Introduction to Computer

Numerical Control (CNC)

Fifth Edition

James V. Valentino

Joseph Goldenberg

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Valentino, James.
Introduction to computer numerical control (CNC) / James V. Valentino,
Joseph Goldenberg. — 5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-217603-3 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-217603-3 (alk. paper)
1. Machine—tools—Numerical control. I. Goldenberg, Joseph. II. Title.
TJ1189.V32 2013
621.9'023—dc22

2011009205

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-217603-3

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-217603-3
Contents
1. 1 Introduction to Computer Numerical Control Manufacturing 1

1. 1.1 Chapter Objectives 1

1. 1.2 Introduction 1

2. 1.3 Numerical Control Definition, Its Concepts and Advantages 1

3. 1.4 Definition of Computer Numerical Control and Its Components

2

4. 1.5 Advantages of CNC Compared with NC 2

5. 1.6 Special Requirements for Utilizing CNC 4

6. 1.7 Financial Rewards of CNC Investment 4

7. 1.8 CNC Machining Centers and Turning Centers 5

8. 1.9 Other Types of CNC Equipment 7

9. 1.10 CNC Input and Storage Media 7

1. 1.11 Chapter Summary 10

2. Review Exercises 10

2. 2 Modern Machine Tool Controls 11

1. 2.1 Chapter Objectives 11

1. 2.2 Introduction 11

2. 2.3 Different Types of System Control 11

 3. 2.4 Loop Systems for Controlling Tool Movement 13

4. 2.5 Establishing Locations via Cartesian Coordinates 16

5. 2.6 CNC Machine Axes of Motion 17

6. 2.7 Types of Tool Positioning Modes 20

7. 2.8 Units Used for Positioning Coordinates 21

8. 2.9 Current Advances in Modern Tool Controls 22

1. 2.10 Chapter Summary 23

2. Review Exercises 23

3. 3 Tooling for Hole and Milling Operations 28

1. 3.1 Chapter Objectives 28

1. 3.2 Introduction 28

2. 3.3 Tooling for Drilling Operations 28

3. 3.4 Carbide Insert Technology 32

4. 3.5 Tooling for Hole Operations That Follow Drilling 33

5. 3.6 Cutting Speeds and Feeds 36

6. 3.7 Tooling for Profile Milling and Facing Operations 38

7. 3.8 Coated Tooling 42

8. 3.9 Tool Speeds and Feeds for Milling Operations 42

9. 3.10 Feed Directions for Milling Operations 44

10. 3.11 Cutting Fluids for CNC Operations 45

 1. 3.12 Chapter Summary 48

2. Review Exercises 48

4. 4 Exploring Features of CNC Machining Centers 50

1. 4.1 Chapter Objectives 50

1. 4.2 Introduction 50

2. 4.3 Background on CNC Machining Centers 50

3. 4.4 Tooling Systems Used with Automatic Tool Changers 53

4. 4.5 Methods of Securing Tools in Tool Holders 55

5. 4.6 Methods of Securing Tooling Systems to the CNC Spindle 57

6. 4.7 Automatic Tool Changer Systems 58

7. 4.8 Pallet Loading Systems 60

8. 4.9 Features of the Machine Control Unit (MCU)—Machining

Centers 62

1. 4.10 Chapter Summary 69

2. Review Exercises 69

5. 5 Review of Basic Blueprint Reading for CNC Programmers 72

1. 5.1 Chapter Objectives 72

1. 5.2 Introduction 72

2. 5.3 Projection Conventions Used in Drawings 72

3. 5.4 Visualizing 3d Objects From 2d Orthographic Views 73

4. 5.5 Auxiliary Views 76

 5. 5.6 Sectional Views 78

6. 5.7 Reading Dimensions 78

7. 5.8 Reading Threads and Thread Notes 80

8. 5.9 Reading Surface Finish Symbols and Notes 87

9. 5.10 Reading Material Specifications 91

10. 5.11 Understanding Heat Treatment Notes 94

11. 5.12 Reading Surface Coating Notes 96

12. 5.13 Interpreting Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GDT)

96

13. 5.14 Datums 97

1. 5.15 Chapter Summary 99

2. Review Exercises 100

3. Bibliography 100

6. 6 Mathematics for CNC Programming 101

1. 6.1 Chapter Objectives 101

1. 6.2 Introduction 101

2. 6.3 Determining Sides of Right Triangles 101

3. 6.4 Useful Angle Concepts 102

4. 6.5 Determining Angles of Right Triangles 106

5. 6.6 Oblique Triangles 108

6. 6.7 KwikTrig Trigonometry/Geometry Software 108

 7. 6.8 Installation 109

8. 6.9 Starting KwikTrig 109

1. 6.10 Chapter Summary 111

2. Review Exercises 111

7. 7 An Overview of CNC Shop Activities 115

1. 7.1 Chapter Objectives 115

1. 7.2 Introduction 115

2. 7.3 Essential CNC Shop Activities 115

3. 7.4 Part Drawing Study 115

4. 7.5 Methodizing of Operations for CNC Machining Centers 118

5. 7.6 Deciding on a CNC Machine 118

6. 7.7 Methods of Holding the Part During Machining 119

7. 7.8 Machining Determination 125

8. 7.9 Cutting Conditions 126

9. 7.10 Writing a Programming Manuscript 126

10. 7.11 Inputting Programs to the Machine Control Unit 126

11. 7.12 Setup Procedure 127

12. 7.13 Debugging and Verifying the Program 131

13. 7.14 Part Production 132

1. 7.15 Chapter Summary 132

 2. Review Exercises 133

8. 8 Word Address Programming 134

1. 8.1 Chapter Objectives 134

1. 8.2 Introduction 134

2. 8.3 Programming Language Format 134

3. 8.4 Programming Language Terminology 135

4. 8.5 Arrangement of Addresses in a Block 136

5. 8.6 Program and Sequence Numbers (O, N Codes) 137

6. 8.7 Preparatory Functions (G Codes) 138

7. 8.8 Dimension Words (X, Y, Z ... Codes) 139

8. 8.9 Feed Rate (F Code) 139

9. 8.10 Spindle Speed (S Code) 140

10. 8.11 Miscellaneous Machine Functions (M Codes) 140

11. 8.12 Automatic Tool Changing (M6 Code) 141

12. 8.13 Tool Length Offset and Cutter Radius Compensation (H, D
Codes) 141

13. 8.14 Comments 142

1. 8.15 Chapter Summary 142

2. Review Exercises 142

9. 9 Programming Hole Operations 144

1. 9.1 Chapter Objectives 144

 1. 9.2 Introduction 144

2. 9.3 Fixed or Canned Cycles 144

3. 9.4 Hole Operation Commands 146

4. 9.5 Writing a Hole Operation Program 151

1. 9.6 Chapter Summary 158

2. Review Exercises 158

10. 10 Programming Linear Profiles 164

1. 10.1 Chapter Objectives 164

1. 10.2 Introduction 164

2. 10.3 Linear Interpolation Commands 164

3. 10.4 Writing a Linear Profiling Program 165

4. 10.5 Determining Cutter Offsets for Inclined Line Profiles 170

1. 10.6 Chapter Summary 185

2. Review Exercises 185

11. 11 Programming Circular Profiles 192

1. 11.1 Chapter Objectives 192

1. 11.2 Introduction 192

2. 11.3 Specifying the Plane for Circular Arc Interpolation 192

3. 11.4 Circular Interpolation Commands 192

4. 11.5 Circular Interpolation via Direct Radius Specification 198

 5. 11.6 Profiling at Constant Feed Rate 199

6. 11.7 Determining Cutter Offsets for Line–Arc Profiles 200

1. 11.8 Chapter Summary 212

2. Review Exercises 213

12. 12 Programming With Cutter Diameter Compensation 223

1. 12.1 Chapter Objectives 223

1. 12.2 Introduction 223

2. 12.3 Cutter Diameter Compensation 223

3. 12.4 Advantages of Using Cutter Diameter Compensation 223

4. 12.5 Some Restrictions with Cutter Diameter Compensation 225

5. 12.6 Cutter Diameter Compensation Commands 227

6. 12.7 Cutter Diameter Compensation with Z-Axis Movement 233

7. 12.8 Cutter diameter compensation Interruptions 234

1. 12.9 Chapter Summary 240

2. Review Exercises 241

13. 13 Programming With Subprograms 246

1. 13.1 Chapter Objectives 246

1. 13.2 Introduction 246

2. 13.3 Subprogram Concept 246

3. 13.4 Fanuc Commands for Calling a Subprogram and Returning to

the Main Program 247
 4. 13.5 Additional Subprogram Control Features 249

5. 13.6 General Rules for Subprogramming 251

1. 13.7 Chapter Summary 267

2. Review Exercises 268

14. 14 Introduction to the CNC Lathe 275

1. 14.1 Chapter Objectives 275

1. 14.2 Introduction 275

2. 14.3 Backround on the CNC Lathe 275

3. 14.4 CNC Lathe Axes of Motion 280

4. 14.5 Features of the Machine Control Unit (MCU) Lathes 280

5. 14.6 Basic Lathe Operations 287

6. 14.7 Tooling for CNC Lathe Operations 290

7. 14.8 Cutting Speeds, Feeds, and Depth of Cut for Lathe Operations
293

8. 14.9 Feed Directions and Rake Angles for Lathe Operations 295

1. 14.10 Chapter Summary 297

2. Review Exercises 298

15. 15 Fundamental Concepts of CNC Lathe Programming 300

1. 15.1 Chapter Objectives 300

1. 15.2 Introduction 300

2. 15.3 Establishing Locations via Cartesian Coordinates (CNC

 Lathes) 302

3. 15.4 Types of Tool Positioning Modes (CNC Lathes) 302

4. 15.5 Reference Point, Machine Origin, and Program Origin (Fanuc

Controllers) 303

5. 15.6 Methodizing of Operations for CNC Lathes 304

6. 15.7 Setup Procedures for CNC Lathes 306

7. 15.8 Important Preparatory Functions (G Codes) for Lathes 312

8. 15.9 Important Miscellaneous Functions (M Codes) for Lathes 312

9. 15.10 Setting the Machining Origin 313

10. 15.11 Feed Rate (F Code) 314

11. 15.12 Spindle Speed (S Code) 315

12. 15.13 Spindle Speed with Constant Surface Speed Control 315

13. 15.14 Spindle Speed with Clamp Speed and Constant Surface
Speed Controls 316

14. 15.15 Automatic Tool Changing 317

15. 15.16 Tool Edge Programming 318

16. 15.17 Tool Nose Radius Compensation Programming 318

17. 15.18 Setting up Tool Nose Radius Compensation 319

18. 15.19 Some Restrictions with Tool Nose Radius Compensation 321

19. 15.20 Tool Nose Radius Compensation Commands 321

20. 15.21 Linear Interpolation Commands (CNC Lathes) 324

 21. 15.22 Circular Interpolation Commands (CNC lathes) 326

22. 15.23 Grooving Commands 332

23. 15.24 Return to Reference Point Command 334

1. 15.25 Chapter Summary 335

2. Review Exercises 336

16. 16 Techniques and Fixed Cycles for CNC Lathe Programming 343

1. 16.1 Chapter Objectives 343

1. 16.2 Introduction 343

2. 16.3 Turning and Boring Cycle: G90 343

3. 16.4 Facing Cycle: G94 347

4. 16.5 Multiple Repetitive Cycles: G70–G75 350

5. 16.6 Stock Removal in Turning and Boring Cycle: G71 351

6. 16.7 Finish Turning and Boring Cycle: G70 351

7. 16.8 Peck Drilling and Face Grooving Cycle: G74 357

8. 16.9 Peck Cutoff and Grooving Cycle: G75 363

9. 16.10 Thread Cutting on CNC Lathes and Turning Centers 368

10. 16.11 Single-Pass Threading Cycle: G32 369

11. 16.12 Multiple-Pass Threading Cycle: G92 372

12. 16.13 Multiple Repetitive Threading Cycle: G76 374

1. 16.14 Chapter Summary 377

 2. Review Exercises 377

17. 17 Introduction to CNC Wire EDM 387

1. 17.1 Chapter Objectives 387

1. 17.2 Introduction 387

2. 17.3 Different Types of EDM 387

3. 17.4 Wire EDM Machining: Operation Requirements 391

4. 17.5 CNC wire EDM Machine 394

5. 17.6 Fundamentals of Operating a CNC wire EDM 400

6. 17.7 Programming CNC wire EDM Machines 404

7. 17.8 New Horizons in EDM Machining 413

1. 17.9 Chapter Summary 414

2. Review Exercises 415

18. 18 Modern Computer-Aided Part Programming 422

1. 18.1 Chapter Objectives 422

1. 18.2 Introduction 422

2. 18.3 Modern Developments in the Process of CNC Programming

422

3. 18.4 Using an Off-Line Computer to Write and Store Part Programs

423

4. 18.5 An Introduction to Computer-Aided Programming Languages

423
 5. 18.6 Basic Elements of the APT Programming Language 424

6. 18.7 An Introduction to CAD/CAM Technology 425

7. 18.8 The Elements Comprising CAD 426

8. 18.9 The Elements Comprising CAM 429

9. 18.10 Creating a Complete Part Program Using Mastercam CNC

Software 431

1. 18.11 Chapter Summary 452

2. Review Exercises 452

1. Appendix A Important Safety Precautions 454

1. Personal Attire and Personal Safeguards 454

2. Shop Environment 454

3. Tool Selection and Handling 454

4. CNC Machine Tool Handling 455

5. Machining Practices 455

2. Appendix B 457

1. Summary of G Codes for Milling Operations (FANUC Controllers)

457

2. Summary of G Codes for Turning Operations (FANUC

Controllers) 458

3. Summary of M Codes for Milling and Turning Operations

(FANUC Controllers) 459

4. Summary of Auxiliary Functions (FANUC Controllers) 460

 5. Summary of G Codes for wire EDM Operations 461

6. Summary of T Codes for wire EDM Operations 462

7. Summary of M Codes for wire EDM Operations 462

3. Appendix C 463

1. Recommended Speeds and Feeds for Drilling 463

2. Recommended Speeds and Feeds for Milling 464

3. Recommended Speeds and Feeds for Turning 464

4. Appendix D Summary of Important Machining Formulas 466

5. Appendix E Tables of Important GDT Symbols 468

6. Appendix F Identification System for OD and ID Tools 470

7. Appendix G Running the Mill Simulator 473

1. Predator Simulation Software 473

2. System Requirements 473

3. Conventions Used 474

4. Installation 474

5. Running a Mill Simulation Job Stored on CD 478

6. Using the Virtual CNC to Inspect the Machined Part 480

8. Appendix H Writing and Verifying Mill Part Programs via Predator

Simulation Software 485

1. Writing a Word Address CNC Program via the CNC Editor 485

2. Simulating Programs with Cutter Diameter Compensation (Mill)

 499

9. Appendix I Running The Lathe Simulator 500

1. Running a Lathe Simulation Job Stored on CD 500

2. Using the Virtual CNC to Inspect the Machined Part 505

10. Appendix J Writing and Verifying Turn Part Programs via Predator
Simulation Software 507

1. Writing a word Address CNC Program via The CNC Editor 507

2. Creating Tube Stock 522

11. Glossary 524

12. Index 534

Preface
One of the greatest challenges facing the United States today is in
manufacturing technology. The computer has revolutionized this technology,
virtually transforming the processes of product design, analysis, and
manufacture. Industries are finding that the new manufacturing technology
demands well-trained personnel. Education is now viewed as a continuous
and long-term investment.

The fifth edition of Introduction to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) has

been expanded and improved. Chapter 2 provides a discussion of open
system architecture for tool controls. All the blueprint reading material has
been condensed into Chapter 5 and coverage of CNC wire EDM has been
included in Chapter 17. The material on running the mill and lathe simulator
has been moved to the appendices. A step-by-step description of how to
create a complete part program using Mastercam X5 CNC software is
featured in Chapter 18.

