrative. It is the shortest among the four Gospels. Even when resurrected, Mark still
refers to his suffering (16:6).
2. Matthew:-
a) Use of OT: Matthew is peculiar in that he uses OT quotations lavishly. Right from the birth
narrative, OT passages are employed to give credence. Virgin birth (Is.7:14) Birth in Bethlehem
(Mic 5:2)
Matthew’s chief focus in his Gospel was confirming that Jesus and his ministry was the
fulfilment of Israel’s prophecy and scriptures. And, in that sense, Jesus was the ultimate interpreter
of the Law. The unified and detailed Sermon on the Mount (5-7) is an indication of this. The main
part of that sermon was an interpretation of the Mosaic Law, using “you have heard that…but I say
to you” pairing.
b) Ekklesia: Only in Matthew Jesus uses the term ekklesia (16:18; 18:17). Although for the
Jews in Jesus’ day, this would simply mean a local group of people worshipping in a Synagogue,
for the later Matthean community, this would surely point to a Christian congregation. The
authority given to it (16:19’ 18:18) is evidence of this.
The Church for Matthew is:-
a) The future and culmination of Israel (9:17; 13:31-32)
b) Given great authority (16:19; 18:18)
c) To be careful to not make the same mistakes as the old Israel (6:2ff.)
c) Apocalyptic: It is a type of literature and a cluster of theological themes that accompany this
literature. There is only one dedicated apocalyptic writing (or apocalypse) in NT – Revelation. But
the Gospel writers sometimes included it in their writings. Its main element is eschatological
dualism, where there is the tension between the present time, under power of evil and the Day of
the Lord, where this evil will be defeated. Mat 24
3. Luke
a) Magnificat: Lk. 1:46-55 gives us a canticle1, commonly known as the Magnificat. This
word comes from Jerome’s Latin version of the Bible Magnificat anima mea dominum (My soul
magnifies the Lord). This canticle has similarities with many hymns from the OT (Ex 15:21; 1Sam
2:1-10). Scholars like John Nolland propose that the song may be a collection of Hebrew oral
tradition and LXX quotations.
According to Howard Marshall and majority of scholars, the Song is essentially a song of
salvation of God for his people who are needy and downtrodden. The song presents salvation of His
people as the main purpose of God. And through the coming of Christ, this purpose, which has
been promised in the history of the people of Israel, will finally unfold and be revealed.
b) Preferential option for the poor: Luke’s gospel gives ample significance to the motif of
reversal. Prevailing social norms dictated that sickness, poverty and other types of weakness were
due to the sins of the persons or their ancestors (as in Jn. 9:1 the disciples asked about the man born
blind). But in Luke, it is these so-called “sinners” that receive salvation (7:22). Matthew and Mark
would say that these people receive the kingdom of God/Heaven. The same goes for marginalized
groups of people – women, Samaritans and foreigners. As implied in 10:21, it is they who
understand and receive this gift of salvation. The birth narrative, where Mary is the main
protagonist, is also evidence of this.
c) Nazareth Manifesto: The so-called Nazareth Manifesto is in fact an explanation of the
ministry of Jesus in terms of Jesus’ option for the poor. Jesus reads Is 61:1-2 and announces that the
prophecy is being fulfilled in him. Salvation history, which Luke emphasizes so much, is revealed
and realized in the life of Jesus Christ and his death and resurrection.
4. Acts
a) Genre: Acts recounts the course taken by the Gospel of Jesus Christ in the lives of his
followers, by the power of the Holy Spirit. Since it is a narration of an event, scholars including
David Aune, Dibelius and Achtemeier believe that it is a historical document, in a sense.
But what kind of history is it? Some Scholars like Gregory Sterling see it as an Apologetic
History – an apology for Christianity. In Acts, Luke tries to show through the speeches and works
of the apostles that Christianity is reliable, authentic and has to be taken seriously. This is done
mainly through references to OT prophecies. Peter asserts in the Pentecost speech: “Therefore let
the entire house of Israel know with certainty that God has made him both Lord and Messiah, this
Jesus whom you crucified,” 1:36)
Others like CH Talbert claim it as a narrative biography – biography of Jesus’ successors.
Still others stress that it is institutional history, more precisely, the church (election of successors –
1:12-26; definition of members – 10:45). Pervo asserts that it may be a novel, of the type found in
the 1st century because of its popularity. Craig Blomberg and others would still argue that it is a
theological treatise.
b) Spread of the Gospel: Acts 1:8 clearly outlines the projected geographical progression of
the Gospel. This was the progress of the work of Christ through the Holy Spirit in the lives of the
Apostles.
Jerusalem, Judea and Samaria come first. This is an estimation of apostolic Minsitry from
Acts 2-8. In fact, we find here a reversal of the Jewish vision that all nations will arrive and

1
A song or a chant that is recited at worship services.
assemble in their land to worship God (Sam 86:9; Isa. 2:2). Rather, the Gospel will proceed
outwards from Israel towards tha nations, in their own contexts. This is parallel to what Jesus
himself announced to the Samaritan woman in Jn 4:21, when worship is no longer confined either to
Jesusalem of a few selected places.
“To the ends of the earth.” As we see its use in 13:47, this refers to all people of all places.
Therefore we find in Acts 1:8 a missionary portfolio that will be started by the apostles and
continued by the Church.
c) Holy Spirit: The Holy Spirit is the gift of the resurrected Christ that was promised. In this
sense the Pentecost event is the fulfillment of the promise Christ made in 1:5. While the Pentecost
event seems to be confined to Jews, the promise of the Holy Spirit is for all. This is confirmed in
the Cornelius story, specially in 10:45.
A major role of the Holy Spirit is equipping the apostles and believers for mission. Peter
was filled by the spirit before he could engage in his ministry. (4:8,32; 9:17;13:9). Not only this,
the work of the Spirit consists of marking out God’s people (15:8).

5. John
a) Literary Structure: Literary Structure deals with the way a body of writing is arranged and
organized. How the different components or events within the story are classified or organized.
There may be different methods applied in this arrangement – chronological order, geographical
order or theological order (Romans gives us theological order, Acts gives us the geographical order,
and Matthew partly gives us the chronological order). Besides this, the arrangement of the different
themes, events and situations will be analysed in order to discover an underlying motivation or a
unifying factor for the whole of the narrative. Literary structure commits us to draw a “literary
map” of a given passage.
Therefore the question here is how John’s Gospel has been arranged, as far as its narrative
is concerned. The whole of the Gospel is girded or bracketed by the prologue (1:1-18) and the
postscript – “PS” - (21:24-25). As a whole, the book is divided into two major parts – “the Book of
Signs” (1:19-12:50), where we find an explanation of the person and work of Christ through
sermons and dialogues and miracles, characteristically called “signs.” The second part, called “the
passion” or “book of Glory” (CH Dodd) consists of the last days of Jesus, where there are
instructions on what the disciples are to expect in Jesus’ absence, and the contrasting presentations
of doubt and faith in Jesus suffering, death and resurrection. (Achtemeier, et.al., Introducing the
New Testament…)
b) Character: Regarding character, analysis can be made through a comparison with the
Synoptic Gospels. Matthew and Luke provide the origin of Jesus as a human being, while John
traces Jesus’ origin as a divine being. While in the Synoptics, Jesus’ ministry is centered for the
most part in Galilee and then moves dramatically towards Jerusalem, in John we see Jesus moving
to and fro from Galilee into Judea and back again. For example, he first appears in Judea, and then
goes to Galilee (1:28, 43); he then makes a trip to Jerusalem where he purifies the temple (2:13-
22). The time of Jesus’ death is also on the day of preparation of the Passover (19:31) meaning that
the last supper for John is not the Passover meal. Then there is the issue of the absence of the
exorcisms, and when miracles do happen, they are called “signs.” Instead of parables, we find
lengthy discourses or teaching narratives (5:10-47; 6:41-65 etc.)
In the light of these, we can say that – John is an ecclesiastical Gospel – the Gospel betrays
quite clearly that is was written for a post-resurrection community. 20:30-31; 15:18 passages like
these are unambiguously directed at the early church. John’s eschatology is predominantly realized
– Although the future expectation of the end is found (5:28-29), life and judgment through Jesus
have definitely taken place in him (11:25; 5:25-27; 4:23). John’s portrayal of Jesus is primarily
symbolic than literal. Jesus is the ultimate exponent of God to the world (1:18), human decisions for
or against Jesus are signs to whether they choose light or darkness, truth or falsehood etc.
(Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation)
c) Purpose: John clearly states the purpose of his writing the Gospel in 20:31: …”written so
that you may come to believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that through believing
you may have life in his name.” Written at a later date than the other three Gospels (ca. 90AD), the
need for confirming the identity of Jesus and the meaning of his whole work became more
pronounced. People must not forget the universal significance of Jesus, the Son of God. At the same
time it is apparent that John wanted to convey this truth through the medium of Jewish
eschatological expectations. Jesus was not simply “savior”, he was the “Messiah”, the Son of God.
He has succeeded and superseded the great patriarchs of Jewish history (4:12; 6:32; 8:53-58).
There is also a profound connection between Jesus and the Mosaic Law (1:17; 5:39-40)
In this connection, the peculiar reference to “signs” (semeia) in John’s Gospel may be
mentioned. While in the Synoptics, miracles are essentially dunameis – acts of power manifesting
the inbreaking of the Kingdom of God into the world, defeating the kingdom of Satan. John does
not use this word. Instead, miracles are “signs” semeia that authenticate and confirm the identity of
Jesus as the Christ (20:30-31).
d) Johannine Dualism: Dualism/Polarization. This is another distinctive of Johannine theology.
In many places John presented the teachings of Jesus in terms of polarized opposites. According to
Zuck, this was John’s way of emphasizing to the community that they are faced with eternally
significant options. Their choices will also ultimately determine their place in the community. In
other words, the community is defined by the choices it makes between these opposites.
a) Light and Darkness: The contrast between light and darkness in John (both Gospel and
letters) is eschatological. Jesus, signalling the end of the age, comes into the world as
the “true light” (1:9). Jesus himself is the light (1:5; 9:4-5; 1John 1:5). This light,
testified by the Baptist, is not only analogous to the light of God at the beginning of
creation, but also puts the world in a state of eschatological judgment. Either the world
rejects the light and embraces the darkness or vice versa (3:18-21). The blessings and
contrasting misfortune between those who chose the Light and those who choose
darkness is also clearly delineated (3:17-21; 8:12; 1Jn 2.9-11)
Therefore through this imagery, John clarifies the conflict that faces the community,
and the choices that they must make.
b) Above and below (heaven and earth): Another contrast imagery in John, specially in the
Gospel, is between “above and below.” This is clearest in 8:23 in Jesus’ reply to Jewish
leaders. Jesus has come from above into the world that is below. The “above” is not
only his origin, it is the place from where all heavenly (and good) things are to be
expected. Jesus as “the bread of life” is from heaven, implying that eternal life is also
to be expected from heaven (6:33). The eternal, ultimate dwelling place of the
community was also located above. This eschatological home will be prepared by the
risen Jesus (14:1-3).
From this vertical imagery, it is again clear that the community is encouraged to
distance themselves from things belonging “below,” and align themselves with Jesus
who is “from above.”
 c) Flesh and Spirit: Another contrast, less prevalent, but equally significant is that
between “flesh and Spirit.” However, unlike Paul, John does not identify the flesh with
sinfulness or evil. He rather indicates the limitedness and weakness of the human
faculties with it. In fact, Jesus himself “became flesh and made his dwelling among us”
(1:14).
The flesh is limited and impotent in understanding things of Jesus (6:60-63), while the
spirit, being of heavenly origin, is from God the Holy Spirit (The What is born of the
flesh is flesh, and what is born of the Spirit is spirit 3:6). Humanity in its fleshly
limitation cannot be conjoined with the eternal life that Jesus has to offer. It needs
rebirth in the Spirit to experience the life giving power of Jesus Christ.
d) Falsehood and truth: John implies from this contrast that the community must form its
ethical standards according to the revelation of God in Christ. This new revelation
supersedes the Mosaic Law (1:17). Indeed Jesus is the one to whom the law and the
prophets point (1:45; 5:39) and the community now must be guided by his teaching
(8:51; 12:47; 15:7).
Not only is the teaching of Jesus, it is Jesus himself who is the ultimate truth (14:6).
Thus the community can find the truth of all things through the life and teachings of
Jesus. And anything that contrasts Jesus and his teaching essentially is false.
e) Life and Death: “Life” for John, most prominently means eternal life. Again, Jesus is
both the giver and the identification of Life (4:14; 14:6; 10:10; 11:25). So death in this
context is the portion of those who do not know or believe in him. On a slightly
different perspective, death is the situation the humanity is in, before Jesus. But those
who hear and believe in him have been “upgraded” into eternal life (5:24).

The Word of Life: A Theology of John’s Gospel – Craig R. Koester

6. Johannine Letters:-
a) Purpose: In the three letters traditionally attributed to the John who wrote the FG, we see a
distinctive Johannine understanding of Christian existence. LT Johnson proposes that this
understanding is presented in the context of conflict in the community. There may have been
secessionists within the community who preached a different form of the Gospel.2 So1John betrays
doctrinal and moral disagreements, 2John tackles the issue of proper teaching and 3John seems to
be dominated by the issue of conflict between rival church leaders. Unlike the Gospel, the problem
apparently lies within the community itself, not from outside hostility.
Therefore, as Raymond E. Brown proposes, John writes these letters so that the community
may remember that their belief in Christ as the Messiah is the only way to eternal life, as
announced in 1Jn 5:13. If the community truly rests in this belief, his joy may be complete (1Jn.
1:4) and they may be truly counted as without sin (1Jn 2:1).
(Frank Thielman, Theology of the New Testament: A Canonical and Synthetic Approach;
Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation)

b) Loving God and Fellow human beings: One-fifth of the occurrences of the word “love” is
found in the three letters of John. In the midst of conflict with secessionists, John confirms that the
essence of right living and the essence of the Gospel is love. And believers must put this essence

2
It is not clear who these people are, but there are some hints here and there (2Jn 7; 3Jn 8; 1Jn 2:22-23)
into practice by obeying the commandments of God (1Jn 2:3; 2Jn 2:6). This obedience is in turn to
be found in the love that believers show for each other (1Jn 3:11ff; 2Jn 5; 3Jn 5-6). The whole
motivation behind this is because God himself is love (1Jn 4:7ff).

7. 1 Thessalonians:-
a) Date, place and Occasion: The date, place and occasion can be inferred from the reports in
Acts and in the letter itself. We see an account of the Thessalonian mission in Acts 17:1-9. Due to
opposition from local Jews Paul went on to Athens from Beroea (Acts 17: 10ff.). From Athens he
sent for Timothy and Silas to join him. From 3:1-3 it is clear that Paul sent Timothy back from
Athens to Thessalonica to stabilize the church there. And it is reasonable to conclude that Paul
wrote this letter based on the reports that Timothy gave to him. But from Acts 18:5, we know that
Paul had moved on to Corinth when Timothy came back from the report, meaning that Paul wrote
this letter from Corinth. Since historical reports state that Gallio was the proconsul of Achaia from
51 AD (Acts 18:12-17), the letter may be reasonably proposed as written around this time.
b) Hope: I Thessalonians has been termed as a parenetic letter, or a letter of moral
exhortation. Unlike Galatians and Colossians, it does not debate theological issues, it is not a
theological essay like Romans, nor does it directly deal with church crises. Instead, it is a pastoral
letter, giving moral exhortation and hope for the Congregation Paul had found.
In that context, Thessalonians are encouraged by the presentation of hope that is founded on
the promises of the risen Christ. Although Paul had taught that the coming of the Lord was near and
to be expected at anytime (5:1-3), there may have been those in the Church with questions, because
of its delay and because there were people who have passed away. Could they have missed out on
participation in the kingdom? It seems that these people, though still faithful, had become
disillusioned (4:13). Paul then addresses these questions in 4:13-18 and 5:1-11. Paul assures them
that death will not isolate or disconnect them from the promise of Christ. His resurrection proves
beyond doubt that even the dead will be resurrected to join the living in meeting Christ (4:17). Then
Paul goes on to encourage and comfort regarding the time of Christ’s coming. Although the timing
is not known, it will signal the victory of God (4:16), and that they are beneficiaries of the blessings
that come with it, since they are “children of light” (5:5). Therefore I Thessalonians addresses the
dwindling sense of hopefulness among the churches and encourages them to be ever hopeful in spite
of apparent uncertainties.