Appendix A has been expanded and Appendix B now includes G,T and M
codes for wire EDM operations. New Appendix G features material on
running the mill simulator. New Appendix I contains material on running the
lathe simulator.

This edition has a Companion Website that features KWIK TRIG right-
triangle solver software and Predator™ simulation software. The software
displays real-time solid model animation of the machining that results from a
word address part program. Additionally, it has an inspection mode that
enables students to section as well as verify the dimensions of the machined
part.

Predator simulation software works properly to simulate all the sample

milling and lathe word address part programs in the text. You can find the
Companion Website at: www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino.
New Features in this Edition
New chapters have been introduced on open system architecture for tool
controls.

A new chapter entitled Introduction to CNC Wire EDM has been added.

Each chapter has been updated, and expanded with material that is
useful to the CNC programmer.

Each chapter begins with a brief listing of objectives and ends with a
chapter summary.

Illustrations and photographs are used liberally throughout to reinforce

pictorially what is being discussed.

Students are frequently directed to boxed-in key terms and concepts.

Flowcharts are used to teach CNC process planning and program

planning.

The important job setup is discussed in the many programming

examples.

Fundamental word address (G and M code) programming is stressed.

Industrial standard practices and terms are emphasized in the

programming examples.

Needless cross-referencing has been eliminated. Each program is listed

with all explanations appearing on the same page.

Pattern recognition is emphasized. The student is taught to recognize a

certain group of programming commands as a programming pattern. For
example, pattern A commands start up the CNC machine, whereas
pattern B commands cause a tool change to take place.
 An excellent assortment of review exercises is provided at the end of
each chapter. Setup notes, a CNC tooling and operations sheet, and a
clamping sketch are provided with each programming exercise.

Predator simulation software enables the student to visualize and verify

the correctness of all written word address part programs in the text.

The industry standard Fanuc controller is emphasized throughout the

text.

Important mathematical principles are reviewed before programming is

presented. A special chapter on right-triangle trigonometry provides the
student with the critical mathematical information needed to understand
programming.

KWIK TRIG right-triangle solver is provided as an aid in easily

determining the sides or angles of right triangles.

The student is exposed to the big picture of CNC shop activities. A

special chapter explains the most important operations to be carried out
in manufacturing a part.

Appendixes contain information useful to the CNC student. They

include a list of important safety precautions; summaries of G and M
codes for milling and turning operations; recommended speeds and
feeds for different materials with respect to drilling, milling, and turning
operations; important and easy-to-use machining formulas.

New appendixes feature additional information useful to the CNC

student. These include tables of important GDT symbols; identification
system for OD and ID tools; step-by-step instructions on how to write
and verify mill and lathe part programs via Predator simulation software.

A comprehensive glossary of key CNC terms is provided at the end of

the text.

Introduction to Computer Numerical Control (CNC), Fifth edition, can be

used as an entry-level text for many different types of training applications.
These include:

Undergraduate and one-semester or two-semester CNC courses

The manual component of a CNC programming course

Industry training course

Seminar on CNC programming

Adult education course

Reference text for self-study

This textbook is designed to be used in many types of educational

institutions:

Four-year engineering schools

Four-year technology schools

Trade schools

Industrial training centers

This work is the result of several years of experience running CNC courses
for both industrial personnel and the students at Queensborough Community
College. We found that many existing texts were either too general or too
advanced for direct application. As a result, we drafted supplementary notes
containing step-by-step information. The notes were enhanced and tested
extensively in the classroom. Several colleagues, both in industry as well as
in education, were called upon for their input. A thorough market survey also
influenced the final content. It should be noted that all programs presented
have been thoroughly tested. The student is advised to take the appropriate
safety precautions when running them on a CNC machine.

James V. Valentino

Joseph Goldenberg
Chapter One Introduction to
Computer Numerical Control
Manufacturing
1.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Explain what computer numerical control (CNC) is and what basic

components comprise CNC systems.

2. State the objectives, advantages, and special requirements concerning

CNC use.

3. Identify the different media used to input and store CNC programs.

4. Describe the two different punched-tape formats used with CNC

machines.
1.2 Introduction
The basic concepts of numerical control (NC) and computer numerical
control (CNC) technology are discussed. Traditional NC and contemporary
CNC hardware configurations are described. The important benefits to be
derived from CNC operations are listed and explained. The different types of
media used for storage and input of CNC programs are then explored. The
reader is introduced to different formats for punched tape, and machining
centers with automatic tool changers, the latest development in CNC, are
considered.
1.3 Numerical Control Definition,
Its Concepts and Advantages
NC has been used in industry for more than 40 years. Simply put, NC is a
method of automatically operating a manufacturing machine based on a code
of letters, numbers, and special characters. A complete set of coded
instructions for executing an operation is called a program. The program is
translated into corresponding electrical signals for input to motors that run the
machine. NC machines can be programmed manually. If a computer is used
to create a program, the process is known as computer-aided programming.
The approach taken in this text will be in the form of manual programming.

Traditionally, NC systems have been composed of the following components:

Tape punch: converts written instructions into a corresponding hole

pattern. The hole pattern is punched into tape which is passed through
the tape punch. Much older units used a typewriter device called a
Flexowriter, and later devices included a microcomputer coupled with a
tape punch unit.

Tape reader: reads the hole pattern on the tape and converts the pattern
to a corresponding electrical signal code.

Controller: receives the electrical signal code from the tape reader and
subsequently causes the NC machine to respond.

NC machine: responds to programmed signals from the controller.

Accordingly, the machine executes the required motions to manufacture
a part (spindle rotation on/off, table and or spindle movement along
programmed axis directions, etc.). See Figure 1.1.
 Figure 1.1
Components of traditional NC systems.

NC systems offer some advantages over manual production methods:

1. Better control of tool motions under optimum cutting conditions.

2. Improved part quality and repeatability.

3. Reduced tooling costs, tool wear, and job setup time.

4. Reduced time to manufacture parts.

5. Reduced scrap.

6. Better production planning and placement of machining operations in

the hands of engineering.
1.4 Definition of Computer
Numerical Control and Its
Components
A CNC machine is an NC machine with the added feature of an onboard
computer. The onboard computer is often referred to as the machine control
unit or MCU. Control units for NC machines are usually hardwired, which
means that all machine functions are controlled by the physical electronic
elements that are built into the controller. The onboard computer, on the other
hand, is “soft” wired, which means the machine functions are encoded into
the computer at the time of manufacture, and they will not be erased when the
CNC machine is turned off. Computer memory that holds such information is
known as ROM or read-only memory. The MCU usually has an
alphanumeric keyboard for direct or manual data input (MDI) of part
programs. Such programs are stored in RAM or the random-access memory
portion of the computer. They can be played back, edited, and processed by
the control. All programs residing in RAM, however, are lost when the CNC
machine is turned off. These programs can be saved on auxiliary storage
devices such as punched tape, magnetic tape, or magnetic disk. Newer MCU
units have graphics screens that can display not only the CNC program but
the cutter paths generated and any errors in the program.

The components found in many CNC systems are shown in Figure 1.2.

Machine control unit: generates, stores, and processes CNC programs.

The MCU also contains the machine motion controller in the form of an
executive software program. See Figure 1.3.

NC machine: responds to programmed signals from the MCU and

manufactures the part.
1.5 Advantages of CNC Compared
with NC
CNC opens up new possibilities and advantages not offered by older NC
machines.

1. Reduction in the hardware necessary to add a machine function. New

functions can be programmed into the MCU as software.

Figure 1.2
Components of modern CNC systems.
Figure 1.3
 A modern machine control unit.

(Photo courtesy of Dejan Lazarevic/Shutterstock.com)

2. The CNC program can be written, stored, and executed directly at the
CNC machine.

3. Any portion of an entered CNC program can be played back and edited
at will. Tool motions can be electronically displayed upon playback.

4. Many different CNC programs can be stored in the MCU.

5. Several CNC machines can be linked together to a main computer.

Programs written via the main computer can be downloaded to any CNC
machine in the network. This is known as direct numerical control or
DNC. See Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4
Direct numerical control.

6. Several DNC systems can also be networked to form a large distributive

numerical control system. Refer to Figure 1.5.

7. The CNC program can be input from flash or floppy disks or

downloaded from local area networks.
Figure 1.5
Distributive numerical control.
1.6 Special Requirements for
Utilizing CNC
CNC machines can dramatically boost productivity. The CNC manager,
however, can only ensure such gains by first addressing several critical
issues, such as the following:

1. Sufficient capital must be allocated for purchasing quality CNC

equipment.

2. CNC equipment must be maintained on a regular basis by obtaining a

full-service contract or by hiring an in-house technician.

3. Personnel must be thoroughly trained in the operation of CNC machines.

In particular, many jobs require setups for machining parts to comply
with tolerances of form and function (GD&T).

4. Careful production planning must be studied because the hourly cost of

operation of a CNC machine is usually higher than that for conventional
machines.
1.7 Financial Rewards of CNC
Investment
Investors are encouraged to look to the CNC machine tool as a production
solution with the following savings benefits:

1. Savings in direct labor. One CNC machine’s output is commonly

equivalent to that of several conventional machines.

2. Savings in operator training expenses.

3. Savings in shop supervisory costs.

4. Savings due to tighter, more predictable production scheduling.

5. Savings in real estate, since fewer CNC machines are needed.

6. Savings in power consumption, since CNC machines produce parts with

a minimum of motor idle time.

7. Savings from improved cost estimation and pricing.

8. Savings due to the elimination of construction of precision jigs, the

reduced need for special fixtures, and reduced maintenance and storage
costs of these items.

9. Savings in tool engineering/design and documentation. The CNC’s

machining capability eliminates the need for special form tools, special
boring bars, special thread cutters, etc.

10. Reduced inspection time due to the CNC machine’s ability to produce
parts with superior accuracy and repeatibility. In many cases, only spot-
checking of critical areas is necessary without loss of machine time.
Using Payback Period to Estimate
Investment Efficiency
The payback period calculation estimates the number of years required to
recover the net cost of the CNC machine tool.

Payback Period= Net Cost of CNC−Net Cost of CNC×Tax CreditSavings

−Savings×Tax Rate+Yearly Depreciation of CNC×Tax Rate

Using Return on Investment (ROI)

to Estimate Investment Efficiency
The ROI calculation predicts what percent of the net cost of the CNC will be
recovered each year. The ROI calculation accounts for the useful life of the
CNC machine tool.

ROI= Average Yearly Savings

−Net Cost of CNC/Years of LifeNet Cost of CNC

Example 1.1
Given the investment figures in Table 1.1 for implementing a new CNC
machine tool, determine the payback period and the annual return on
investment. The CNC is conservatively estimated to have a useful life of 12
years.

Payback
Period= 95,250−95,250×.163,100−63,100×.46+10,900×.46Payback Period=2.19

This calculation estimates that the net cost of the CNC will be recovered in
2.19 years.
ROI= 63,100−95,250/1295,250ROI=.57

This calculation estimates that the investor can expect 57% of the net cost of
the CNC (or .57×$95,250=$54,293) to be recovered each year if the CNC
machine’s useful life is 12 years.

Table 1-1
One-
time Net Average
Initial Tax Tax Yearly
savings cost of yearly
investment credit rate depreciation
in CNC savings
($) (10%) (46%) of CNC ($)
tooling ($) ($)
($)
130,250 35,000 95,250 63,100 .1 .46 10,900
1.8 CNC Machining Centers and
Turning Centers
Machining centers are the latest development in CNC technology. These
systems come equipped with automatic tool changers capable of changing 90
or more tools. Many are also fitted with movable rectangular worktables
called pallets. The pallets are used to automatically load and unload
workpieces. At a single setup, machining centers can perform such operations
as milling, drilling, tapping, boring, counterboring, and so on. Additionally,
by utilizing indexing heads, some centers are capable of executing these tasks
on many different faces of a part and at specified angles. Machining centers
save production time and cost by
 Figure 1.6
A vertical spindle machining center.

(Photo courtesy of Hardinge Inc.)

reducing the need for moving a part from one machine to another. Two types
of machining centers are shown in Figures 1.6 and 1.7.

A more complete discussion of the important features found on machining

centers is deferred until Chapter 4.

Turning centers with increased capacity tool changers are also making a
strong appearance in modern production shops. These CNC machines are
capable of executing many different types of lathe cutting operations
simultaneously on a rotating part. A modern turning center is shown in Figure
1.8.

Figure 1.7
A horizontal spindle machining center with an automatic tool
changer and two pallet work changers.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy)

Figure 1.8
A modern CNC turning center.

(Photo courtesy of Giovanni Burlini/Fotolia.com)

1.9 Other Types of CNC Equipment
In addition to machining centers and turning centers, CNC technology has
also been applied to many other types of manufacturing equipment. Among
these are wire electrical discharge machines (wire EDM) and laser cutting
machines.

Wire EDM machines utilize a very thin wire (.0008 to .012 in.) as an
electrode. The wire is stretched between diamond guides, and carbide that
conducts current to the wire, which cuts the part like a bandsaw. Material is
removed due to the erosion caused by a spark that moves horizontally with
the wire. CNC is used to control horizontal table movements. Wire EDM
machines are very useful for producing mold inserts, extrusion and trim dies,
as well as form tools. See Figure 1.9.

Laser cutting CNC machines utilize an intense beam of focused laser light to
cut the part. Material under the laser beam undergoes a rapid rise in
temperature and is vaporized. If the beam power is high enough, it will
penetrate through the material. Because no mechanical cutting forces are
involved, lasers cut parts with minimal distortion. They have been very
effective in machining slots and drilling holes. See Figure 1.10.
1.10 CNC Input and Storage Media
It will be useful for the reader to become acquainted with the basic concept of
binary number code prior to discussing input and storage methods. Internally,
computers and the MCU operate by a system of electrical switches. A 1 (one)
is processed as an open switch and a 0 (zero) is processed as a closed switch.
All numbers, letters, and special characters are represented in terms of a
unique set of zeros and ones. The only code the computer and MCU can work
on is binary. All externally generated code must first be translated into binary
before these devices can act on it. The binary code from the computer and
MCU must also be translated back into a code operators can understand. The
translation process is automatically executed by devices inside the computer.

The information necessary to perform CNC operations could be entered

manually into the control unit, but this is a long and inefficient process. The
machine is also prevented from making parts while this is being done. Past
input media included 1 in. wide
Figure 1.9
A CNC-controlled wire cutting EDM machine.

(Photo courtesy of James V. Valentino.)

 Figure 1.10
A laser cutting CNC machine.

(Photo courtesy of terex/fotolia.com)

punched tape made of paper, paper-Mylar, or aluminum-Mylar laminates.

The program was punched into the tape in a hole pattern.

Modern CNC technology uses an array of new devices for storing and
loading programs written with the aid of a microcomputer or larger
mainframe computer. These are shown in Figure 1.11.

Disks
These devices store a program in the form of a magnetic pattern on a plastic
disk. During operation, the disk spins and the pattern is read by recording
heads in the disk drive unit. Disks, also known as “floppy” disks, can store up
to 1.44 megabytes (MB) of information.
CD-ROM
The compact disc (CD) is a popular device for storing information in the
form of a pattern of etched pits. An optical laser is used to read the pit pattern
on the spinning disc. CDs offer many advantages over other types of storage
devices: they are a very stable and durable medium, ensuring almost
indefinite storage life. Additionally, they are capable of storing large amounts
of information. A typical CD has a storage capacity of 680 MB. Recordable
(CD-R) discs can have data written on them only once. Re-writeable disks
(CD-RW) can be erased and rewritten with new data. The CD drive used for
this purpose must also be a CD “burner” capable of re-writing data to the CD.

Disks and CD-ROMs are used with personal computers (PCs) and
workstations. They are referred to as random access media. This means that
any information on them can be found and retrieved almost instantaneously.