(Frank Thielman, Theology of the New Testament: A Canonical and Synthetic Approach; Luke
Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation; Interpreter’s One-Volume
Commentary on the Bible)
8. Galatians:-
a) Occasion and Purpose: The mission to Galatia can be found in Acts 13-14. There was
fierce opposition from Jews and after Paul and Barnabas had left the area, there were Jewish
Christians who attempted to undermine the Gospel by insisting on Jewish religious practices for
fresh Gentile converts. The flagrant hostility and resistance from the Jews may contribute as a
reason for this. In any case, activities were attended by, and resulted in serious problems that
prompted Paul to write an emphatic letter to the Churches in Galatia. These problems came in the
form of suspicion of Paul’s authority (1:1; 6:17), circumcision and Jewish practice controversy
(6:12;4:10; 5:4); false teachers (5:9); libertine problem (5:13,16) and a misunderstanding of the
Gospel (1:6-7)
b) Law-Gospel Antithesis: The law-Gospel antithesis is a crucial issue within Galatians. It is a
medium which gives valuable insights into Paul’s theology in the epistle as a whole. As mentioned
above, there was a problem in the relation between the customs and practices of Judaism and the
Gospel of Jesus Christ. It seems that some Jewish Christians from Jerusalem had been preaching
among the Gentile Galatian Christians on the utter significance of circumcision and other Jewish
traditional practices to be true Christians.
According to Paul, such a version of the Gospel was a serious corruption of the Gospel of
Jesus Christ. In fact, it was not really even a Gospel (1:6-9). What they taught was a direct
antithesis of what Paul was preaching. While the Gospel, for Paul, was justification by faith in
Christ; for these agitators, it was conformity to the Law and its works (2:15-16). The real purpose
of the Law was to serve as a paidagogos (a disciplinarian/teacher/tutor). This means that the Law
only served to remind humanity of their guilt before God (3:19,25). But when Christ came the
function of the Law ceased and those who believe in him have been “freed” from its yoke (5:1).
This also means that the sinfulness of humanity is pervasive and encompasses all, whether they
follow the Law or not. In such a circumstance, the Gospel of Christ makes everyone, Jew or
Gentile, inheritors of the promise through faith. (3:27-28). Since the agitators had synthesized the
covenant promise of God in Abraham with the Law of Moses – thinking that the promise be
fulfilled only through the Law, Paul argued cogently that the promise was given to Abraham so
many years before the Law. Thus the latter could not modify or direct the nature of the former.
From these insights, reformation interpreters in the tradition of FC Baur have argued that
Paul preached an essentially Law-free Gospel and that he was opposed directly to the Judaism of his
day. However, there has been a reaction to this trend. Scholars like EP Sanders have argued that
Judaism as a whole is a religion based not on the Law, but on the gracious covenant of God. As
such, Paul in Galatians argues not against Judaism as a religion, but for the Gospel as a universal
gift of God, even for the Gentiles (4:21ff.)
(Dictionary of Paul and His Letters; Frank Thielman, Theology of the New Testament: A
Canonical and Synthetic Approach)

9. 1 Corinthians:-
a) Occasion and Purpose: The epistle is essentially Paul’s response to reports he received from
representatives of Chloe, a member of the Corinthian Church (1:11). He issues answers to questions
put forth in the letters concerning lawsuits, problems of marriage, sacraments, worship and spiritual
gifts. In doing so, Paul also conveys directives and teachings on the various dilemmas and
complications that were plaguing the Corinthian Church.
The root problem that instigated such a variety of disputes seems to be the saturation of the
Church members into Greek philosophy. The Hellenistic body/soul and material/immaterial
dichotomy influenced them to the point that many abandoned the physical world in favour of the
“higher” spiritual world of knowledge and wisdom. This made them susceptible to spiritual pride
and factionalism in some instances, and libertinism in others (8:1,2; 4:7; 12; 5:9-13; 6:12-13). A
tendency to ascribe to an over-realized eschatology is another result of this. Some may have taught
a form of spiritual interpretation of Jesus’ resurrection, announcing that the resurrection of believers
had been realized in the present time (4:8; 15).
In such a context, Paul writes to remind the Corinthians that the Cross of Christ is the
ultimate expression of Christianity. The accompanying weakness and shame is the means by which
the power of God is manifested (1:17-19). Paul’s own sufferings in his ministry is a witness to this
(4:8-13), by which he urges the Corinthian Christians to “imitate” him (4:16; 11:1). Thus the cross
of Christ is the means by which the Corinthian church is to judge its own preoccupations and also
the authority of Paul as their “father” (4:15).
(Dictionary of Paul and His Letters; I Howard Marshall, Concise NT Theology; Preben Vang,
I Corinthians (Teach the Text Commentary Series);
b) Lord’s Supper: Gerd Theissen pointed out that the problems especially prominent in this
section of 1 Corinthians were those of a socially stratified community. Here not least it is evident
that the tension was basically between rich and poor Christians, that is, between those who had
enough food and drink and their houses (1 Cor. 11: 21-22) and “those who have nothing” (1 Cor.
11: 22). Presumably it was the well-to-do who were going ahead with their meal before the poorer
members arrived (1 Cor. 11: 33). As LT Johnson asserts, divisions among people on the basis of
wealth or position threaten the unity and common identity of the Church.
Sociological studies also suggest that the “meal” being referred to in the letter has parallels in
the eranos, a type of “pot-luck dinner” where members would arrive with their food items. There
seems to have been those, because of work obligations, could not arrive early. These people had to
be content with the left overs of the wealthier ones, who had arrived early. Such issues would no
doubt cause tensions and disturb the social cohesion of the Church, special because the meal itself
had spiritual and sacramental connotations (11:23-26).
Paul therefore asserts that the supper that they were part taking of was a sign and symbol of
unity and cohesion, not division. This clearly separates it from the pagan meals which the
Corinthians were reminded of. By participating in the meal, the church participated in the sacrificial
act of Christ as a community united in it (10: 16-17). This means that the divisiveness that was in
their meals showed their ignorance of the body and blood of Christ in the meal and drink, hence
making them unworthy. It also shows their lack of love for their fellow members, dictating
judgment and punishment (11:30-31).

This also means that the Lord’s Supper was a distinctive identity marker. At the same time,
it presumably was not open to the public in the way that the worship service described in 1 Cor. 14:
22-25 evidently was. Despite the lack of firm evidence, we should probably assume that the Lord’s
Supper was a meal shared by the baptized. This fits with implication of 1 Cor. 10: 21, that unlike
the multiple loyalties possible for those willing to attend meals in honour of different gods,
participation in the Lord’s Supper carried with it an obligation to exclusive loyalty to the Lord. In
other words, as an identity marker, the Lord’s Supper functioned also as a boundary marker.

(Dictionary of Paul and His Letters; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An
Interpretation; ; I Howard Marshall, Concise NT Theology)

c) Resurrection: Paul tackles the resurrection in response to those who believed that there
would be no bodily resurrection. This seems to be an offshoot of the Greek dichotomy that the
Corinthians were subjected to (15:32). He continued with the centrality of the issue by claiming that
the Christian faith itself crumbles without faith in the resurrection (15:12-15). Justification itself
comes specifically from belief in the God who raised Jesus from the dead (Rom 4:24-25).
Then Paul connects Christ’s resurrection with that of believers. Christ’s resurrection is “the
first fruit” (Gk aparche), which will be followed by that of his followers. Also, as Howard
Marshall proposes, the coming of the first fruit is a sign that the eschatological harvest has begun.
Because, Christ’s resurrection involves not only himself but the whole united community of
believers.
 Again, Paul connects Christ’s resurrection with the cosmic reign of God. Although “Cosmic
Christology” would be further developed in Colossians and Ephesians, Paul here explains that
God’s sovereignty will be fulfilled as death is defeated with the resurrection of all believers in
Christ (15:25-26).
Finally, Paul responds to those who object to the notion of bodily resurrection. He applies an
analogy of sowing where the seed dies and grows into a plant with quite a different form. This
clarifies the distinction between the worldly body and resurrected body. In this way, Paul also
responds to Greek dichotomy and argues for a unity of eschatological human form. And in turn, he
also extends an ethical relevance of Christ’s resurrection by affirming that because of it, the
Christian ministry with all its difficulties is never in vain (v.58)
d) Spiritual Gifts: Paul had already mentioned the presence of Spiritual gifts among the
Corinthians in 1:7. The problem was that these were incorporated with attitudes of elitism, rivalry
and individualism. The high estimation of various forms of ecstasy in the Hellenistic world may be
a significant cause for this. The form of prophecy called mantic was particularly favoured (cf. Acts
16:16). This was the result of a direct inspiration from the divine Spirit which in turn can lead to
enthusiasmos – a state of ecstasy where the prophet or prophetess cried out in unintelligible speech,
which may be what the Corinthian Christians call “tongues”. Such states were highly regarded,
specially compared to Paul’s idea of prophecy of teaching and rational discourse. Thus these gifts of
the Spirit were perceived as individual symbols of worth and relevance.
Paul does not doubt that these were from God (14:18). But he wants them to see and treat
these gifts within the context of community values. A crucial element of this is that the Holy Spirit
brings an individual into a true relationship with God. Anything that denies or impedes this cannot
be from God (12:3). Since God has formed them into a community, the gifts he bestows must serve
functions for that community; and this is true also for Spiritual Gifts. They are not random
distributions from an impersonal force, but a deliberate act of grace from a personal God (12:11).
Even if they differ, all these gifts are essentially the same as they come from the same God (12:4-
11). The diversity of gifts within this unity serves to mobilize the “body of Christ” as a single
complete whole (12:20).
(Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation; ; I Howard
Marshall, Concise NT Theology)

10. II Corinthians
a) Occasion and Purpose: Pauline timeline in terms of the Corinthian correspondence
according to Ralph P. Martin: - Paul founds the Church in Corinth (Acts 18:1ff.); Paul leaves and
goes to Ephesus (Acts 18:18ff.), from where he writes a letter which is now lost (1Cor 5:9; 2Cor
6:14-7:1 may be a fragment of it); he learns from Chloe’s household and from a letter from the
Corinthian Church that the Church is split into factions, and that they had questions that needed to
be answered (1Cor 1:11; 7:1). He responds to these reports in the form of the correspondence we
now know as 1 Corinthians. Timothy is sent on a special mission to Corinth (1Cor 4:17; 16:10).
Meanwhile, a serious dissention broke out in the Church, instigated by someone who launches a
personal attack on Paul (2Cor 2:5-11; 7:8-13). Timothy brings the news to him, and Paul goes to
Corinth to deal with the issue, terming it a “painful visit” (2Cor 2:1). On returning he writes an
emotional letter in objection to the state of things (2Cor 2:4; 7:8). This is known as the “tearful
letter, and may be only partially preserved in 2Cor 10-13. Paul meets Titus in Macedonia (2Cor
2:12ff) who reports that the rebellion in the Church has been quelled (2Cor 7:6-16). Then from
Macedonia he writes the letter we have as 2 Corinthians, or at least chapters 1-9. Titus conveys the
letter and subsequently Paul hears that a new rebellion has broken out in the Church. (2Cor 10:10;
11:27; 12:6ff). He writes chapters 10-13 to confront this problem. Paul himself reaches Corinth
later (Acts 20:2), from where he writes the letter to the Romans.
Craig S. Keener argues plausibly that 2Corinthians is an apologetic letter for Paul’s
apostleship. In this light, and in the context of what has been outlined above, it may be proposed
that the unifying purpose for this letter was to renew the crumbling relationship he shared with the
Corinthian Church and to defend his apostleship and authority before those who disparaged his
mission (specially chapters 10-13). The undergirding theology by which Paul proclaims this is that
God’s power is perfected in weakness (2Cor 12:9).
(Ralph P. Martin, WBC; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An
Interpretation; ; I Howard Marshall, Concise NT Theology; Craig S. Keener, New Cambridge Bible
Commentary: 1-2 Corinthians)
b) Ministry of Reconciliation: It was mentioned that an underlying purpose was to mend the
seemingly disrupted relationship between Paul and the Corinthian Church, which he had planted. In
doing so, Paul gives a positive definition of his apostolic ministry by confirming the glory of the
message they carry in relation to the inadequacy of its messengers – the apostles (3:4-6). The glory
and power of the Gospel that they preach is so much so that the Torah itself can only be understood
in its light (3:12-16). This is why, for all their frailties and weaknesses, the apostolic ministry will
continue (4:7, 16-18).
The nature of this ministry must be reconciliation, because God had reconciled the world to
himself in Christ (5:18) In fact, it was God who commended Paul to the Corinthians in the
beginning (1:21-22). This is the underlying motivation for all apostolic work (5:14). This also
implies that Paul’s ministry in Corinth, for all his weaknesses had been for their sake, since
personal glory and dignity are not to be demanded from the glory of the thing preached (4:5, 12).
Therefore the humility and sufferings of Paul are the manifestations of the suffering of Christ who
“died for all” (5:15). By virtue of this he entreats the Corinthians to “open their hearts” to him and
“make room” for him (6:11-3, 7:2). Thus Paul defends his apostolic ministry by explaining it in
terms of the ministry of reconciliation of Christ, thereby attempting to recover the relationship he
had with the Church in Corinth.
c) Economic mutuality: The subject of economic mutuality comes from Paul’s arguments
regarding collections for Christians in Jerusalem. In chapters 8-9 Paul appeals to the Corinthian
Christians to raise funds for their fellow Christians, in spite of the possible alienation that was
happening between him and some church members. This shows the importance of the venture in
Paul’s mind. In fact it had been a major preoccupation of his (Rom 15:25-29; 1Cor 16:1-4; Gal
2:10).
In order to motivate the Church, Paul uses a variety of strategies. He first compares them
with the generosity of the Macedonian Church (8:1-5), then he praises their superiority (v.7), and
he refrains from using the actual word “money” (argurion); substituting it for words like (charis)
which is related to the Grace of God in Christ (8:9). He also confesses that he had professed the
Corinthian eagerness to the Macedonians, which obligates the Corinthians even more (9:1-2).
Paul then refers to the example of Jesus, who gave himself up for the sake of humanity (8:9).
Therefore giving, and the poverty that can result from it, is a condition to be endured for the
enrichment of others (8:13-15). It also means that economic blessings are means by which one can
be generous to others (9:10).
Establishment of genuine fellowship through economic means underlines the meaning of
economic mutuality. It is derived from the person and work of Christ in giving his all for all
humanity and gives strength to others to do likewise. Finally it promotes true worship (9:12) and is
identified with obedience to the Gospel (9:13).
(Craig S. Keener, 1-2 Corinthians; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New
Testament: An Interpretation; Ralph P. Martin WBC)
d) Apostolic Authority: The historical identity of Paul’s opponents cannot be conclusively
determined. All that can be construed is from Paul’s own presentation of his arguments and the
emphases he makes in highlighting his own apostleship. And as LT Johnson observes, “ Paul’s
perception of his rivals is important mostly for leading us to his perception of his own ministry as
an apostle.”
In any case, the impact of these “super-apostles” was that the authority of Paul as an apostle
was being undermined. It was this that motivated Paul to respond with emotion and confirm his
apostolic authority. These people, whom Paul ironically termed “huperapostoloi” (11:5; 12:11),
claimed to be genuine Hebrews (11:22); self-commendation is their method (10:12) and they do so
with engaging and smooth rhetoric (10:10). They claim to preach the Gospel free of cost, while
accepting money for it (11:7-12). They also travel with letters of recommendation to confirm their
authority (3:1-3).
To these, Paul asserts his authority by matching his rivals’ qualtities. He puts forward his
own grounds for boasting (11:21-12:10). These points were in fact not of human origin but from
God, who is his certification (10:8). There were “signs, wonders and mighty works” done through
him which testify to his authority (12:12). Even in suffering, which is a crucial part of true
apostleship and servanthood, Paul clearly surpasses them (11:23-27).
After his able defence, Paul finally issues a stern warning as the weakness apparent in
Christ’s sacrifice was actually fulfilled in power and ultimate authority. And this power and
authority is being exercised through genuine apostles like Paul (13:1-10).
It is also important to note that Paul normally condemns boasting (1Cor 1:29; 3:21; 4:7). But
in the context of 2 Cor., Paul’s boasting is in fact a praise to God, because his boasting is not of his
human capacities, but that of the work of God in him (cf. 1Cor 1:31).