Portable Hard Drives

These palm 1-1 size devices store data in the form of a magnetic pattern on a
spinning disk, and are connected directly to any USB port on a PC or
workstation. The USB bus power is utilized so no additional power cords or
adapters are needed. They dramatically increase the amount of digital data
that can be stored. The smaller pocket hard drive units have a storage
capacity of between 2.5 GB and 5 GB. The slightly larger portable units can
store data starting in the 40 GB range all the way up to 120 GB. In essence,
they act as additional hard drives.
 Figure 1.11
Modern CNC input and storage methods.

Flash or Jump Drives

A flash or jump drive is a small, portable unit about the size of a stick of gum
that plugs directly into a computer’s USB port. Flash memory stores data
with the use of a special type of electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory (EEPROM) chip. Data is written by applying an electric field to
the entire chip, or to predetermined sections of the chip called blocks. Flash
drives are available in various storage sizes: 512 MB, 2 GB, 4 GB, and 8 GB.
The advantages of using flash devices instead of CDs or external hard drives
are listed as follows:
No fragile moving parts that can break if dropped.

Far smaller in size.

Do not require time-consuming configuration to connect to the

computer.

USB ports are more common than CD or DVD burners.

Flash devices are automatically re-writable and do not require a special

drive.
1.11 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Numerical control (NC) is a method of automatically operating a

manufacturing machine based on a programmed set of instructions.

2. A CNC machine is similar to an NC machine except that in a CNC

machine an onboard computer is used to store, edit, and execute
programmed instructions.

3. CNC use involves substantial investments in equipment, production

planning, and training.

4. CNC machine tools greatly boost productivity.

5. Different methods of input include manual data input (MDI); input

through punched tape, floppy disks, zip disks, CD-ROMs, portable hard
drives, and flash drives; and direct transmission from a remote computer
(DNC).

6. The MCU operates in binary code only. All programs must be translated
into binary.

7. Storage devices include floppy disks, CD-ROMs, portable hard drives,

and flash drives.
Review Exercises
1. 1.1. What is numerical control (NC) and what components traditionally
comprised NC systems?

2. 1.2. What are four objectives of numerical control?

3. 1.3. What advantages does numerical control offer over manual

methods?

4. 1.4. What is a computer numerical control (CNC) machine?

5. 1.5. What improvements do today’s modern CNC machines offer over

traditional NC machines?

6. 1.6. What is meant by the terms direct numerical control and

distributive numerical control?

7. 1.7. Name four requirements that must be satisfied prior to using CNC
in a shop.

8. 1.8. Describe four devices for storing and inputting CNC programs.

9. 1.9. What advantages do flash drives offer over other types of storage
media?

10. 1.10. What is binary code?

11. 1.11. Name three advantages offered by machining centers.

12. 1.12. Describe the financial rewards of CNC investment.

13. 1.13.

1. What is estimated by payback period?

2. What is estimated by return on investment (ROI)?
Chapter Two Modern Machine Tool
Controls
2.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Describe the two types of control systems used to output tool movement.

2. Explain the two types of loop systems used with CNC controllers.

3. Identify the four different types of motors used to control tool

movements.

4. Explain how points are located using the Cartesian coordinate system.

5. Understand CNC machine axis of motion.

6. Explain the significant difference between incremental and absolute

positioning.

7. State what delta and datum dimensioning is.

8. Describe the features of open system architecture for tool controls.

2.2 Introduction
The two major types of CNC control systems are discussed. The Cartesian
coordinate system for locating points is described. Conventions for assigning
machine axes and various types of CNC machine movements are studied.
The important issue of controlling tool movements is presented. The chapter
ends with a consideration of absolute and incremental positioning modes for
specifying tool movements.
2.3 Different Types of System
Control
As stated in Section 1.4, the MCU contains a machine motion controller for
controlling tool movement. Many different types of controllers are available
today, including Fanuc, Allen-Bradley, GE, Okuma, Bendix, Mazak, and
others. The physical appearance of these controllers is somewhat similar and
each responds to a slightly different set of programmed codes. See Figure 2.1.
All control systems, however, fall into two major categories: point-to-point
and continuous path.

Point-to-Point Tool Movements

Point-to-point control systems cause the tool to move to a point on the part
and execute an operation at that point only. The tool is not in continuous
contact with the part while it is being moved to a working location. Some
point-to-point operations are drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, and punching.
See Figure 2.2.

Continuous Path Tool Movements

Continuous path controllers are so named because they cause the tool to
maintain continuous contact with the part as the tool cuts a contour shape.
Continuous path operations include milling along lines at any angle, milling
arcs, and lathe turning. See Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.1
Machine control unit types.

((a) Photo courtesy of James V. Valentino. (b) Photo courtesy of

Dreef/Fotolia.com)
 Figure 2.2
Point-to-point tool movement.

Figure 2.3
Continuous path tool movement.

It should be noted that continuous path controllers output motion by

interpolating each position of the tool. Interpolation is a mathematical method
of approximating the true or exact positions required to follow a
precalculated path. The interpolated positions are determined such that they
differ from the exact positions within an acceptable tolerance. Many
continuous path controllers interpolate curves as a series of straight-line
segments. Very high accuracy can be achieved by making the line segments
smaller and smaller. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4
Interpolation used for continuous path movement.

General Safety Rules for Operating

Any CNC Machine
Prior to machine operations:

Read the safety instructions label posted on the CNC machine.

 Confirm safety of personnel near the CNC machine.

Remove all obstacles from the machine’s working area.

Make sure protection fence is closed.

During machining operations:

Do not enter the working area.

Make sure oil or water does not splash on power supply units.

Wear protective goggles and clothing. Put long hair up.

 Use the EMERGENCY STOP control when there is a possibility of
personal injury or any machine/part damage.

During troubleshooting and maintenance:

Allow only qualified personnel to work on the machine.

First, turn off the power supply.

Be aware that power is still present in the primary side power

cables connecting the breaker box.

Traditionally, continuous path controllers were more expensive than point-to-

point systems. Advancements in microelectronics, however, have reduced the
cost and today most CNC machines come equipped with continuous path
controllers.
2.4 Loop Systems for Controlling
Tool Movement
A loop system sends electrical signals to drive motor controllers and receives
some form of electrical feedback from the motor controllers. One of the
important factors that determine the tolerance to which a part can be cut is the
loop system type.

There are two main systems in use today for controlling CNC machine
movements: the open loop system and the closed loop system.

Open Loop Systems

An open loop system utilizes stepping motors to create machine movements
(see Figure 2.5). These motors rotate a fixed amount, usually 1.8°, for each
pulse received. Stepping motors are driven by electrical signals coming from
the MCU. The motors are connected to the machine table lead screw and
spindle. Upon receiving a signal, they move the table and/or spindle a fixed
amount. The motor controller sends signals back indicating the motors have
completed the motion. The feedback, however, is not used to check how
close the actual machine
 Figure 2.5
Configuration for an open loop system that uses a conventional
Acme lead screw mechanism.

movement comes to the exact movement programmed. Also, the lead screws
used in these systems tend to generate friction and backlash. Backlash can
cause positioning errors if the motions required to machine a part require a
reversal in axis direction.

Closed Loop Systems

Special motors called servos are used for executing machine movements in
closed loop systems. Motor types include AC servos, DC servos, and
hydraulic servos. Hydraulic servos, being the most powerful, are used on
large CNC machines. AC servos are next in strength and are found on many
machining centers.

A servo does not operate like a pulse-counting stepper motor. The speed of
an AC or DC servo is variable and depends upon the amount of current
passing through it. The speed of a hydraulic servo depends upon the amount
of fluid passing through it. The strength of current coming from the Motor
Drive Unit determines the speed at which a servo rotates. A device called a
tachometer is mounted on the backside of each servo to measure and feed
back its angular velocity or RPM. The feedback is sent to the Motor Drive
Unit. The unit compares the motion command from MCU and the voltage
feedback from the tachometer (actual motor speed) and outputs back to the
motor the difference between the two values or error. Velocity and
acceleration control are important in ensuring both tool load and surface
finish are acceptable.

The servos are connected to the spindle. They are also connected to the
machine table through the ball lead screw. The ball lead screw is the heart of
the drive system. It overcomes the problems of lead screws by greatly
reducing friction and backlash. This is accomplished by creating a rolling
motion design in which precision ball bearings roll between the nut and the
screw, which allows for higher precision positioning with greater
repeatability, and positioning at higher speeds with less wear.

A device called a resolver or encoder continuously monitors the distance by

which the table and/or spindle has moved and sends this information back to
the MCU. The MCU can then adjust its signal as the actual table and/or
spindle position approaches the programmed position. Systems that provide
feedback signals of this type are called servo systems or servomechanisms.
They can position tools with a very high degree of accuracy even when
driving motors with high-horsepower ranges. A typical CNC closed loop
system has guaranteed positioning accuracies of .001 or .0001 in. See Figures
2.6 and 2.7.
Figure 2.6
Configuration for a closed loop system that uses a ball lead screw
mechanism.
 Figure 2.7
AC servo motor.

(Photo courtesy of David J. Green-electrical/Alamy)

There has been renewed interest in open loop systems for CNC applications.
Improvements in stepping motor accuracy and power have, in some cases,
eliminated the need for expensive feedback system hardware and its
associated circuitry. These newer systems represented substantial savings in
machine and maintenance costs.

Controlling Backlash in CNC

Systems
All ball screws have some “slop” or backlash at assembly. As stated before,
this backlash causes errors when the screw reverses direction and the nut lags
behind. Modern machine tool laser calibration equipment is used to precisely
measure the amount of pitch error and backlash in the CNC positioning
system. These data are input into a backlash compensation program installed
in the MCU. Backlash compensation is then added to all motor commands.
The backlash parameter values should normally be checked about every 3–6
months, because as the machine wears, the value will increase. Normal wear
might have .005 to .010 in. adjustment in a ball screw. A number higher than
.010 in. is cause for a closer look.

A good tip is to change the location of setups on the machine table to spread
even wear on the screws. Care should also be taken to keep the screws away
from excessive chip buildups that can be forced into the mechanism and
cause premature wear.
2.5 Establishing Locations via
Cartesian Coordinates
The location of a CNC tool at any time is controlled by a system of XYZ
coordinates called Cartesian coordinates. This system is composed of three
directional lines, called axes, mutually intersecting at an angle of 90°. The
point of intersection is known as the origin. The XY coordinate plane is
broken up into four quadrants. The value and sign of an ordered pair (X, Y) of
coordinates determines the X and Y distances of a point from the origin and
the quadrant in which the point is located. These concepts are illustrated in
Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8
The Cartesian coordinate system.
Example 2.1
Graphically indicate the locations of the points A (3, -2), B (1, 4), C (-2, -3),
and D (-3, 4) in the XY plane. See Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9
XY plane.

Example 2.2
Graphically indicate the locations of the points A (3, 2, 1) and B (4, -1, -1) in
XYZ space. These points are shown in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10
XYZ space.
2.6 CNC Machine Axes of Motion
CNC equipment executes machining operations by performing some form of
sliding linear motion and rotary motion. The actual method of movement is
designed by the manufacturer and can vary from machine to machine. For
example, the table can move in the horizontal plane (XY-axis motion) and the
spindle in the vertical plane (Z-axis motion). The system will respond to a
command to move the spindle (tool) along the +X or +Y axis by moving the
table in the opposite direction, -X or -Y. Because the machine automatically
knows how to move in response to an axis command, the programmer need
not be concerned whether it is the spindle or table that moves. The main point
is that, in the end, the tool arrives at the programmed location. Thus, the
machine axis will be defined in terms of spindle movement.

Note
For programming purposes, programmers should consider the CNC machine
table as locked with only the tool in the spindle moving along ±X, ±Y, and ±Z
axes.

Present standards for machine axes are established according to the industry
standard report EIA RS-267A. These standards include the following:

1. Primary machine axes of movement should follow the right-hand rule.

See Figure 2.11.
 Figure 2.11
The right-hand rule for linear motion.

2. Spindle movement is primarily along the Z axis. Movement into the

work is along the -Z axis and movement away from the work is along
the +Z axis.

3. In a majority of milling machines, motion along the X axis is the longest

travel perpendicular to Z. Motion indicated by -X is directly opposite to
that indicated by +X. The X axis is parallel to the work holding and is in
the horizontal plane. The X axis moves to the right along a plane of the
work as the operator looks at that plane.
 Figure 2.12
Machine axis for a three-axis vertical CNC machine (machine
axis defined as spindle movement).

4. With regard to milling machines, motion along the Y axis is the shortest
travel perpendicular to Z. Motion indicated by -Y is directly opposite to
that indicated by +Y. The Y axis is in the same plane as the X axis.
Looking at the plane, the operator will note that the Y axis is
perpendicular to the X axis.

Most CNC milling machines can perform simultaneous motions along

the X, Y, and Z axes and are called three-axis machines. See Figures 2.12
and 2.13.

More complex CNC machines have the capability of executing additional

rotary motions.

Rotation about an axis parallel to the X axis, or A-axis rotation

 Rotation about an axis parallel to the Y axis, or B-axis rotation

Rotation about an axis parallel to the Z axis, or C-axis rotation

For example, a three-axis horizontal machining center that is equipped with a

rotary table will be capable of motion about a fourth axis or C-axis rotation.
If the machining center has the additional capability of tilting the machine
table on spindle about the A or B axis, fourth and fifth axes are added. Such a
machine is then capable of five simultaneous motions: three linear and two
rotational. See Figure 2.14.

Rotary motion directions also follow the right-hand rule. See Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.13
Machine axis for a three-axis horizontal CNC machine (machine
axis defined as spindle movement).
Figure 2.14
A rotary index table for adding a fourth axis to a CNC machine.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy)

 Figure 2.15
The right-hand rule for rotary motion.

Four- and five-axis machines are used to machine parts with complex
surfaces. See Figures 2.16 and 2.17.

Figure 2.16
The six possible machine axes for a vertical CNC machine
(machine axis defined as spindle movement).

Figure 2.17
A five-axis machining operation.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy)

2.7 Types of Tool Positioning Modes
Within a given machine axes coordinate system, a CNC can be programmed
to locate tool positions in the following modes: incremental, absolute, or
mixed (incremental and absolute).

Incremental Positioning
Machines operating in incremental positioning mode locate each new tool
position by measuring from the last tool position established. See Figure 2.18
for an illustration of incremental positioning.

Incremental positioning has some drawbacks. The most notable is that if one
incremental movement is in error, all subsequent movements will also be
incorrect.

Note
With delta dimensioning, each new dimension is specified by measuring it
relative to the dimension previously entered. Delta dimensioning is well
suited to incremental position programming.
 Figure 2.18
Delta dimensioning for incremental mode positioning.

Figure 2.19
Datum dimensioning for absolute mode positioning.

Absolute Positioning
When operating in absolute positioning mode, the machine determines each
new tool position from a fixed home or specified origin (0, 0). Refer to
Figure 2.19.

Many modern controllers are capable of operating in either incremental or

absolute positioning mode. The programmer can switch from one to the other
by inputting a single code.

Note
With datum dimensioning, a datum or zero reference line is established. All
linear dimensions are then taken relative to the datum line. Datum
dimensioning is well suited to absolute position programming.
2.8 Units Used for Positioning
Coordinates
In the United States, positioning coordinates are specified in either the
English system (e.g., inch) or the metric system (e.g., millimeter). Most
manufacturing outside the United States is done using the metric system. Up-
to-date CNC machines are built to accept programs written with either
system. To use the metric system, parts must be dimensioned in metric
measurements. Conversion is easy if metric tools are also used. If inch tools
are used, their dimensions must first be converted to metric to ensure that the
proper coordinates are input for milling. It is safe to say that programmers
will be working with both systems during their careers, so both systems
should be understood.

The millimeter and inch are related as follows:

1⁢ mm≈ .0394 in.1 in.≈ 25.4 mm

See Figure 2.20 for an illustration of a part dimensioned in both units.