11. Romans
a) Occasion and Purpose: In 49 AD, it seems that the Roman Emperor Claudius issued an
edict that banished Jews from Rome, due to riots caused by Christian preaching among Jews. Even
Jewish Christians were affected by the edict (Acts 18:2). This meant that by and large, the Christian
community in Rome for a time constituted mainly of Gentile Christians.
Here lies a possible historical occasion and purpose for Romans. The Edict of Claudius was
ended when Nero came to power in 54 AD, followed by the return of both Christian and non-
Christian Jews. NT Wright’s supposition is reasonable: the exit of Jews from Rome may have
strengthened some Gentile Christian sentiments that Jews as a whole expelled from the covenant.
Evangelization among Jews may also have been likely to be abandoned, given the circumstances. At
the same time, Jewish hostility for Christians may have been inflamed, because the banishment was
largely due to Christian mission. In such scenario, Paul may have been obliged to address the
foundations of the Gospel he preached as comprehensively as possible specially in terms of Jew –
Gentile relationship, if he was to make Rome a base for his ministry to new lands (cf. 15:20ff.).
Besides the Jew-Gentile friction, Harrison also complements this by saying that if Rome
was to be Paul’s home base, the Christian community needed to be reminded as fully as possible of
the domain and essence of the Gospel. In this way they would be of greater help to him.
 Harrison’s suggestion that Paul wrote such a comprehensive exposition because he had
qualms about not being able to actually evangelize the west, although possible, is too speculative to
be seriously considered since Paul does not mention any such concerns in the letter.
Keeping the above in perspective, the words of Dunn seem fitting:
Paul had not simply one but several purposes in view when he wrote [Romans]. Indeed,
such a conclusion is more or less required by the character of the letter itself; no single
suggested reason on its own can explain the full sweep of the document. On the contrary, it
was presumably because Paul had several purposes in view that he found it desirable to set
out his understanding of the good news of Christ so fully, including its practical
implications.3
(JDG Dunn, “Romans, 1-8,” WBC; NT Wright, “The Letter to the Romans,” The New
Interpreter’s Bible; Everett F. Harrison, “Romans,” The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Romans –
Galatians)
b) Justification by Faith: According to traditional understanding of justification by faith
originated from the minds of reformers like Luther and John Calvin. For them it is the central
principle that guides the whole of the letter. Romans was written in the context of Paul’s response to
Jewish legalism. For the Jews, the Mosaic Law was the only means by which a person could be
saved. Paul reacted to this, asserting that Christ’s death and resurrection constitute an act of
redemption, by which all who has faith in him are justified through that act of faith (5:16,18).
Therefore Paul contradicts the Jewish idea of works righteousness and asserts the universality of
righteousness based on faith.
c) Life in the Spirit: After Paul had explained and argued convincingly the contrasts and
relationship between law and grace, and after he had confirmed the presence and power of new life
in Christ, he goes on to the full meaning of that new life, which has been realized by the power of
the Holy Spirit (cf. 7:6). In opening the opportunity for this new life, God had accomplished what
human power could not (8:3). This accomplishment empowers persons to freely choose between the
way of sin and death and the way of righteousness and life (8:5-10). Since this life giving power
comes from Christ resurrected, deeds of the body must be “put to death” (8:11). This is fully
possible because the in the Spirit is life free from the power of sin. And the inheritance it gives is
not that of slavery but that of sonship (8:15).
Although life in the Spirit has been inaugurated, its full manifestation is still in the future.
What is given now is “the first fruits” (8:23). It also means that the new life is not free from
suffering yet, but is transformed and sustained by the Spirit in its midst (8:17-21). Hope, then is an
essential aspect of this new life (8:24). Furthermore, the Spirit is at work not only in persons, but in
the whole of creation. Thus the hope is brings includes renewal not only of persons but of the whole
of creation. This means that the new life in the Spirit brings unites all creation in the single hope of
the final redemption.

12. Philippians
a) Occasion and purpose: Paul had visited Philippi once and founded a church there (Acts
16:12). While in prison, the Philippians had sent him gifts through Epaphroditus (2:25; 4:14;18).
Since Epaphroditus had stayed with Paul for quite a long period, his mother church may have been
anxious. Thus this letter is partly to thank the Philippian Church for their care and to inform them

3
Dunn, “Romans, Letter to the,”…, 840.
that Epaphroditus had contracted an illness but has been healed and was eventually coming home
(2:25-30).
In addition to this, Paul may have learnt from Epaphroditus that there were opponents in
Philippi, disturbing the Church. However, Hawthorne suggests that there may have been more than
one kind of adversary there. One may have been whom he called “brothers and sisters” (1:14-15).
These people, although rivals, were viewed warmly by Paul. Judging from the context, these people
may have seen Paul’s stature and theology as incompatible to their view of Christ as triumphant and
powerful – a result of a “divine –man theology. They may also have been Judaizers – Christians
who demanded Judaic traditions for Christianity.
The other Group may have been more radically opposed to Paul and Christianity in general.
They may have been Jews. Paul is particularly harsh to them, calling them “dogs” “evil” workers”
(3:2). They were enemies of the Cross of Christ (3:18) who probably preached that righteousness
and perfection are attainable now (3:12-15).
b) Christ-Hymn: LT Johnson suggests Christian fellowship as a crucial framework in which
the arguments in the letter develops. Starting with terms evoking friendship and intimacy like
“Sharing in the Spirit”, “compassion and sympathy”, “same mind” and same love”, (2”1-2) and
contrasting these with opposing concepts (vv.3-4), he begins to illustrate the prime example of
proper Christian attitude – that of Jesus (2:6-11).
This passage has been traditionally referred to as the “Christ-Hymn.” The poetic and
rhythmic nature of the passage suggests that it may have its backgrounds in a traditional hymn about
Jesus. The cosmic nature and vocabulary have prompted some scholars to see it as taken from
pagan sources. However, due to its undeniable harmony with the ongoing narrative of Paul, most
have concluded that it is Paul’s composition.
The background of this, is not so easy to determine. Hawthorne has found connections to
Jesus’ servanthood ministry in Joh. 13. Kasemann has opted for Hellenistic Gnosticism. Dunn has
found analogies from Adam (Christ as second Adam) etc. However as Ralph Martin has suggested,
whoever composed this hymn may have made use of the variety of traditions available at the time –
divine descent/ascent in Hellenistic ideology, the Adam story and that of the Suffering Servant idea
from the OT. All these make up the symbolic universe of the Christ event from which this hymn
may have been formulated, and now serves a crucial purpose in the letter.
The descent/ascent parallelism is structured to clarify Jesus’ career from renunciation and
dispossession (vv.7-8) to glorification and possession (vv. 9-10). The introduction to the passage
shows that Paul deliberately frames his argument to clarify that Jesus’ example was the ultimate
model for Christian fellowship. This harks back to the Johannine concept of discipleship where true
glory lies in “emptying” (kenosis) for others. Thus in self-denial and obedience, the Philippians
must continue their ministry (vv.12-18).
c) Unity: As there were dissidents within the community, it seems that the theme of Christian
unity was important to Paul while writing Philippians. The term “Koinonia” is used for the
participation of believers in God’s blessings, in the Holy Spirit (1:7;2:1) and in the work of the
Gospel (1:5). This promotes deep relationship with one another and with Paul himself (4:14-15).
However, such sharing is incomplete without participation in the suffering of Christ (3:10), which
also carries with it the hope of resurrection. Pragmatically, such unity translates to the Church’s
support for Paul’s mission and sending colleagues; and also involves the striving together for the
faith of the Gospel in the midst of opposition (2:16).
(Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament:
An Interpretation; Gerald Hawthorne (Ralph Martin) WBC Vol 43)
13. Philemon
a) Insight into Apostolic Ministry: Philemon, although short, beautifully portrays the power of
the apostolic ministry to transform and transcend social norms, symbols and functions. It shows us a
close network of followers (2,23-24), the importance of benefaction (7) and of hospitality (22), the
leadership role of women (2), the understanding of the community as “the holy ones” (4,7) and the
prominence of households as places of Christian meeting (2). The koinonia of the Christian
community is one of faith active in sharing (6) service (13) and reciprocity (17). This fellowship “In
Christ” transcends natural kinship relations and social stratification. Onesimus’ “sonship” to Paul,
while still a slave, makes him a “beloved brother” (16) to his master.
Thus we see the beginnings of the strain between ancient social structures like slavery in
Paul’s apostolic ministry.
14. 2 Thessalonians
a) Authorship: Although both the letters have been traditionally included in the corpus
paulinum, there have been persistent doubts on Pauline authorship, specially for 2Thessalonians.
JEC Schmidt was one of the first to cast such doubts. And FC Baur also emphasized the distinct
nature of eschatology in the letter. He suggests that it has an evident Johannine colour (2:3-10 cf.
Rev 13:1-9). There is also the issue of the suddenness of the parousia (1Thess 5) vs. the idea that it
would be preceded by signs (2Thess 2). Various Pauline features like flesh, body, sin,
circumcision, law, works, righteousness etc. are missing of play little part in the letters. The first
person singular, which is common to the undisputed Paulines, has been discarded in favour of the
first person plural “we.”
Baur’s proposals are not convincing. Paul could validly formulate his eschatological
framework to suit the context, provided he did not compromise the central precepts. The parousia
as suspiciously delayed in 2Thess can be explained by the fact that both ideas (imminence and
suspension) were actually held in the early church (Mk.13). It must also be considered that the
various common Pauline features were expressed as responses to particular problems the churches
faced. It may be that the situation in 2Thess did not necessitate such responses.
b) Occasion and Purpose: After the first letter had been sent, things soon started to deteriorate
again. A letter had circulated which informed that Paul preached the Day of the Lord had already
come. 2Thess is a response to that letter. In addition to this rebuttal, Paul also beseeches the Church
not to remain idle, as if working was not needed anymore (3:6ff.)
c) Steadfastness: Paul implies that the Church was living between the resurrection of Christ
and the final consummation of all things. This period is characterized by intense testing and
opposition (1). This in turn calls for steadfastness as they belong to the people if God (2:13-14).
The fact is that their trials will one day end as God will eventually defeat all opposition (2). Indeed
the evil that is already at work is only a part of God’s plan for judgment (2:11-12).
(LE Keck, “2nd Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians” Interpreter’s one-Volume Commentary; JW
Simpson Jr. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters; FF Bruce “1&2 Thessalonians,” WBC; I Howard
Marshall, Concise NT Theology)

15. Ephesians
a) Authorship and Purpose: Victor Paul Furnish joins scholars like WG Kummel, Ralpfh P.
Martin and AT Lincoln in proposing a “devoted follower of Paul” as the author for Ephesians. The
reasons for this are:-
 i) Style and Vocabulary, which are not common to undisputed Paulines. Frequency of
participles ejnergounto~ (2:2 pres.Act.part. of ejnergew to work, effect) doqeish~ (3:2
aor.part.part. of didwmi) and words like “mystery”, (1:9-10).
ii) Apostles as “foundation,” indicating that they are no longer present (2:20) and “holy”
(3:5)
iii) Church used in the universal sense, rather than a local one
iv) Cosmic Christology, realized eschatology and advanced ecclesiology.
v) Close connection to Colossians (6:21-22 and Col 4:7-8). Why would Paul follow the
same pattern and vocabulary in in writing two letters with different purposes?
Responses:-
i) Since it is a circular letter, the identity of the Church may be legitimately expressed
universally
ii) Apostles as “holy” is not that peculiar, because undisputed Paulines also refer to
apostles (and believers) as “saints” (aJgioi~) – Rom 1:7; 8:27; 1Cor 6:1.
iii) The letter also presents the apostles as a continuing foundation (Eph. 4:11-12)
iv) Differences in theology do not necessarily mean a break from Pauline theology. It may
be a logical extension of his thoughts, because those presented in Ephesians could be a
necessary measure in the light of the believer’s struggles against the powers that were
present and real.
v) Tradition from Nag Hammadi documents (2nd century) and early Churhc Fathers and
autobiographical information (3:2-6; 4:1)
From 2:1-4:16, the concern for unity between Jews and Gentiles within the Christian
community seems to be the crucial purpose. Since the ministry among the Gentiles in and around
Ephesus had been quite fruitful, there was a steady influx of Gentile converts, who were deeply
influenced by Hellenism and its attendant philosophies. Also the lack of respect for Jewish traditions
may have produced tensions with the Jewish Christians. In such a context, the power and depth of
the Gospel, and its ability to unite all people was a crucial point to be clarified.
(VP Furnish, “Letter to the Ephesians,” Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary; CE Arnold
Dictionary of Paul and His Letters)
b) New and Transformed Humanity In Christ: The author of Ephesians formulates his
arguments in terms of alienation and incorporation. Even the Jews, to whom were given the law and
the prophets were “children of the flesh” (2:3). But the sacrifice of Christ has structured a new
humanity where differences are bridged and hostilities are ended (2:16). Thus Christ has not only
united estranged humanity to the divine, but also to each other – Jews and Gentiles. This new unity
is built into a “Holy Temple” where God dwells (2:22).
This new found unity also originates a wholly new identity for all concerned. They are
“members of the household of God” (2:19) and “heirs” of all the divine promises (3:6). This entails
living a reconciled life. In love and unity, the Church is to manifest the power of God and reveal it
to the principalities and powers (3:10). This means that it must constantly battle against opponents
which may be from within and beyond. This gives necessity for the “armor of God” that must be
taken up (6:10-18). The power and motivation in this battle comes from the unity wrought by the
power of Christ and it is the only way by which the battle can be won. This reciprocity and love is
to be adopted also in the household, where the glory of God can be truly manifested (5:21-6:9).