Figure 2.20
A part dimensioned in English and metric units.
2.9 Current Advances in Modern
Tool Controls
Open Systems
The move today is toward open system architecture for CNC machine tools.
Open system architecture has the following features:

1. All the components that make up the CNC control are sold unbundled.
This includes the software, hardware, installation, and training.

2. The motion control cards and hardware can be purchased off the shelf
from several vendor choices and not from a single proprietary source.

3. The system’s Application Programming Interface (API) can be edited to

run third party software programs.

4. The control has the capability of collecting and distributing real-time

data that are operator definable. The data can be sent across a network
by the control.

5. The user installs, configures, and maintains the control without the need
for a proprietary maintenance contract.

The most widely used Windows-based CNC control software for open
controls is OpenCNC from Manufacturing Data Systems Inc. (MDSI).

Three main specifications for open system architecture currently exist today.

Open System Architecture for Controls within Automation Systems

(OSECA): This standard was started in 1992 in Europe. Its API features
limited functionality.
Open System Environment for Controller (OSEC): This standard was
begun in Japan in 1994. Many companies like Toyoda, Toshiba,
Yamazaki, IBM, and SML have joined the standard. It features modular,
swap in–swap out software architecture.

Open Modular Architecture Controller (OMAC): It was started in the

USA in 1994. One of its strong features is its extensive API library
which is intended to overcome the shortcomings of OSECA The typical
components found in open system architecture are shown in Figure 2.21.
Figure 2.21
Components in open system architecture.
2.10 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Two different types of control systems are used to specify tool positions:
point-to-point and continuous path. These modes can be mixed in one
program.

2. The four types of drive motors used to position tools are stepping
motors, AC motors, DC servos, and hydraulic servos.

3. Open loop systems cause tool movement by executing a discrete number

of displacements. Feedback does not include information for checking
true versus programmed position. Closed loop systems cause tool
movement by executing continuous but varied displacements. Feedback
does include information for checking true versus programmed position.

4. Backlash is the small space that exists between the nut and screw of a
positioning system. Backlash causes errors when the screw reverses
direction and the nut lags behind.

5. Modern CNC systems control backlash by using ball screws, split nuts,
laser calibration equipment, and backlash compensation software
installed in the MCU.

6. The Cartesian coordinate system is used to specify the direction and

location of tool movement. Any point in space is located by specifying
its X, Y, and Z coordinates.

7. CNC machine movements are specified by the machine axes.

8. Programmers should consider the CNC machine table as locked, with

only the tool in the spindle moving along the machine axes.

9. In incremental positioning, each new tool location is taken relative to the

previous tool location.
10. In absolute positioning, each new tool location is taken relative to a
fixed origin.

11. Delta dimensioning is well suited to incremental position programming.

12. Datum dimensioning is well suited to absolute position programming.

13. Open controls enable operators to use unbundled non-proprietary

software and hardware to drive CNC machine tools.
Review Exercises
1. 2.1 Identify the two types of control systems used to output tool
movement. What is the difference between them?

2. 2.2 What is interpolation? How is it used to cut curves?

3. 2.3 What is a loop system?

4. 2.4 Explain the difference between an open loop system and a closed
loop system.

5. 2.5 Name the factors of importance when selecting a loop system.

6. 2.6 What is backlash? How does backlash affect positioning accuracy?

7. 2.7 How is backlash controlled in CNC systems?

8. 2.8 What are machine axes?

9. 2.9 Spindle movement is primarily along the axis.

10. 2.10 Table movements for most milling machines are along the
and axes.

11. 2.11 What two types of programming modes can be used to specify tool
position? How do they differ?

12. 2.12 What is the difference between delta dimensioning and datum
dimensioning?

13. 2.13 Write the absolute X and Y coordinates of the points shown in
Figure 2.22.

14. 2.14 Write the incremental X and Y coordinates of the points in Figure
2.22. Use the following order: origin to PT1, from PT1 to PT2, from
 PT2 to PT3 ... finish with PT8.

15. 2.15 Mark the position of the points as listed in the table in each case.
See Figure 2.23.

1. Treat the points as absolute X, Y coordinates with each new

location taken from (0, 0).

Figure 2.22
Absolute XY coordinates on plane.

PT X Y
1 2.000 3.000
2 4.000 -4.000
3 -1.000 -2.000
4 0.000 0.000
 5 -5.000 -3.000
6 0.000 -2.000
7 1.000 1.000
8 -2.000 3.000
9 4.000 5.000
10 -3.000 -2.000
11 0.000 -3.000
12 -2.000 -3.000
13 0.000 3.000
14 5.000 3.000

2. Treat the points as incremental X, Y coordinates with each new

location taken relative to the last point marked. Refer to Figure
2.24.
 Figure 2.23
Absolute XY coordinates on plane.

Figure 2.24
Incremental XY coordinates on plane.

16. 2.16 In each case write the X and Y coordinates of the center of each
hole for the hole pattern dimensioning given.

1. Absolute X and Y coordinates. Refer to Figure 2.25

 Figure 2.25
Hole pattern for absolute XY coordinates.

2. Incremental X and Y coordinates. Refer to Figure 2.26

 Figure 2.26
Hole pattern for incremental XY coordinates.

17. 2.17 Assume a CNC machine capable of both incremental and absolute
positioning is to be used to produce the hole patterns shown in Figure
2.27

1.

Write the absolute coordinate to drill hole #1.

Write the incremental coordinate to then drill holes A, B, C,

and D.

2.

Write the absolute coordinate to drill hole #2.

Write the incremental coordinates to then drill holes E, F, G,

and H.
 Figure 2.27
Part drawing and hole location drawing.

18. 2.18 Consider the part shown in Figure 2.28.

Figure 2.28
Part drawing and hole locations/cutter locations.
1. Write the absolute coordinates for holes #2, #3, and #4.

Absolute X and Y coordinates

HOLE X Y
#2
#3
#4

2. Write the incremental coordinates for holes #1, #3, and #4. Start at
the lower left-hand corner of the part and move to the holes in the
order described.

Incremental X and Y coordinates

HOLE X Y
#1
#3
#4

3. Assume the spindle is positioned at hole #3. Write the incremental

coordinates required to move from there to holes #2, #1, and #4 in
that order.

Write the absolute coordinate to accomplish the same task.

Incremental X and Y coordinates Absolute X and Y coordinates

HOLE X Y HOLE X Y
#2 #2
#1 #1
#4 #4

4. A .625 in. diameter end mill is being used to mill the part
periphery.

Write the absolute coordinate of the center of the cutter at

positions A, B, C, and D.
 Write the incremental coordinate of the center of the cutter at
positions A, B, C, and D.

Absolute X and Y coordinates Incremental X and Y coordinates

CUTTER CENTER X Y CUTTER CENTER X Y
A A
B B
C C
D D

19. 2.19 Describe five features present in open system architecture for tool
controls.
Chapter Three Tooling for Hole and
Milling Operations
3.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. State the types and applications of drills used with CNC equipment.

2. Describe tooling used for such hole operations as boring, reaming,

tapping, counterboring, and countersinking.

3. Explain the meaning of tool speeds and feeds for hole operations.

4. Identify the types and applications of milling tools used with CNC
equipment.

5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using special tooling such

as spade drills, carbide insert drills, and carbide insert mills.

6. Explain the meaning of tool speeds and feeds for milling operations.

7. State the difference between climb milling and conventional milling.

8. Explain the need for using cutting fluid for CNC operations.
3.2 Introduction
The CNC programmer must be thoroughly knowledgeable in the machining
operations pertaining to the CNC machine to be programmed. CNC tooling is
tied to machining operations planning. This chapter presents a review of
important tools and tool usage in CNC machining operations. Drilling
accounts for a majority of hole operations, and is discussed first. Other hole
operations covered are boring, reaming, tapping, counterboring, and
countersinking. Tooling for milling operations is also considered. The reader
is introduced to profile and face milling operations.

Carbide tooling is an important aspect of modern CNC tooling. Carbide insert

tools for hole operations are discussed and illustrated. Tool speeds and feeds
are used to determine, to a large extent, the performance of a cutting tool.
They are defined for drilling as well as milling operations. The chapter ends
with a discussion of the use of cutting fluids with tooling.
3.3 Tooling for Drilling Operations
Drilling, in most cases, is the first machining operation performed in the total
production of a hole. Drills usually do not produce holes of high accuracy. To
give the hole its required characteristics of precision of size, shape, location,
finish, and internal configurations, other tools must be used, including
reamers, borers, and taps.

Twist Drills
The most important tool used in drilling is the twist drill. This end cutting
tool has two helical grooves or flutes cut around a center called a web. The
flutes act as cutting edges for feeding the tool into the material and as
channels for admitting lubricant and carrying away the cut chips. The web
gives the drill strength in resisting deflections. Metal cutting twist drills are
made from a wide range of materials ranging from carbon tool steel to solid
carbide. They are sized by diameter as follows.

In the English system:

Number sizing—from 1 (.228 in.) to 97 (.0059 in.)

Letter sizing—from A (.234 in.) to Z (.413 in.)

Fractional sizing—from 1/64 in. to 63/64 in.

In the metric system:

From .2 mm to 50.5 mm

Twist drills are illustrated in Figure 3.1.

Straight shanks are common for drills up to 1/2 in. Larger drills can have
straight or tapered shanks. The tangs of the tapered shank prevent slipping
while the drill is cutting larger holes.

Drilling accuracy tends to decrease when either drill length or drill size is
increased. Longer drills exhibit less stiffness and more torsional deflection. A
good rule of thumb is to select the shortest drill possible for any hole
operation. Drills must be sharpened by grinding the tip and the flute edges at
precise angles.

Center Drills
As was stated previously, twist drills are not capable of locating programmed
hole centers with sufficient accuracy due to several factors, including flute
length, drill diameter, drill flexibility, cutting edge preparation, and material
hardness. To better locate a hole center, a short, stubby drill called a center
drill is used first. The resulting starter hole is used to guide the twist drill into
the material with a minimum of inaccuracy. Figure 3.2 illustrates a plain-type
center drill as well as a spotting and centering drill. The plain type is the most
commonly used and produces a straight pilot hole and a 60° countersink.

Most spot drills have either 90° or 120° point angles. For jobber and longer
length drills, better positioning and size control can be achieved by first spot
drilling.
 Figure 3.1
Parts of straight shank twist drills.

(Photo courtesy of David J. Green/Alamy.)

Figure 3.2
Center drill types.

(Courtesy of Greenfield Industries, Inc.)

Figure 3.3
Drill depth for center drilling.

Good practice is to create a center drill hole such that the countersunk portion
is approximately .003 to .006 in. larger than the corresponding twist drill
diameter. This is shown in Figure 3.3.

When drilling through a material, common practice is to allow one-third of

the diameter of the drill plus 100 thousandths to extend beyond the material.
See Figure 3.4.

Coolant-Fed Drills
Coolant-fed drills have one or two holes passing from the shank to the cutting
point. Compressed air, oil, or cutting fluid is passed through the drill as it
operates. This system enables the cutting point and work to be cooled as
chips are flushed out. These drills are especially useful for drilling deep
holes. See Figure 3.5.

Spade Drills
A spade drill consists of a blade holder to which one of several different size
drill point blades may be bolted. Spade drills offer several advantages over
twist drills for drilling holes with 1 in. or greater diameter. The larger web of
the spade drill ensures that during penetration less flexuring occurs and thus a
more accurate hole results. Tooling costs are lower with spade drills because
eight standard blade holders will accommodate all blade widths, normally
ranging from 5/8 to 6 in. Worn blades can be either resharpened or simply
replaced with new ones. Job setup for CNC hole operations is also reduced.
Spade drills are designed to machine a hole from the solid in one pass,
eliminating the need for center drilling or multiple-pass drilling to gradually
enlarge the hole size.

In order to utilize a spade drill, a 50% or greater torque machine is needed

beyond that normally used for drilling with a standard twist drill. The
machine and the setup must also have increased rigidity.

Most spade drills operate with coolant flowing through the drill for heat
dissipation and flushing out the chips. Thus, a high-pressure coolant system is
usually installed. The depth of holes is also limited with spade drills because
flutes do not exist to help carry away the cut chips. The cutting edges of the
blade incorporate chip splitting and breaking action to reduce chip size and to
facilitate chip removal.

Figure 3.4
Drill clearance for through holes.

Figure 3.5
A coolant-fed drill.

(Photo courtesy of Greenfield Industries, Inc.)

 Figure 3.6
Indexable insert form cutters.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy.)

Indexable Insert Drills

These drills represent the latest state-of-the-art advancements in CNC hole
drilling for hole diameters ranging from 5/8 to 3 in. They offer all the
advantages of spade drills including replaceable (indexable) inserts (Figure
3.6). They are capable of drilling from the solid at penetration rates of 5–10
times that of twist drills or spade drills. The higher-strength carbide tips allow
the tool to be driven into the hardest materials. See Figure 3.7. Feed forces
are no higher than those required by twist drills. However, higher machining
forces demand substantial spindle horsepower. A high-pressure coolant
system is needed along with sufficient machine rigidity. The main
disadvantages of using carbide inserts are their brittleness and their
sensitivity to shock. If not used properly, inserts tend to chip or crack.

Carbide inserts used in drilling tools are manufactured in various sizes and
shapes, as illustrated in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.7
Carbide tip drill.

(Photo courtesy of 1990 Richard Megna-Fundamental

Photographs)
Figure 3.8
Carbide insert shapes and sizes for drills.
3.4 Carbide Insert Technology
A general system for identifying the shapes and sizes of inserts is normally
given in toolmaker catalogs. A sample system is shown in Figure 3.9.
 Figure 3.9
Insert Identification System.

Figure 3.10
Carbide insert grades and machining applications.

ANSI
ISO Machining
(USA) Material suitable for machining
class operation
class
K30 Cast iron, work-hardened stainless Rough
C1
K20 steels, and nonferrous metals machining
K20 General
C2
K25 machining
K10 Finish
C3
K15 machining
K01 Fine-finish
C4
K05 machining
K40 Stainless steels, tool steel, and Rough
C5 K50 general alloy steels machining

K25 General
C6
K35 machining
K10 Finish
C7
K25 machining
K01 Fine-finish
C8
K05 machining

Carbide inserts are graded by the American National Standards Institute

(ANSI) or USA class according to the C system. Grades C1–C4 are
composed of tungsten carbide with cobalt binder. They are used to machine
cast iron, work-hardened stainless steels, titanium, and other nonferrous
metals. Grades C5–C8 include titanium carbide additions and are known as
steel cutting grades. The ISO system is used in Europe and Japan. It employs
the P group for cutting ferrous metals that form long chips, the M group for
cutting ferrous and nonferrous metals that form long or short chips, and the K
group for short chipping ferrous and nonferrous metals. It should be noted
that the carbide composition for an ANSI class will not necessarily be the
same for the corresponding ISO classification. A table listing ANSI and ISO
classifications is given in Figure 3.10.

The general practice is to select the hardest and longest wearing grade that
will withstand a machining operation. The operator can then back off to a
tougher but softer grade only if forced by insert chipping or fracturing.

Today many vendors manufacture carbide inserts, and each has its own
grading system. For example, Kennametal uses the K system; GTE Valenite
the VC system; Sandvick the GC, SMA, S, H, and HM systems; and
Greenleaf the G (uncoated grades), GA (coated grades) system. Vendors also
supply supplementary grades within a particular ANSI class. Vendor tool
catalogs usually give a complete listing of the relationship between their
grading system and the standard ANSI or ISO systems. The reader is advised
to consult these catalogs for more detailed information.
3.5 Tooling for Hole Operations
That Follow Drilling
Additional hole operations following drilling include boring, reaming,
tapping, counterboring, spotfacing, and countersinking.

Figure 3.11
Carbide insert boring tools.

(Photo courtesy of Bilderbox/INSADCO Photography/Alamy.)

Boring
Boring is used for two main purposes: enlargement of an existing hole and
accurate readjustment of the center location of the enlarged hole. Better hole
straightness and surface finish can also be achieved by boring. Some typical
boring tools are shown in Figure 3.11.
As a rule, the shortest boring bar should be selected for any operation. As
with drills, the greater the length-to-diameter ratio, the more flexible and
error prone the boring bar will be. The finish of the surface inside the hole
will also be affected because long bars tend to chatter.

Reaming
As stated previously, a twist drill will not consistently cut holes to the exact
size and surface finish. If a high degree of accuracy for these results is
required, an additional operation called reaming must be included.

A reamer is a cylindrical tool with straight or helical cutting edges. The

majority of reamers are made of high-speed steel. Carbide-tipped and solid
reamers are also available as are cobalt high-speed steel tools. Reamers cut
on the sides as well as the ends. Hole type, hole size, and the number of holes
to be reamed in a production run will determine the type of reamer used. As a
rule of thumb, a straight-flute reamer is used as a starting tool. If chips cause
trouble in reaming blind holes, a right-hand spiral reamer may be used to pull
them up.

Using shell reamers is a very economical way for machining holes larger than
3/4 in. One shank fits several different size ream cartridges. Some typical
reaming tools are shown in Figure 3.12.

It should be noted that the reamer is guided by the existing hole. Therefore, it
will not correct errors in hole location or straightness. If these problems exist
it is advisable to first bore, then ream.
 Figure 3.12
Reaming tools.

(Photo courtesy of Greenfield Industries, Inc.)

Tapping
The process of cutting threads on the inside of a hole by a tap is called
tapping. This can be a delicate and sometimes troublesome process
depending upon the material type and the thread depth. The main problem
with tapping is clearing chips from the hole. Taps are made from a variety of
materials such as carbon tool steel, high-speed steel, and carbide. Titanium
nitride (TiN) is often used to create a hard, wear-resistant outer coating or
case on taps. Hand taps are not recommended for use in CNC machines
unless they are driven by a special tapping attachment. The attachment
contains a clutch that slips when the tap experiences too much torque or
suddenly jams in the hole. For blind threads, normal practice is to use a
spiral-fluted tap. Plug types are used to cut threads to a specific depth while
bottoming types cut threads at the bottom of the hole.

The flutes are designed to admit lubricant as well as force chips to flow back
out of the hole.

Spiral-pointed or “gun” taps are used in CNC machines to cut through

threads. They are designed to admit lubricant as well as force the chips to
flow through the hole ahead of the tap. The term gun comes from the fact that
the tap “shoots” the chips ahead as it cuts the threads.

Some typical tapping tools used in CNC machines are shown in Figure 3.13.

Standard tables for selecting appropriate tap drills for tap sizes can be found
in such references as Machinery’s Handbook. Selecting the proper size tap
drill ensures that the tap will work properly in the hole when cutting threads.
Counterboring
It is often desirable to enlarge a hole to a depth slightly larger than the head
of a specific bolt or pin to allow for the head to be buried below the machined
surface. For CNC operations, counterboring is usually done with an end mill
or flat bottom drill.

Figure 3.13
Tapping tools. (a, b)
 (Photo courtesy of Greenfield Industries, Inc.)

Figure 3.14
A three-flute countersinking tool.

(Photo courtesy of Greenfield Industries, Inc.)

Countersinking
Countersinking involves enlarging the top end of a hole in the form of cone-
shaped depression. In order to allow a flat or oval head machine screw to be
flush or slightly below the surface when inserted, the cone angle is usually
82° or 90°, respectively, and is made with a countersink tool. Threaded holes
should be countersunk slightly larger than the tap diameter to protect the
starting threads unless the production part drawing calls for no chamfer. A
typical countersinking tool is shown in Figure 3.14.

Problems can arise concerning the difference between the theoretical vertex
point on the tool and its actual existing value. An optical indicator should be
used to determine the actual vertex height of the tool. This measurement will
avoid countersinking too deeply.
3.6 Cutting Speeds and Feeds
For a certain diameter tool and tool type, the two most important parameters
that must be specified when cutting a particular material are its speed and
feed. These values influence tool life and cutting performance.

Tool Speed
Tool speed is defined as the speed of any point on the circumference of the
tool. It is usually expressed in surface feet per minute or sfpm. The cutting
speed and tool diameter selected will determine the rotation of the spindle in
revolutions per minute or spindle rpm. These concepts are illustrated in
Figure 3.15.

π×tool diameter12=tool circumference

( ft)π×tool diameter×spindle rpm12=cutting speed (sfpm)

In English units:

Spindle rpm= 12×cutting speed (sfpm)π×tool diameter (in.)

 Figure 3.15
Tool speed.

In most cases the value of spindle rpm is not required to a high degree of
accuracy so the following roundoff is often used:

π12 = 3.14159312 ≈ 312 or 14

Spindle rpm= 4×cutting speed (sfpm)tool diameter (in.)

In metric units:

Spindle rpm= 1000×cutting speed (mmpm)π×tool diameter (mm)

where the tool diameter is expressed in millimeters (mm) and the tool cutting
speed is expressed in millimeters per minute (mmpm).

The speed selected for a particular hole operation tool will depend on several
factors, some of which are as follows:

Type of hole operation, material hardness, hole depth

Type of tool used and type of lubricant or coolant used

Type of hold-down fixture and CNC machine used

Selecting a speed that is too high can lead to excessive dulling and burning of
the tool’s cutting edges. On the other hand, speeds that are too low may cause
the tool to wear excessively or break under operation. Refer to Appendix C
for a comprehensive list of drilling speeds.

For reaming, the cutting speeds should be approximately 1/2 to 2/3 of that
used for drilling the material.

Spindle rpm values for tapping operations are determined by a number of

parameters and usually range from 50 to 300 rpm.

Newer machines with rigid tapping or tapping heads can tap at higher rpm
values. Aluminum, for example, can be tapped at 3000 rpm with this type of
equipment.

Counterboring and countersinking speeds should be in the neighborhood of

1/4 of that used for drilling the material.

Tool Feed (Hole Operations)

Tool feed for hole operations is defined as the rate at which the tool advances
into the work per revolution. It is expressed in inches per revolution or ipr.

By multiplying the tool feed in ipr by the spindle rpm, one arrives at the tool
feed rate in inches per minute or ipm. The tool feed rate is the value to be
entered into the CNC program.

In English units:

Tool feed rate (ipm)=ipr×rpm (hole operations)

where the penetration rate, ipr, is expressed in inches per revolution and rpm
is the spindle speed.

In metric units:

Tool feed rate (mmpm)=s×rpm

where the penetration rate, s, is expressed in millimeters per revolution, rpm

is the spindle speed, and tool feed rate is given in millimeters per minute
(mmpm).

Approximate values of tool feed rates for various hole operations are listed in
Appendix C.

Reaming feed rates should be approximately two to three times greater than
needed for drilling the same material.

Tapping feed rates can depend on the number of threads per inch for the tap
and the spindle rpm.

Example 3.1
Determine the feed rate for a tap having 18 threads per inch and rotated at
300 rpm.

Actual feed rate= 1 in.18 rev×300 revmin=16.7 ipm

Tapping is usually done with a floating clutch tap holder. For the holder to be
effective, the programmed feed rate should be slightly less than the actual
value. Thus,

Programmed feed rate=16 ipm

3.7 Tooling for Profile Milling and
Facing Operations
Profiling is the process of creating a contour by removing material with a
cutter that has teeth on its periphery. Refer to Figure 3.16 for an illustration
of profile milling. Face milling involves the creation of a flat surface by
making successive passes with the bottom of a face mill or end mill cutter.
Face milling is illustrated in Figure 3.22. In profiling, the axis of rotation of
the cutter is parallel to the machined surface. In face milling, the axis of
rotation of the cutter is perpendicular to the machined surface. Both of these
operations also involve continuous path tool motion in which the tool remains
in contact with the part.

End Mills
The most frequently used tool for profiling operations is the end mill cutter. It
is particularly suited to CNC operations involving a minimum of setup when
short or medium production runs are to be made. End mills are also used for
facing, slotting, plunging, and cavity cutting. End mill cutters range in size
from .32 to 2 in. in diameter. The parts of a single end mill cutter are shown
in Figure 3.17. End mill tools are manufactured with two, three, four, or more
flutes. The flutes are helically grooved portion of the tool used to carry away
cut chips and admit lubricant or coolant. The number of flutes is an important
factor in selecting an end mill tool for a job. The more flutes, the shallower or
smaller the flutes become on an end mill. The solid center section of an end
mill increases as the number of flutes increases. Thus, end mills with more
flutes will be more rigid in cutting operations. Two-flute end mills are
recommended for machining softer gummy materials such as aluminum and
copper. For harder, tougher materials such as steel, four-flute end mills are
used.

The four-flute end mill shown in Figure 3.17 does not have end teeth that go
all the way to its center. Thus, it cannot be used for plunging directly into the
center of a solid material. The end teeth on the three-flute end mill shown in
Figure 3.18, however, do pass through its center. This tool is also called a
center cutting mill. It can be used for rough

Figure 3.16
Profile milling.

Figure 3.17
 Parts of a four-flute end mill cutter.

(Photo courtesy of Nikola Bilic/Fotolia.com)

drilling holes from solid, counterboring, and boring as well as slotting and
cavity cutting. Holes that have been drilled with a drill can be sized to a high
degree of accuracy by using an end mill. Center cutting mills are also
manufactured with three or more flutes.

Roughing end mills are referred to as hogging cutters. They have grooves or
scallops around the body and produce a broken-up chip. They generate lower
side loads than cutters with smooth helical teeth. These factors enable
roughing end mills to remove metal at a rate three times that of the usual end
mills.

The versatility of end mills allows a shop to cut down on tooling costs,
tooling inventory, and job setup time. Various types of end mill cutters and
their uses are shown in Figures 3.18 through 3.20.

Figure 3.18
Single end three-flute end mill.

(Photo courtesy of David Kilpatrick/Alamy.)

Figure 3.19
Form mills-milling radii in slots.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy.)

Figure 3.20
Roughing end mill—removing large amounts of metal.

(Photo courtesy of Daniele_dm/Fotolia.com)

Figure 3.21
A shell end mill and arbor.
 Figure 3.22
Face milling.

Shell End Mills

These types of milling cutters range in size from 1 1/4 to 6 in. in diameter.
They represent a savings to most shops because several cutter sizes can be
fitted to one mounting arbor. Facing cuts are usually made with these tools. A
helical-fluted shell mill and its mounting arbor are shown in Figure 3.21.

Carbide Indexable Insert End Mills

Modern tool technology has produced milling cutters with replaceable or
indexable carbide inserts. Initial investment in these tools is somewhat high,
but they yield substantial long-term savings in terms of job setup times and
tool regrinding costs. Worn inserts are simply replaced with factory-ordered
prefaced inserts. Tool inventory is reduced because the same tool can be used
to cut different materials by switching to a different insert grade. Milling
inserts are available in various shapes and sizes. The shape determines the
strength and the number of cutting edges. Circular inserts are the strongest,
followed by hexagonal, square, parallelogram-shaped, diamond-shaped, and
triangular inserts. See Figure 3.23.

Figure 3.23
Carbide insert shapes and sizes used for milling tools.

Figure 3.24
A carbide blade end mill.

(Photo courtesy of Greenfield Industries, Inc.)

 Figure 3.25
Carbide insert end mill.

(Photo courtesy of WITTY234/Shutterstock.com)

For a given size, those with the largest included angles use less carbide than
those with smaller angles. The CNC operator should select the strongest
insert shape consistent with the profile to be cut.

Because these tools are very rigid, a high degree of accuracy can be achieved
with their use. More exact diameters can be milled when a center cutting
carbide tool is used for boring. Milling time is also shorter with carbide
cutters. Depending upon the material being cut, tool speed can often be
doubled or tripled and tool feed can be increased by 25% or more.

Various carbide insert tools for milling are shown in Figures 3.24 through
3.26. Two typical cutters are shown in Figure 3.27.

In order to use these tools, the CNC milling machine must have sufficient
horsepower and rigidity. It should also be capable of producing very steady
and well-controlled feed rates so that table surge is kept to a minimum.

Miscellaneous Milling Cutters

Other types of milling tools include woodruff cutters, side cutters, metal-
slitting saws, and plain end mills. Examples of these tools are shown in
Figure 3.27.
Figure 3.26
Carbide insert face mills.

(Photo courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tools.)

Figure 3.27
(Photos courtesy of (a) David J. Green/Alamy; (b) Konstantin
Kulikov/Alamy)
3.8 Coated Tooling
Many CNC cutting tools can be ordered with special coatings. These coatings
are applied directly to high-speed steel tools or to carbide inserts. One of the
most popular coatings is titanium nitride (TiN). High-speed steel tools with
this coating can be operated at the higher cutting speeds of carbides. They are
less sensitive to shock, brittleness, and cracking—problems that often arise
when using carbides. TiN coatings tend to reduce friction and wear at the
cutting edges. Coated tools have up to 20 times the tool life of uncoated
carbide grades. Complex tool shapes not available with carbide tooling can
be manufactured in high-speed steel and coated for best results.
3.9 Tool Speeds and Feeds for
Milling Operations
As stated previously, tool speed and tool feed are the two most important
parameters to be specified for a cutting tool. This holds true especially for
milling processes. The success of an operation in terms of accuracy of the
cut, surface finish, and tool wear depends upon the proper specification of
tool speeds and feeds.

Figure 3.28
Tool feed.

Tool Speed
Tool speed was defined for hole operations and carries the same meaning for
milling. Refer to Appendix C for a comprehensive list of suggested milling
speeds for various materials.
Tool Feed
Tool feed is defined as the rate at which the cutter advances into the work. It
is expressed in inches per minute (ipm). See Figure 3.28.

Tool feed for profiling depends upon the inches of material cut per tooth (ipt)
or chip load, the number of teeth, and the spindle rpm. The theoretical tool
feed rate is given by the following formulas.

In English units:

Tool feed rate (ipm)=ipt×number of cutter teeth×rpm (profiling)

In metric units:

Tool feed rate (mmpm)=cl×number of cutter teeth×rpm (profiling)

where cl is the chip load expressed in millimeters per tooth and the feed rate
is expressed in millimeters per minute (mmpm).

Approximate chip load recommendations for various materials are given in

tool vendor catalogs.

Correct feed in milling may also depend upon another parameter called chip
thickness. This is not the chip load (feed per tooth) but the actual thickness of
the chips resulting from a given feed rate. The chip thickness will depend
upon such factors as the geometry of the cutter, the lead angle used, and the
position of the cutter on the workpiece. For general-purpose milling, the chip
thickness should be between .004 and .008 in. Feed rates that produce chip
sizes outside of this range will cause premature wear and breakdown of the
carbide insert cutters.

The book formula for average chip thickness is

Average chip thickness (in.)=ipt×width of cut (in.)cutter diameter (in.)

where ipt is the chip load in inches per tooth and average chip thickness
ranges from .004 to .008 in.

Example 3.2
A 3-in.-diameter end mill with five teeth is to machine a 1.125 in. width of
cut to a square shoulder. See Figure 3.29. A chip load of .006 ipt and a
spindle rpm of 400

Figure 3.29
Tool feed, width of cut, and chip thickness.

are initially recommended. Determine if the corresponding feed rate needs to

be adjusted to maintain a chip thickness of .008 in.

Tool feed rate=.006×5×400=12 ipmAverage chip thickness=1.1253 ×.006=.0037

This is out of the optimum range. Using .008 in. as the desired chip thickness
gives a chip load of

ipt=Dwidth of cut ×average chip thickness=31.125 ×.008=.013

The corresponding feed rate is then adjusted to

Tool feed rate=.013×5×400=26 ipm

Thus, to achieve a chip thickness of .008 in. with a spindle speed of 400 rpm
when executing a 1.125 in. width of cut, the feed rate must be adjusted to 26
ipm. It should be noted that these are given “book” values of chip thickness
and adjusted feed rates. They should not be applied directly without taking
into account the actual physical conditions. These include workpiece
stability, fixturing, available horsepower, and required surface finish.
3.10 Feed Directions for Milling
Operations
Basically, there are two directions in which a milling cutter can be fed into
the work—one with the feed in the direction of cutter rotation, or climb
milling, and the other with the feed opposite the direction of cutter rotation,
or conventional milling.