16. Colossians
a) Authorship and Purpose: The authenticity of Colossians was accepted by the Church
Fathers like Iraeneus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria. The letter itself seems to confirm this
(1:1; 4:18). Besides there are many examples of Pauline stylistic peculiarities (extensive use of kai
“and” after dia touto “therefore” – 1:9 cf. 1Thess 2:13; 3:5; Rom 13:6 etc.; phrases like oJi aJgioi
aujtou “his saints” – 1:26 cf. 1Thess 3:13; 2Thess.1:10). Theological phrases like “in Christ” (1:2,
4, 28). While there are some who have brought attention to various words that are not found
elsewhere in the NT and those that are not found in other Paulines, this can be validly addressed by
pointing out that there are also hapax legomena in undisputed Paulines (ajnastatounte~ -
“castrate” – Gal 5:12). The peculiarity of wording may also be attributed to difference in the
subject matter – not of the author.
The Christology of Colossians has also prompted some scholars like Lohse to propose that it
is the result of a theology beyond the apostolic age. However, it can also be responded that Christ’s
universal Lordship (2:10) is also made plain in other Paulines (1Cor 8:6; 1:24). This has been
readdressed due to the demand for reaction to the false teaching at Colossae. Postulating an author
other than Paul seems a bit forced.
The letter itself seems to be concerned with a reaction to the false teachings that may have
gained momentum in the Church at Colossae. The exact nature if this false teaching is unclear, and
Paul seems to only have general idea of it. It called itself a “philosophy” (2:8) and appealed to some
special traditions in support of its teachings (2:22). Its central doctrine was concerned with the
“elemental spirits of the universe,” probably to be identified with the “principalities and powers”
mentioned in 1:16; 2:10, 15. This teaching probably also declared that for humans to gain freedom,
they must pay homage to these powers (2:18). Even the rite of circumcision seems to be demanded
as prerequisite for salvation (2:11-15).
b) Jesus as Cosmic Redeemer: In Colossians, as also in other later letters, the pre-existence of
Christ and his supremacy over all things is emphasized and greatly developed. Christ’s superiority
over the principalities and powers is grounded in the fact that he is not created and existed before all
things as the Son of God, reflecting in his nature the being of God the Father. In fact, he
incorporates the divine being fully in a bodily, human form (2:9). Paul also speaks of the “fullness
of God” dwelling in Christ (1:19; 2:9). This means that the totality of the divine attributes are
fulfilled in Christ and that implies the superiority of Christ over all other claims to power.
Thus Christ is the ultimate saviour and redeemer for humanity that has been characterized by
darkness and alienated from God (1:13,21). His coming is a sort of rescue operation, setting
humanity free and bringing forgiveness of sins (1:14; 2:13). Christ is therefore the mediator who,
in his death and resurrection embraces all things to the divine being and creating a holy people
(1:12).
17. 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus
a) Occasion and Purpose: As to the historical situation that prompted Paul to write both 1&2
Tim., there is some indication of pressure from the state (2Tim 4:6-8). But persecution is not a
pervasive theme. Rather, there is unmistakable emphasis on the world as being decidedly hostile to
the Gospel (I 5:14). Demas is criticized because he has fallen victim to the “present world” (II
4:10). Christians as God’s people are in sharp contrast to the world (Tit 2:9-10). Therefore, a
significant occasion for the Pastorals seems to be issues with relations with the worldly authorities
and society.
An overarching concern, however, seems to be certain heretical teaching which have invaded
the Church. These teachings were an amalgam of oriental dualism with Hellenistic thought, which
was later termed as Gnosticism. Although Gnosticism as an organized movement could be discerned
only after the second century, its nascent form may have been viewed as a severe threat to
Christianity.
Insistence on one God (I 2:5), the goodness of things created by God (I 4:4), on the status of
OT as scripture (II 3:15-17) can validly be attributed to a polemic against such philosophy. Since
Gnosticism was embodied by a basic dualism in which the flesh and created things were evil and
only the spirit was good, its practical implications tended to be either towards ascetism or
libertinism. The former may be the occasion behind verses like 1 4:1-5 and Tit 3:4-5, while the
latter may have motivated Tit 1:7-8.
2Tim stresses that a leader should be Gospel-centered. Although it is a deeply personal letter,
Paul carefully affirms that his apostleship is from God in front of Timothy. What he is is wholly
according to the will of God (1:1, 11-12)
A leader should purify himself to be worthy of God’s ministry (2:20-22). The condition for
usefulness is not skilfulness but holiness.
18. Hebrews
a) Authorship: Although some ancient traditions ascribe the authorship of Hebrews to Paul,
further study has affirmed that this is not the case. In fact, quotations from Clement of Rome (ca.
96 AD) and other citations do not ascribe it to Paul. Pauline authorship can be traced back only as
far as 2nd century.
Although the writer is presumably within the Pauline circle and expects to travel with
Timothy “our brother” (13:23), it is certain that he is not Paul, but one who numbered himself
among those to whom the immediate hearers of the Lord had delivered the gospel (2:3–4). The
language of Hebrews constitutes the finest Greek in the NT, far superior to the Pauline standard
both in vocabulary and sentence-building The writer’s use of imagery is also distinctive: a ship
missing the harbor (2:1), an anchor gripping the seabed (6:19), a double-edged sword that
penetrates and divides the inmost faculties of the soul (4:12), a wrestler hopelessly exposed in a
headlock (4:13), fields richly watered by rain and producing useful crops or worthless weeds (6:7–
8). All of these images are foreign to Pauline usage. The writer moves confidently within the
conceptual world of cultic concerns centering in priesthood and sacrifice. Many of the emphases of
Hebrews are alien to those of Paul.

All that can be said with certainty is that Hebrews was composed by a creative theologian who
was well trained in the exposition of the Greek Scriptures. For the writer, “formative” Judaism was
hellenistic Judaism. He was thoroughly familiar with the refined style, language, traditions, and
theological conceptions of hellenistic Judaism, but he was also informed by the theology of the
hellenistic Church. He was surely a hellenistic Jewish-Christian.