Climb Milling
Climb or down milling causes the tool to make a chip of maximum thickness
at the start of the cut at and near the part surface, and minimum thickness at
the end of the cut inside the material. The work is pushed down and into the
cutter. Thus, less clamping and machining horsepower are required. The extra
force on the table, however, means that the milling machine must have a
backlash eliminator for eliminating play between the nut and the table screw.
Most modern CNC machines come equipped with backlash eliminators.
More

Figure 3.30
 Climb milling.

Figure 3.31
Conventional milling.

accurate roughing cuts with a minimum of machining marks or surface

breakouts are attainable with this method of milling. Chips are pushed behind
and away from the cutter and do not tend to dull the tool by remaining on its
front cutting edges. Climb milling is also recommended for machining thin
parts or parts that are hard to hold down. Manufacturers of carbide-tipped
tools suggest climb milling especially when cutting work-hardened materials.
See Figure 3.30.

Conventional Milling
When conventional milling is practiced, the chip has no thickness at the start
of the cut inside the material and attains maximum thickness at the end of the
cut near and at the surface of the part. The chip is pushed up from the inside
of the part and in front of the cutter.

Conventional or up milling requires more fixture hold-down force and is

recommended for materials with hard outer scales such as castings, forgings,
and hot-rolled steel, and for finishing CNC operations. Recall climb milling
causes the cutter to cut the outer scale first, which can create high tool impact
loads and excessive tool wear on hard-scale materials. Conventional milling
is also recommended for cases where a tool length used may cause
unacceptable chattering of the cutter with climb milling. See Figure 3.31.

A test part should be machined and inspected to verify if the decision to

climb mill or conventional mill is appropriate.
3.11 Cutting Fluids for CNC
Operations
The Need for Using Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids are used when executing most metal cutting operations with
CNC machines. During the cutting process, pieces of metal are removed by
the shearing action of the tool. Heat is built up due to plastic deformation of
the metal and sliding friction against the tool. The pieces of cut metal tend to
weld themselves to the tool’s cutting edges. This phenomenon is known as
built-up edge (BUE) and results in the tool’s edges being dulled. See Figure
3.32.

Figure 3.32
Chip formation (a) without coolant and (b) with coolant applied.
In addition to a substantial decrease in tool performance, BUE causes
excessive tool wear, poor surface finish, and even cratering of the tool face.
Cutting fluids attack these problems by offering such benefits as

Cooling and lubricating the tool and work

Controlling BUE and tool wear

Producing thinner chips and requiring less machining horsepower

Enabling the tool to be operated at increased cutting speeds and depths

of cut

Flushing away chips

Inhibiting corrosion or surface oxidation of the machined surface

Insuring a good surface finish

A Description of Cutting Fluids

Water-based solutions or cutting oils are the two most commonly used
cutting fluids. They can be divided into one of four categories:

Nondilutable straight oils

Water-soluble oils

Semi-synthetic fluids

Synthetic fluids

Straight Undiluted Oils Are composed of 100% petroleum oil in

concentrate. They often contain polar lubricants such as fats or vegetable
oils, as well as extreme pressure additives like chlorene, sulfur, and
phosphorus.
 PERFORMANCE: PROVIDES BEST LUBRICATION BUT
POOREST COOLING.

Water-Soluble Oils Are used in a diluted form to produce a stable

emulsion. The normal concentration is from 3 to 10%. They see wide
use and are the least expensive.

PERFORMANCE: PROVIDES BOTH GOOD LUBRICATION

AND COOLING.

Semi-Synthetic Fluids Are a combination of synthetic and soluble oil

fluids. They exhibit characteristics similar to both types of fluids.

PERFORMANCE: LUBRICATION AND COOLING FALL

BETWEEN SYNTHETIC AND SOLUBLE OIL FLUIDS.

Synthetic Fluids Consist of alkaline inorganic and organic compounds

along with additives for corrosion prevention. They are generally used
diluted. The normal concentration is from 3 to 10%.

PERFORMANCE: PROVIDES BEST LUBRICATION AND

COOLING OF ALL FLUIDS.

Methods of Applying Cutting Fluids

Cutting fluids are applied in a variety of ways on CNC equipment. The most
common method is to flood both the tool and the work. See Figure 3.33. A
pump is used to deliver the coolant. The used fluid is drained into the chip
pan and back into the sump of the coolant pump for reuse. Two or more
nozzles are used: one for directing the fluid into the cutting area and another
for auxiliary cooling and flushing away chips.

Fluids can also be delivered by a mist system. A small jet is used to spray
soluble oil or synthetic water-miscible cutting fluids in very fine droplets.
Water-miscible fluids are preferred over oil, which may present health
hazards and tends to clog. Mist cooling is especially applicable to end milling
operations in which the cutting speed is high and the areas cut are low.

Maintaining and Disposing of

Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluid maintenance involves the following activities:

checking the proper concentration of soluble oil emulsions as stated by

the manufacturer (using PH meter or optical refractometer).

checking the amount of “tramp oil” wastes from CNC machine and part
surface that are picked up by the cutting fluid.

adding concentrate or water to maintain proper levels.

skimming “tramp oil” and adding biocides to prevent bacterial growth.

filtering the fine metal particles trapped in the system by centrifuging.

 Figure 3.33
Flood cooling during a milling operation.

(Photo courtesy of James V. Valentino.)

Proper handling of a cutting fluid is specified by the manufacturer in a

detailed document called the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). The MSDS
lists the properties and concentration levels for the fluid. In many cases it
indicates if the fluid is classified as a hazardous waste, but whether it does or
does not, the MSDS states the appropriate method of disposal of the fluid. All
hazardous waste must be disposed of in compliance with Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) regulations. To find out if a waste is hazardous, a
sample must be sent to an EPA-certified lab.
3.12 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. The majority of hole operations involve drilling.

2. Because twist drills tend to deflect under loads, the shortest drill should
be used for an operation.

3. A center drill should be used to accurately locate the center of a hole

prior to drilling.

4. Spade drills and carbide insert drills can drill holes from the solid at feed
rates higher than that normally used for twist drills.

5. To use spade drills and carbide insert drills, the CNC machine must have
sufficient rigidity, spindle horsepower, and a high-pressure coolant
system.

6. End mills can be used for profiling, rough drilling, boring, and
counterboring operations.

7. Tool speed is the speed at which the cutting edge of the tool rotates.

8. Tool feed is the rate at which the tool advances into the material in
inches per minute (ipm).

9. Feeds and speeds are important factors in determining tool life and
cutting performance.

10. Climb milling involves feeding the cutter in the direction of its rotation.
It is recommended for rough cuts on CNC equipment and hard-to-hold
pieces.

11. Conventional milling involves feeding the cutter in a direction opposite

to rotation. It is recommended for finishing cuts and for machining
 metals with hard outer scales.

12. Cutting fluids are commonly used for CNC metal cutting operations to
decrease tool wear and improve cutting performance.

13. The manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) states the
proper care and handling of a cutting fluid.

14. If a cutting fluid is listed as a hazardous waste material, it must be

disposed of in accordance with EPA regulations.
Review Exercises
1. 3.1 Explain the function of each of the parts of the following twist drills:

1. Flutes

2. Web

3. Lip

2. 3.2

1. What is the principal use of a center drill?

2. Why is a center drill needed?

3. 3.3

1. What type of attachment is recommended for use with taps in CNC

machines?

2. What type of tap is used to cut blind threads in CNC machines?

3. What type of tap is used to cut through threads in CNC machines?

4. 3.4 State three advantages and three disadvantages of using a spade drill.

5. 3.5 How does the length-to-diameter ratio influence flexing errors in

hole-making tools?

6. 3.6 The two most important parameters for controlling tool wear and
tool cutting performance for a particular material are cutting
and cutting .

7. 3.7 Describe the following types of milling operations:

1. Profile milling
 2. Face milling

8. 3.8

1. What characteristic with regard to end teeth is present in a center-

type end mill tool?

2. List three kinds of machining operations center-type end mills can

perform that regular end mills cannot.

9. 3.9 Describe three advantages and three disadvantages of using carbide

insert milling tools.

10. 3.10 What are three advantages of using titanium-nitride-coated tools?

11. 3.11

1. What is climb milling?

2. Give two cases in which it is preferred.

12. 3.12

1. What is conventional milling?

2. Give two cases in which it is preferred.

13. 3.13 What is built-up edge (BUE)?

14. 3.14 Give seven reasons for using cutting fluids in CNC operations.

15. 3.15 For the four categories of cutting fluids, complete the following
table:

Category Composition Lubrication Cooling

16. 3.16 What five activities should be carried out to ensure proper
maintenance of cutting fluids?

17. 3.17 What is the significance of the manufacturer’s MSDS?

18. 3.18 What role does the EPA play when working with cutting fluids?
Chapter Four Exploring Features of
CNC Machining Centers
4.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Describe the components of vertical and horizontal machining centers.

2. Explain the four important functions of tool holders.

3. Describe the two most important tool holder designs commonly used in
CNC machining centers.

4. Know how tool holders are captured in the spindles of machining

centers.

5. Identify the three most important types of tool storage and tool changer
systems.

6. Understand the features of the machine control unit used on machining

centers.
4.2 Introduction
This chapter begins with a description of the most significant features found
in machining centers. The importance of the key components that make up
machining centers is discussed. Tool holders are an integral part of
interfacing various cutting tools to the CNC spindle. Types of tool holders
used and the methods of securing tools to holders and holders to the spindle
are considered. The programmer should have a good understanding of how
tool changers work. Thus, the operation of tool changing systems is discussed
and illustrated in detail. Pallet work changers reduce the idle time of
machining centers and are also considered. Programmers working in medium
to small shops may get involved in setting up jobs and running programs on
the CNC machine. To provide the programmer with greater versatility, a
section on the machine control unit (MCU) is presented.
4.3 Background on CNC Machining
Centers
CNC machining centers were described briefly in Chapter 1. By definition, a
machining center is a CNC machine that incorporates some form of
automatic tool changing and is capable of performing multiple machining
operations. In the development of machining centers, the horizontal spindle
center came from the milling machine and the vertical spindle from the
drilling machine. With the addition of automatic tool changers (ATCs), each
still tends to favor its original function. To favor drilling, vertical spindles
tend to be lower in horsepower, relatively small in diameter, and higher in
speed. Horizontal machining centers are heavier and slower to favor milling.
There are about two verticals for every horizontal in the industry. Verticals
are ideal for three-axis work on a single-part face with little or no part
indexing required.

Long flat parts are much easier to fixture on a vertical machining center and
spindle thrusts are absorbed by the table. An important factor favoring
verticals is that they are less expensive than horizontals. Horizontal spindle
machines work at right angles to their tables

Safety Rules in Tooling Setup

Always consult the tooling manual for details concerning the area of
interference within the axis travel range.
Always allow for adequate clearance as follows:

Between the cutter, workpiece, and work-holding devices during

machining operations including tool changing and table cross-travel
movements.

Between the cutter and workpiece when machining multilevel

surfaces.

Between the cutter and workpiece while lowering the quill.

Reduce the overhang of the quill and each cutting tool to assure
maximum rigidity.

After an emergency stop has been executed, always carry out inspection.

Practice thorough cleaning after operations:

Wipe the mating surfaces with a clean wiping cloth.

Carefully move the palm and fingers over the part to feel if there
are any foreign particles left.

Apply a drop of oil on the taper or thread of the spindle nose and
the shoulder.

Wear a face mask for dust levels above OSHA standards.

 Avoid a tool crash by making sure the tool carousel has an empty slot
for the new tool.

and thus input torque to the machined parts. Better work holding or heavier
fixturing is required although larger parts can benefit from their own weight.
Horizontals allow for heavy cutting and high material removal rates due to
rigid spindle and column construction. Some horizontals have rotary table
options. This provides easier access to all four sides of the part. Horizontals
benefit from the effect of gravity in helping to remove chips. See Figures 4.1
and 4.2.

Components of CNC Machining

Centers
CNC machining centers have the following primary components:

Frame The horizontal portion of the frame is called the “base,” and the
vertical portion is the “column.” The frame aligns and rigidly supports
the table and spindle components as well as the ATC. The frame is
designed to transfer vibrations away from the cutting area.

Headstock The spindle motor and gear transmission system for rotating
the cutting tool are contained in the headstock. A variable speed motor is
used to drive the spindle.

Figure 4.1
A vertical machining center with carousel-type tool storage
and spindle direct tool changer.

(Photo courtesy of Milacron LLC)

Spindle The spindle produces precision Z-axis motions in response to

programmed commands on a vertical center. The spindle has an inside
 taper that is used to position and center the corresponding tapered tool
holder as it is drawn in. Drive dogs in the spindle secure the tool holder
and prevent it from slipping.

Automatic Tool Changer It holds and indexes tools. In response to a tool

change command, an old tool is removed and the new appropriate tool is
placed in the spindle. Machining centers utilize many different types of
ATCs.

Table The table produces precision X- and Y-axis motions in response to

programmed commands. Various work-holding devices are used to
clamp the part to the table. Pallet systems can also be used to quickly
move out a finished part and move in a new setup. A rotary table is used
to rotate the pallet about the ±B axis.

Ways The ways are rails that are hardened and produced with a high
degree of straightness and surface flatness throughout the length. The
table and spindle move on the ways in response to rapid or feed-rate
commands. Way covers are used to protect the way surfaces from
scratching due to chips or dents from accidentally dropped objects.

Machine Control Unit The MCU is used to generate, store, and

processes CNC programs. It is also used to make physical adjustments
in the way the CNC behaves during manual and automatic operation.
Important data for setting up a job is entered into the MCU.

A variety of new head designs are bringing horizontal and vertical machining
centers closer together.
Figure 4.2
A horizontal spindle machining center with matrix magazine tool
storage and pivot insert tool changer.

(Photo courtesy of Milacron LLC)

4.4 Tooling Systems Used with
Automatic Tool Changers
Machining centers use many different types of tools to execute multiple
operations on a part. This means the machine must be capable of
manipulating tools of various sizes and shapes. Tooling systems have been
designed to mate different tools to the same spindle. A simple three-piece
system would typically involve a tool holder, an intermediate component
such as a boring bar or insert-type milling cutter body, and an indexable
insert cutter. More complex systems may be composed of many additional
pieces such as extension units, tool body adapters, and arbors. See Figure 4.3
for an illustration of modular tool systems commonly used with machining
centers.

ATC tool holders are multipurpose devices that are designed to

1. Minimize tool inventory by interfacing different size cutting tools with

the same spindle.

2. Be easily manipulated by the tool changing mechanism.

3. Ensure repeatability of a tool—center the tool in the spindle such that

the tool’s relation to the work is repeated (within tolerance) every time
the tool is used.

4. Provide fast and easy off-line tool assembly.

The CNC shop can choose from a broad spectrum of tool-holding systems.
The V-flange and the BT-flange are the two most popular spindle types used
on CNC machines.
 Figure 4.3
An assortment of CNC tooling systems based on the V-flange tool
holder. Note the use of interchangeable extensions, adapters,
arbors, boring heads, and cutting tools.

(Photo courtesy of GTE Valenite Corp.)

The V-flange, also known as CAT, was developed by Caterpillar Co. It has
become a national standard and the majority of tool holders currently in use
in the United States are of CAT style. BT-style flanges are more popular in
Europe and are mostly found on European machines. The two types of
flanges are not interchangeable on the same spindle.

Figure 4.4
CAT-V, BT-V, and HSK adapters.
V-flange has a steep taper that precisely positions the tool concentric to the
spindle. The V-flange locates and seats the tool changer’s gripper as it moves
the tool into the spindle. The mass, balance, and frictional fit achieved with
the V-flange provide minimal deflections at spindle speeds below 10,000
rpm.

A majority of machine tool builders are designing holders to conform to the

American National Standard Institute (ANSI) standard B5.50 for tapered
shank. This standard includes six basic sizes ranging from 30 to 60. Each
machining center will accept only one size. Machining centers that have 10–
40 horsepower commonly use size 50.

The future trend is to increase productivity by performing high-speed close

tolerancing machining. For this type of application, HSK is fast becoming the
preferred tool-holding system. The taper of HSK shank is approximately one-
half the length of V-flange holders. The HSK design increases static and
dynamic rigidity by a factor of 4 over V-taper tooling. Face contact provides
repeatable and constant Z-axis positioning and runout is low due to tight
tolerances between the spindle and tool shank.
4.5 Methods of Securing Tools in
Tool Holders
Tool holders are designed to be assembled off the CNC machine. The
retention knob is first secured to the adapter body. A tool holder mounting
block is then used to quickly and accurately seat the tool in the adapter, and
the whole assembly is loaded into the tool magazine of the CNC.

End Mill Tool Holders

End mill holders lock and center the cutting tool by way of one or two set
screws. The screws press on the flats of the tool shank. Because the screws
are both located on one side, a high degree of concentricity is not guaranteed.
These tool holders are relatively inexpensive in comparison to collet-and-
chuck holders. They are used to hold end mills, drills, boring bars, spade
drills, and other tools with straight shanks of standard dimensions. They find
wide application in many milling and boring operations not requiring very
close tolerances. See Figure 4.5.

Collet-and-Chuck Tool Holders

This system involves the use of a collet for gripping and centering the tool in
the tool holder. See Figure 4.6. Collet-and-chuck tool holders are more
expensive than end mill holders but
 Figure 4.5
An end mill tool holder.

Figure 4.6
ER, DA, and TG collet types.

generally provide better tool-holding capability and more accurate tool

centering than end mill types (Figure 4.7). Collets come in three designs: ER,
DA (double angle), and TG (single angle) or slow taper. Collets are normally
manufactured to accommodate one diameter and will accept only a small
variation in that diameter. ER collets have a wide clamping range with a
shorter taper, greater elasticity, and tighter precision. Double-angle collets are
noted for their parallel gripping capability due to the two angles and the
opposed split configuration which places parallel bearing on the tool shank.
Single-angle collets are especially useful for applying very high clamping
forces on cutting tools.
Assemblying an ER-Type Collet in a
Tool Holder
Incorrect assembly of a collet in a tool holder can cause runout as high as
.001 in. and leave a gouge around the nose of the collet. A collet damaged in
this way must be discarded.

1. Clean the collet, nut, and holder with a cloth and light oil such as WD-
40®.

2. Put a light coat of oil on the outside of the collet.

3. Insert the collet at an angle into the nut. The two extractor teeth should
fit into the collet’s groove.

4. Press down with your thumb on the back end of the collet until it clicks
into place.

5. Insert the cutting tool, making sure at least 2/3 of the collet’s gripping
surface is used.

6. Screw the nut to the tool holder. Only apply the recommended clamping
torque for the nut.
Figure 4.7
Collet tool holder.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy)

Figure 4.8
Collet-and-chuck tool-holding systems.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy)

4.6 Methods of Securing Tooling
Systems to the CNC Spindle
In one system the tool interchange arm grips the tool holder and aligns it with
the spindle. The spindle may descend on the tool holder or the arm may insert
the holder into the spindle. As the spindle and tool holder mate, a split
bushing retainer inside the spindle locks onto a retention knob on the top of
the tool holder. The retainer then draws the tool holder up and into the
spindle, creating positive clamping and centering action. See Figure 4.9.

Grooved flange tool holders are used with side-gripping interchange arms.
For these configurations the holder is gripped from one side and placed into
the spindle. The interchange arm disengages the holder by moving off to the
side. Occasionally, some foreign matter such as a chip or some rust may be
present in the taper portion of the spindle hole. This will cause the tool holder
to seat improperly and spin out of balance. The spindle hole should be
inspected and cleaned by spraying the taper portion with a thin cleaning oil
such as WD-40®. Wipe and dry with a towel.
Figure 4.9
A tool holder with retention knob secured in the spindle by split
bushing retainer.
4.7 Automatic Tool Changer
Systems
Many different types of mechanisms have been designed for storing and
changing tools. The three most important are turret head, carousel storage
with spindle direct changing, and matrix magazine storage with pivot
insertion tool changer. Tool storage magazines may be horizontal or vertical.

Turret Head
This type of system is found on older NC drilling machines. The tools are
stored in the spindles of a device called turret head. When a tool is called by
the program, the turret rotates (indexes) it into position. The tool can be used
immediately without having to be inserted into a spindle. Thus, turret head
designs provide for very fast tool changes. The main disadvantage of turret
head changers is the limit on the number of tool spindles that can be used.
See Figure 4.10.

Carousel Storage with Spindle

Direct Tool Changer
Systems of this type are usually found in vertical machining centers. Tools
are stored in a coded drum called a carousel. The drum rotates to the space
where the current tool is to be stored. It moves up and removes the current
tool, then rotates the new tool into position and places it into the spindle. On
larger systems, the spindle moves to the carousel during a tool change. See
Figure 4.11.
Horizontal Storage Matrix
Magazine with Pivot Insertion Tool
Changer
Chain-type storage matrix magazines have been popular in machining centers
since early 1972. This type of system permits an operator to load many tools
in a relatively small space. The chain may be located on the side or the top of
the CNC machine. These positions enable tools to be stored away from the
spindle and work. This will ensure a minimum of chip interference with the
storage mechanism and a maximum of tool protection.

Upon entering a programmed tool change, the system advances to the proper
tool via the chain mechanism. The pivot arm rotates and picks up both the
new tool in the magazine and the old tool in the spindle. The magazine then
advances to the space where the old tool is to be stored. The arm executes a
rotation again and inserts the new tool into the
 Figure 4.10
A turret head tool changing system.

(Photo courtesy of James V. Valentino.)

Figure 4.11
A carousel storage system with spindle direct tool changer.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy)

spindle and the old tool into the magazine. A final rotation returns the arm
back to its parked position. These steps are illustrated in Figure 4.12.

Two methods of tool identification are currently in use. One is the bar code
designation. The code is imprinted and fastened to the tool. When the
program calls for a specific tool, the controller looks for a particular tool
code, not a specific location. Another tool identification system uses a
computer microchip that is part of the tool or tool holder. The microchip
contains the tool identification number and information related to the
parameters of the tool. A special sensor reads the data and transfers it to the
machine controller.

Figure 4.12
A storage matrix magazine and pivot insert tool changer.

(Photo courtesy of metalpix/Alamy)

4.8 Pallet Loading Systems
Pallet loading systems represent another means of cutting down on machine
idle time due to setup operations. One of the main goals with pallets is to
keep the machine tool running. A setup person can set up a job on an idle
pallet. It can then be automatically loaded into the machine as soon as the
part that is running is finished. See Figures 4.13 and 4.14.

A basic pallet system is normally composed of the following elements:

Pallet: holds the work directly or by means of a fixture.

Pallet loader: moves the pallet from the load/unload station to the pallet
receiver/holder.

Pallet receiver/holder: grips and positions the pallet in the CNC

machine.

Pallets are manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes. These include

round, square, rectangular, and three- and four-jaw chuck holding. The size
and shape of the part to be manufactured will determine the type of pallet
used.

A typical two-pallet operation is described below. Refer to Figure 4.15 for a

corresponding illustration.

1. Step 1 Assume pallet 2 is on the loader that is currently off-line. The

operator sets up a job by mounting the work to a fixture bolted to pallet
2. The operator then enters information into the MCU indicating that
this pallet is ready.

2. Step 2 After completing the part program for the part on pallet 1, the
MCU directs the machine to pull it from the receiver onto the loader.
Pallet 1 is removed and placed at an off-line holding location.

3. Step 3 Pallet 2 is then loaded into the receiver and locked into position.
If the new job is identical to the last job run, the same part program is
retained. If, however, a different type of job is to be run, the machine
must be signaled to load the corresponding part program. This
information can be entered manually or automatically read from a

Figure 4.13
A two-pallet work loading system used on a horizontal
machining center.

(Photo courtesy of Maximilian/Prisma Bildagentur

 AG/Alamy)

Figure 4.14
Details of a job setup clamped to a pallet.

microchip or bar code encoded on pallet 2. The part program is run for
the work on pallet 2. The completed part on pallet 1 is removed. A new
job is set up on pallet 1, thereby maintaining a continuous work cycle.

The two pallets are rotated in and out of the machining center until the entire
job run for all parts is completed.

Pallet loading systems have been adapted to all types of CNC machines
including vertical and horizontal machining centers.
4.9 Features of the Machine Control
Unit (MCU)—Machining Centers
Specific details and features of MCUs vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer. What is given in this section is a generic presentation of what
is found on most MCUs for machining centers. The reader is reminded to
consult the machine tool builder’s manual for the detailed information
relating to a particular machine control unit.

In larger companies, it is the CNC setup person, not the programmer, who
sets up tooling, loads the job, and runs the first piece on the CNC machine. In
smaller operations, the programmer can be expected to get involved in some
or all of these tasks. To be more versatile, the programmer needs to acquire a
basic knowledge of the features of the MCU.

The MCU is divided into two types of operations panels: the control panel
and the machine panel (see Figure 4.16).

The Control Panel

The control panel is designed and built by the control manufacturer. It
contains a keyboard for entering data and a CRT display. CNC programs can
be entered into
 Figure 4.15
The operations involved in a two-pallet work changing system.

memory, edited, and displayed on the CRT display. Data needed to set up a
job, such as tool offsets, are also entered. Other important information such
as the axis positions of the machine and the spindle’s speeds and feeds are
also displayed on the control panel’s CRT.
 Figure 4.16
The Fanuc O i CNC control panel is used on both machining
centers and turning centers.

Control Pannel On/Off Power

Buttons
1.

The operator powers the control pannel on or off by depressing these

buttons.

Soft or Function Keys

2.

Depressing a soft key causes a screen menu to appear on the CRT

display. The screen menus are used for executing specific functions such
as checking a program, displaying the axis position of the machine, or
entering tool offsets.

Axis Position Button

3.

Depressing this button causes the CRT to display the current position of
the axis of the CNC machine.

Program Button
4.

Depressing this button allows the operator to create new word address
part programs or see and edit existing programs at the CRT display.

Tool Offset Button

5.

This button is used in combination with the cursor position keys to enter
the tool offset page and place the cursor at a particular offset value that
is to be edited.

Address and Numeric Keys

6.

Enables the operator to enter alphabetic and numeric characters. It

should be noted that some control pannels only contain those alpha keys
needed to create word address part programs. An example would be the
keys N, G, X.

The Input Key

 7.

The operator presses this button to enter data, like tool offsets, into the
control’s memory.

Cursor Position Keys

8.

Pressing one of these buttons positions the blinking cursor (left, right,
up, or down) on the CRT display. Data will be entered at the current
cursor position.

The Program Insert Key

9.

The operator presses this button to store a block (one line) of word
address code in the control’s memory.

The Reset Key

10.

The operator presses this key to return the cursor to the start of the
 program when editing. The key is also used to stop the execution of a
part program that has a problem. When this happens all the program’s
commands in the look-ahead buffer will be cleared. It should be noted
that if the program is executed immediately after reset is pressed
problems may arise as it will run with the commands in the look-ahead
buffer skipped. Pressing this key when the CNC is running in alarm state
will cancel the alarm.

The machine panel is designed and built by the machine tool builder. It
contains buttons and switches for controlling the physical behavior of the
CNC machine tool. Power buttons turn the CNC machining center on or off.
An emergency stop button is used to stop all machine motions. A jog wheel
enables the operator to move a machine axis manually by turning a
handwheel. Dial controls can override programmed spindle speeds and feeds,
etc.
 Figure 4.17
A machine panel

Select Mode Switch

The operator must first select the proper function before any operation can
be performed by the CNC machine tool. The select mode switch is used for
this purpose.

1.

Setting the switch to EDIT mode enables the operator to insert, save,
delete, and edit word address part programs at the CRT display using the
control panel keypad. The operator can also move to a particular line in
a program and begin executing it from that point.

2.

With the switch set to MEMORY, the operator can access the program
number of a word address part program that is stored in the control’s
memory. Pressing the START CYCLE button will direct the control to
execute the program in the automatic cycle mode.
3.

The operator selects TAPE mode to input a word address part program
from external units like a PC, diskette, Zip disk, or CD-ROM using an
RS-232 cable.

4.

When the switch is set to Manual Data Entry or MDI mode, setup data
like tool length offsets, spindle speed for edge finding, and fixture
offsets can be entered. Pressing the START CYCLE button will direct
the control to enter the data into memory.

5.

JOG mode puts the CNC machine tool into a manual mode of operation.
In this mode the operator can use several devices on the machine panel
to manually control its movement. For example, motion along each of
the machine axes can be controlled by pressing the + or - JOG buttons.
Spindle speed can also be regulated, etc.
6.

The HANDLE setting enables the operator to manually jog each of the
machine axes by turning the handwheel on the machine panel.

7.

The HOME setting enables the operator to return each of the machine
axes to their extreme travel limit or home. Pressing the HOME button
will direct the control to home the CNC machine.

The Cycle Start Button

8.

The operator presses this button to direct the CNC machine tool to
execute a part program selected from the control’s memory. Execution
will occur in automatic cycle (AUTO) mode.

The Feed Hold Button

1.

This button is used to cause a momentary halt in the movement of the

CNC machine axis. This is done, for example, to remove chips, correct
water flow, or prevent a problem from occuring during the execution of
the program. If the program needs to be edited, the operator presses the
RESET key to cancel its execution. Pressing the CYCLE START key
takes the CNC out of feed hold.

The Feed Override Switch

2.

The programmed feed rate, F, can be changed when commands to cut

material, such as G01, G02, G03, are executed. Normal increments are
10%. The feed rate can be adjusted from 0%, or no feed, to 200% , or
double the feed rate. Note, this switch has no effect on the rapid
movements of the CNC machine tool.

The Spindle Override Switch

3.

The programmed spindle speed, S, can be changed when commands to

turn the spindle on clockwise (M03) or counter clockwise (M04) are
executed. Normal increments are 10%. The switch starts at 50%, for
safety, and does not allow for a zero spindle speed override, which could
cause a crash if the corresponding feed override were set high.

The Rapid Override Switch

4.

Control over the rapid rate of motion toward or away from the work is
useful when testing a program containing G00, G27, G28, G29 or G30
comands. The rapid rate can be adjusted to 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% or
100% of its normal value.

The Axis Select Switch

5.

The operator uses this switch to select the machine axis ( X,Y,Z, or B)
that is to be jogged by using the jog buttons or the handwheel.

The Rate Switch

6.

The rate switch controls the distance the machine moves along an axis
with a single push of the jog button or a single click of the handwheel.

MOVEMENT ALONG A MACHINE AXIS CAUSED BY A

SINGLE BUTTON PUSH OR WHEEL CLICK
RATE
OPERATING IN METRIC
OPERATING IN INCH MODE
MODE
x1 0.001mm 0.0001in.
x 10 0.01mm 0.001in.
x 100 0.1mm 0.01in.

The Handwheel (Manual Pulse

Generator)
 7.

The mode switch must be set to HANDLE before the handwheel or

manual pulse generator (MPG) can be used. The AXIS SELECT switch
selects the axis to jog and the RATE switch the distance the machine
will move along an axis with each click of the wheel. Wheel rotations
clockwise cause electrical pulses that produce +axis CNC movement
Counter-clockwise rotations result in ±axis CNC machine movement.
The handwheel is very useful for moving the machine axis during setup.
The handwheel is often mounted on a pendent, making it more
convenient for the setup person to move when working.