b) Occasion and Purpose: The occasion that prompted the letter to be written can be found
only from the letter itself. From 13:17-19, one can propose that the author considered himself a
ministerial authority over the target community (probably Jewish Christians in Rome).
In this respect, he was writing to a community in crisis. They had defectors among them,
with loss of confidence in their convictions (2:25). There was also lack of interest in the truth they
had previously believed (2:1-4). This was coupled with loss of trust in the message of God in
Scripture and preaching (2:1; 3:7-4:13; 5:11). The commitment they had in the face of persecutions
was slowly waning (10:32-34). As William Lane suggests, the core problem was a faltering of hope
that translated into the danger of apostasy. The motivating factors for this may have been varied –
delay of parousia (10:25), impending persecution (12:4) or general corrosion of enthusiasm (3:14)
may have contributed.
 In this context, the author’s central purpose may be the strengthening of faith of the church
whose members were starting to abandon their commitments. These members, both new converts
and long-time Christians, are presented with theological arguments and exhortations to inform and
persuade them to perseverance, self-discipline and mutual love. In this respect the role of Christ as
the fulfilment of OT traditions is not only for contemplation, but also for daily appropriation and
action.
(William L. Lane WBC; Warren A. Quanbeck, Interpreter’s One Volume Commentary)
c) High Priesthood of Christ: Out of the many titles the author of Hebrews imputes to Christ,
“High Priest” is the most unique and significant (2:17; 3:1; 4:14; 5:5). As the ultimate sacrifice,
Jesus aims to make people holy (2:11) and to cleanse them (9:14). This is carefully expressed by
imagery from the OT sacrificial system – most notably the Day of Atonement. The death of Jesus
on the cross constituted the sacrifice and his exaltation and entry into the presence of God
constituted the offering to God. However, unlike Levitical priests, this sacrifice is the ultimate one
and is offered once and for all (7:27; 9:12). That the sacrifice of Christ as the High Priest
constitutes cultic cleansing is brought into sharper clarity by the imagery of sprinkling sinful
worshipper with blood (9:13). This signifies both inauguration of the new Covenant in Christ and
the consecratrion of the people of God in Christ.
Hebrews also combines this cultic imagery with its royal aspects – which is reminiscent of
Ps. 110:1-4. This aspect can also be found in the theology of the Qumran sectarians, who expected
a priestly and a royal Messiah. In Christ, this priesthood and kingship is attained in the resurrection,
where the two functions are clearly linked. Jesus, in his self-offering as a sacrifice for sins, has
attained royalty which can only properly be ascribed to God (10:12-13).
d) Faith: The nature of faith has both the aspects of futurity and invisibility (11:1). It concerns
both belief in the invisible God (11:6) and conviction that the prophesied future will happen (11:17).
The author skilfully combines the Old Covenant with the new by asserting that faith was a
characteristic of representative personalities like Abraham, Moses and Isaac.
Faith as explained by Hebrews involved utter commitment, shown by a willingness to suffer
for the greater good, trust in God and perseverance in the face of all opposition and temptations to
choose an easier path (12:4-13). Rather than a personal relationship with Christ, Hebrews
emphasizes perseverance and hope for future fulfilment, which may have been necessitated by their
present situation.
19. James
a) Authorship: Although the author identifies himself at the beginning of the letter, he says
little else about himself. He does not even supply a closing statement which would give us clues.
The traditional view is that he is James the brother of our Lord, the leader of the Jerusalem Church.
He had contacts with Paul (Gal 1:19; 2:9,12; Acts 15:13) and could have written to correct a false
view of Paul’s teaching on faith and works (2:14-26).
However, there are quite a few evidences that point away from the traditional view. a) The
letter does not seem to have been known by the early churches, at least until the time of Origen at
the close of the 2nd century. Such a work by such a prominent leader would surely not have gone
unnoticed for such a long time. b) There is nothing in the letter that could show the author’s
closeness to Jesus and his teachings. If he was really his brother, it is safe to assume that he would
have written on his own authority – which he does not seem to do so. c) The excellent Greek used
by the author is unlikely for an Aramaic speaking Jew from Jerusalem.
Although all these evidences are not individually conclusive, they supply a strong
cumulative case against the traditional view. Therefore it seems more probable that someone else
compiled a set of Christian teachings and sent them out to the Churches under the pseudonymous
name of James. Besides, since the name “James” is the English rendition of “Jacob”, father of the
twelve tribes of Israel, it would provide a strong symbolism for the Christian Church as the new
Israel; and in which the author was the patriarchal authority.
b) Occasion and Purpose: Although a specific occasion for the letter is not evident, it
seems the author of James is concerned that the faith of the community be not merely abstract or
theoretical, but be implemented in action, in every sphere of life. The letter addresses the tendency
to lead a fruitless brand of Christianity that has little bearing on the real struggles of humanity.
This pragmatic approach to the Christian faith is expressed in terms of contrast between the
rich and the poor. The poor are variously characterized as “the humble brother” (1:9), orphans and
widows in distress (1:27) and as “a brother or sister who is naked and lacks daily food” (2:15). The
rich by contrast are those “with gold rings and in fine clothes” (2:2) and those “who say,
‘tomorrow we will go to such and such a place and spend a year there, doing business and making
money’” (4:13) Within this contrast, the author exhorts his readers to identify themselves with the
poor, not only in status but also in active faith. He encourages them to not only hear the Torah but
practice it (1:22; 4:11). All this in effect serves to rectify a faulty and prejudiced perception of the
Pauline justification by faith alone, and openly addresses the crucial element which in Paul had
largely been only implied.
(Thomas W. Leahy, “The Epistle of James,” in Jerome…, New Interpreter’s One-Volume
Commentary, Paul A. Halloway, The Letter of James,” Blackwell Companion to the New
Testament)
c) Faith and Works: The distinctive viewpoint of James is his insistence that faith and
actions are inseparable. However, in laying down his arguments, he stresses the importance of
works to the extent that a person is justified by actions (2:21-22). In the real and present danger of
theoretical, irrelevant Christianity, James emphasizes that faith has no meaning, if not put to work
in concrete everyday lives. This does not stand in opposition to Paul’s justification by faith, but
rather, be understood in the context of the inseparability of faith and works.
(Critical Intro to New Testament)
d) Piety: Believing that “God is one” is the central axiom of James (2:19; cf. Deut 6:4).
Devotion to “God the Father” (1:27) establishes the overarching religious framework of James. On
the whole, James uses positive, endearing images of God, the source of wisdom, who gives
generously to those who ask (1:5). As the Father of lights, perhaps the One who created the
heavenly luminaries, God is not only the source of every good gift, but also of generosity itself
(1:17). Much is made of God the Creator, the One in whose likeness humans are created (3:9). As
One in whom there is no variation (1:17), God is utterly reliable. God can be expected to carry
through on his promises: lovers of God will be rewarded with the crown of life (1:12); they will
also receive the promised kingdom of God (2:5). God’s reliability is also reflected in an unerring
sense of justice. God’s righteousness becomes a standard for evaluating human anger (1:20). God
also sets the expectations for pure and undefiled religion: caring for orphans and widows is a duty
before God (1:27). God takes up the cause of the poor against the rich and makes the poor rich in
faith (2:5), but also hears the cries of the oppressed (5:4). God also reverses the roles of the proud
and the humble (4:6). Followers of God are expected to submit to God (4:7) and to do so with
humility (4:10).
20. Jude
a) Occasion and Purpose: It is generally believed that Jude addresses problems pertaining to
st
1 century Christians. There seems to have been some sort of communal crisis associated with
anonymous intruders (4,19). These people may have been well integrated into the community,
“feast with you” (12). The problems they created probably stemmed from inappropriate behaviour
on their part (16). Their behaviour was unacceptable within the Christian community (4). The letter
has harsh words for them. They are “impious sinners” (15) and “irrational animals” who behave
only by “instinct” (10). They are people who are guided by inappropriate “passions (epithymias)
(16,18).
Since they are called “dreamers”, “speaking violence against the glorious ones” (8),
Bauckham, Neyrey and Kraftchick propose that these are charismatic Christians who live their lives
free of moral restraints. Daniel Harrington also labels them as extreme Paulinists. Although
references to sexual immorality may be rhetorical and stereotypical and therefore do not prove
anything, it may still be said that these were people repudiating the stringent sexual ethic and
guidelines adopted by the author and the majority church members.
In addressing these problems, McCruden surmises that the author seeks formulate a strong
Christian identity in the midst of secular and pagan pressures. They are “called”, are the “beloved
of God” and share with the author a common salvation (3). While those who obediently share this
identity and live according to it will stand blameless at the end (24), deviant members will face
judgement (5-16).
(Mc Cruden, “Jude” in Blackwell Companion to the New Testament)
b) Warning against apostates: Jude is focused on the activities of pseudo-Christians, false
teachers who lead immoral lives and those who propound false doctrines. Besides condemnation,
the concern is also a pastoral one in preserving believers from their bad influence and encouraging
them to stand firm in their faith and obedience. He also makes use of Jewish literature and traditions
to characterize the heretics and prophesy their fate. These “intruders” will be judged by God, just
as sinners of the past were judged by God.
In the context of 1st century honor-shame relations, the author of Jude take great lengths to
put the opponents in a bad light, and warning the community to be wary of them. He compares
them to destructive reefs (spilades) on which the community may become ship-wrecked (12). This
is followed by a series of nature imagery that portray their harmful influences.
((Mc Cruden, “Jude” in Blackwell Companion to the New Testament; I Howard Marshall, Concise
NT Theology)