Conditional Switches
The way the CNC machine tool operates in manual and auto mode is also
controled by a set of on/off toggle switches. They must be set correctly for
the CNC machine to execute a part program in the manner intended.

The Dry Run Switch

1.

When this switch is set to ON the feed rate, F, as specified in the

running part program is ignored by the control. Instead, the machine
axes are moved at higher feed rates. Also, the rapid feed rate can be
controlled by the rapid override switch. This is usually done when
testing a new part program with the part not mounted.

The Single Block Switch

2.

Setting this switch to ON directs the control to execute a single block of

the part program and then stop the CNC machine by canceling the
AUTO cycle. To execute the next block in the program, the operator
must press the CYCLE START button, etc. This is usually done to
carefully check the machine motions when running a new part program.

The Machine Lock Switch

3.

The operator sets this to ON to stop movement along any machine axis
when a part program is executed by the control. When, in effect, the
CRT will display the programmed movements along the axes, the
spindle will run, and other machine functions will operate normally.
Machine lock is used to check a new part program.

Optional Block Skip Switch

4.

Any block in a part program that has a slash (/) as the first character will
not be executed when this switch set to ON.

Optional Block Stop Switch

5.

When this switch is set to ON, the control will stop the execution of a
 part program and take the control out of AUTO cycle when a M01
block is executed in the part program. The operator presses the CYCLE
START button to start the machine again in AUTO mode. If this switch
is OFF, the control will ignore any programmed M01 codes.

Emergency Stop Button

6.

The EMERGENCY STOP button should only be pressed when it is

necessary to immediately halt the motion of the CNC machine in order
to prevent a collision between the tool and the work.

Power to the CNC machine will be turned off. Control power will
remain.

The control unit will automatically be RESET.

After fixing the problem, RESET the CNC by turning the

EMERGENCY STOP button and releasing it.

Select HOME mode and press the HOME button to home the
machine.

Press the CYCLE START button to start the program again from
the beginning.
4.10 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Machining centers are composed of the key components: frame,

headstock, spindle, automatic tool changer, table, ways, and machine
control unit (MCU).

2. A machining center is a CNC machine that incorporates some form of

automatic tool changing.

3. A tool holder is used to mate several different size tools to the CNC
spindle.

4. The taper on the tool holder is designed to center on the inside taper of
the spindle such that the tool’s relation to the work is repeated every
time the tool is used.

5. CAT-V and BT-V flange adapters are used for lower spindle speeds up
to 10,000 rpm. The HSK adapter is designed to be used for high spindle
speeds above 10,000 rpm.

6. The two most important types of V-flange tool holders are the end mill
holder and the collet-and-chuck holder.

7. Collect-and-chuck tool holders are more expensive than end mill holders
but generally produce better gripping and centering than end mill
holders.

8. Automatic tool storage and tool changer systems include turret head,
carousel storage with spindle direct tool changer, and horizontal storage
matrix magazine with pivot arm insertion tool changer.

9. Pallet loading systems are used to reduce machine idle time. They
automatically rotate in a setup part and rotate out a completed part.
10. The machine control unit is composed of the control panel and the
machine panel.
Review Exercises
1. 4.1 Identify and define the components of the CNC machining centers.

Type 1 is a machining center

Component Description/Function
A1
B1
C1
D1
 E1
F1
G1
H1
I1
J1

Type 2 is a machining center

Component Description/Function
A2
B2
C2
D2
E2
F2
G2
H2
I2
J2

2. 4.2 An automatic tool changer is found on what type of CNC

equipment?

3. 4.3 Name four important functions of a tool holder.

4. 4.4 Describe the methods of capturing the tool for the following types of
tool holders.

1. End mill holder

2. Collet-and-chuck holder

5. 4.5
 1. What advantages does the HSK adapter offer over the V-flange-
style adapter?

2. For what applications is the HSK adapter particularly suited?

6. 4.6 Explain an advantage and a disadvantage of using a collet-and-chuck

holder as opposed to an end mill holder.

7. 4.7 Describe the steps for properly mounting an ER-type collet.

8. 4.8 Describe how the following tool storage and tool changer
mechanisms work:

1. Turret head

2. Carousel storage with spindle direct tool changer

3. Horizontal storage matrix magazine and pivot insertion tool

changer

9. 4.9 What is an advantage of using a storage matrix magazine?

10. 4.10 What advantage does a pallet loading mechanism offer to a

machining center?

11. 4.11

1. Who builds the control panel?

2. Name three important functions carried out at the control panel.

12. 4.12 State the use of the following keys:

13. 4.13 Match the mode setting with the operation to be performed.

Mode Operation Performed

 Setting
EDIT Input setup data.
Manually control the movement of the machine axes using
MEMORY
buttons.
TAPE Return the machine axes to their extreme travel limits.
MDI Save, delete, and change word address part programs.
Control the movement of the machine axes using the
JOG
handwheel.
HANDLE Access the number of programs stored in the control.
HOME Input programs from an external device such as a PC.

14. 4.14 Indicate the operation(s) to be executed at the machine panel for
each situation.

Operation(s)
Situation Executed at the
Machine Panel
Halt a program, fix it, and re-run it.
Execute a program.
A new program is being tested and it is desired
to decrease the programmed rapid move by
50%.
The program is to stop when an M01 code is
encountered.
The handwheel is to be used to jog the X axis in
increments of .001 in.
Chapter Five Review of Basic
Blueprint Reading for CNC
Programmers
5.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Understand the terms: orthographic projection, first angle projection,

third angle projection, and auxiliary projection.

2. Describe the section view and types of section views used in prints.

3. Know how to read conventional tolerances.

4. Identify the various types of dimensioning systems and practices used in

CNC prints.

5. Understand thread nomenclature and thread description in CNC prints.

6. Know how to read surface texture symbols and notes.

7. Explain which important machining parameters are influenced by the

part material.

8. Understand how to read material notes in drawings.

9. Read and understand part heat treatment notes.

10. Interpret surface coating and plating notes in drawings.

11. Have a fundamental knowledge of why geometric dimensioning and

tolerancing are important to the production of a part.

12. Understand the importance of datums in production drawings.

5.2 Introduction
The starting point for CNC programs is the CNC print. The print provides
key information describing the shape and size of the part, tolerances and
accuracy of production, material, the surface finish, and datums and other
important production notes. The CNC programmer must have a fundamental
knowledge of how to read and interpret prints (see Figure 5.1).

A basic review of prints and print reading is presented in this chapter. The
reader is encouraged to consult other sources of information on blueprint
reading listed at the conclusion of this chapter.
5.3 Projection Conventions Used in
Drawings
An orthographic projection is a technique for displaying an object according
to the following conventions:

The features of an object fall onto a projection plane.

The projection plane is oriented perpendicular to the parallel lines of

sight.

All objects possess three dimensions: length, height, and depth. Mechanical
drawings utilize the multiview orthographic system of showing an object. In
this system, the object is surrounded by a box of six mutually perpendicular
projection planes. The object is oriented such that each plane shows the true
size of two dimensions as well as true angles and any
 Figure 5.1
The multiview projection system with horizontal, front, and profile
projection planes and corresponding top, front, and right-side
views.

hidden lines. A view is defined as the projection of an object’s features onto a

projection plane. The six principal orthographic views are front, top, right
side, left side, rear, and bottom. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 5.1.
The multiview orthographic system of projection used in the United States
and Canada is called third angle projection. Third angle projection involves
placing the object in the third quadrant behind the projection planes, as
shown in Figure 5.2 (top). The drawing form contains the note THIRD
ANGLE PROJECTION and shows the truncated cone symbol, as illustrated
in Figure 5.2 (bottom).

European countries use another system of orthographic projection known as

first angle projection. With first angle projection, the object is placed in the
first quadrant in front of the projection planes, as Figure 5.3 (top) illustrates.
First angle projection drawings contain the note FIRST ANGLE
PROJECTION and display the truncated cone symbol shown in Figure 5.3
(bottom).
5.4 Visualizing 3D Objects From 2D
Orthographic Views
Multiview orthographic drawings present the minimum views needed to
completely describe a three-dimensional object. With practice the reader can
develop the skills of fusing orthographic views into a unified 3D image of the
corresponding object.
Figure 5.2
Third angle projection as used in the United States.
Figure 5.3
First angle projection as used in the European countries.
5.5 Auxiliary Views
Some objects have inclined faces that do not appear in true shape in any of
the six principal orthographic views. In these cases, additional or auxiliary
views are needed to show their true shape. An auxiliary view is folded out
from the view in which the inclined face appears on edge. Refer to Figure 5.4
for an illustration of these concepts.

Figure 5.5 illustrates the common practice of omitting those portions of faces
that do not appear in true shape in an auxiliary view. This technique saves
drafting time and makes the print easier to understand.
Figure 5.4
An auxiliary view shows the true shape of an inclined face.
 Figure 5.5
Practice of showing an auxiliary view in a mechanical drawing.

Viewplane lines like those shown in Figure 5.6 are used in cases involving
auxiliary views of large or complex parts where drawing space is a problem.
They indicate that the auxiliary view is to be found on another sheet or in a
specific location of the same drawing sheet.
Figure 5.6
Using viewplane lines to place an auxiliary view at convenient
location.
5.6 Sectional Views
A section view is used to expose the internal features of an object. It may
also be used as an additional orthographic view of surfaces that appear as
hidden lines in the principal orthographic views. The section view is created
by passing an imaginary cutting plane through the object. Material that is cut
is indicated by section lines. Figure 5.7 illustrates the principle of a section
view.
5.7 Reading Dimensions
A print’s graphics describe the shape of an object and the dimensions
indicate the size, location, and orientation of its individual geometric
features. Tolerances specify the accuracy to which geometric features are to
be held. The document entitled “Dimensioning and Tolerancing ASME
Y14.5M-1994” published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) was adopted as the dimensioning standard for the United States by
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). It is available from the
ASME at 345 East 47th St, NY, 10007.

Figure 5.7
Exposing the internal features of an object via a section view.
Dimensioning Terminology
Units: Dimensioning units follow either the USA standards or the
International system of units (SI).

USA

Units are expressed in inches and fractions of an inch.

For numbers less than 1, a leading zero or zero before the decimal point
is NOT used.

Example 5.1

All dimension units are written with tolerances applied. The permitted
variation must have the same number of significant digits following the
decimal point as the specified dimension.

Example 5.2

SI

Units are expressed in millimeters and fractions of a millimeter. For numbers

less than 1, a leading zero is used.

Example 5.3

Basic Size/Basic Dimension: A numerical value specifying the theoretical

exact size, location, profile, or orientation of a geometrical feature of an
object. Tolerance variations are applied to the basic dimension. A rectangle is
used to identify the basic dimension.

Example 5.4

Limits: The largest (upper limit) and smallest (lower limit) values permitted
from the basic size.

Example 5.5

Tolerance: The total permissible variation permitted in a dimension or the

difference between the upper and lower limits.

Example 5.6
Bilateral/Unilateral: A way of expressing the limits in terms of + and −
variations from the basic size.

Example 5.7

Allowance: Intentional minimum clearance (+ allowance value) or

maximum interference (- allowance value) assigned for mating parts.

Reference Dimension: In addition to the regular dimension placed on a

drawing, the draftsperson may also include important calculated
dimensions. The idea is to reduce any additional size or location
calculations that may be needed in the shop. Tolerances are not applied
to reference dimensions. Parentheses are used to indicate a reference
dimension.

Nominal Size: The basic size of an object. Standard fractions are used
when needed. Examples of nominal size are stock size or thread
diameter sizes.

Actual Size: The actual or production size of a part.

Datum: A theoretically exact point, plane, or axis from which

dimensions are taken. CNC part drawings utilize datums. This practice
cuts down on tolerance error buildups and ensures that parts are
 machined with a maximum of accuracy.

A listing of standard dimensioning practices is given in Table 5.1.

5.8 Reading Threads and Thread
Notes
Threads are used for joining two or more parts together, for adjusting the
position of one part with respect to another, and for transmitting power. The
American National Standards Institute document ANSI Y14.6-1978 specifies
the conventions to be followed when specifying threads in mechanical
drawings.
 Table 5.1
List of dimensioning practices.

Thread Terminology
The thread terminology presented here relates to the general illustration of
internal and external threads, as shown in Figure 5.8.

Axis: The centerline of the thread cylinder.

Body: The unthreaded portion of the screw shaft.

 Figure 5.8
General illustration of internal and external threads.

Chamfer: The angular relief machined on the last thread to allow easier
engagement with the internal threads of the mating part.

Crest: The top of the threaded teeth for external threads, and the bottom
of the thread teeth for internal threads.

Root: The bottom of the thread teeth for external threads, and the bottom
of the thread teeth for internal threads.

Thread Depth: The perpendicular distance between the crest and root of
the thread.

Die: The cutting tool used to cut external threads.

Included Angle: The angle made between threads by the thread cutting
tool.

Lead: The distance the thread travels along its axis during one complete
revolution.

Left-Handed Threads: Threads cut so that they slope down to the left.
They engage by rotating the thread shaft counterclockwise when viewed
toward the mating thread. Left-handed threads are used in such
applications as turnbuckles and are designated as LH in drawings.

Right-Handed Threads: Threads cut so that they slope down to the right.
They engage by rotating the thread shaft clockwise when viewed toward
the mating thread. If no specific designation is given in a drawing, the
thread is assumed to be right handed.

Major Diameter: The largest diameter for external or internal threads.

Minor Diameter: The smallest diameter for external or internal threads.

Pitch: The distance between two adjacent thread crests or roots. For
single-start threads pitch is given as:

Pitch = 1"/Threads Per Inch

Single Threads: Advances a distance of one pitch (1P) for every 360º
revolution of the thread shaft. This thread is the most common and is
used to transmit substantial pressure and power.
5.9 Reading Surface Finish Symbols
and Notes
The surface finish or degree of surface smoothness on a part has a direct
influence on such operating factors as friction, fatigue life, corrosion,
resistance, contact stresses, and vibration. Finish also controls the part’s
dimensional accuracy.

Surface Finish Terminology

Microinch (μin): One millionth of an inch or .000001 in.

Micrometer (μm): One millionth of a meter or .000001 m.

Roughness: The finer irregularities of surface due to the production

process (tool feed marks, etc.)

Roughness average (Ra): The average roughness expressed in

microinches, micrometers, or a corresponding system of grade numbers
(N1 to N12).

Roughness width: The distance parallel to the nominal surface between

successive peaks or ridges, expressed in microinches or micrometers.

Roughness width cutoff: The maximum spacing for repetitive surface

irregularities to be included in the measurement of average roughness.

Waviness: Surface irregularities caused by machining or work

deflections, vibration, chatter, heat treatment, or warping strains.
Roughness is considered to be
Table 5.2
List of dimensioning practices for threads.
 Figure 5.9
An exaggerated picture of a part’s surface.

superimposed upon a wavy surface. Waviness is spaced further apart

than roughness width cutoff, as shown in Figure 5.9.

Lay: The direction of the predominant surface pattern that is caused by

the method of production.

Flaws: Random surface irregularities such as local cracks, blow holes,

checks, scratches, pits, or burrs.
5.10 Reading Material
Specifications
The part material heavily influences such important machining parameters as

The cutting tool material.

Cutting speed.

Cutting feed.

Depth of cut.

CNC machine horsepower required to take a cut.

Tool wear.

Cutting temperature.

Type of cutting fluid used.

Harder metals such as steels require the use of high-speed steel (HSS) or
carbide cutting tools. These materials are machined at low speeds and feeds
and cutting fluids are used. Softer metals like aluminum can be machined
with HSS tools operating at high speeds and feeds. Many times the use of
cutting fluid is not needed for cutting aluminum and its alloys.

Refer to Appendices C and D for a listing of tool speeds and feeds for various
metals.

Metallic materials can be classified into two broad categories: ferrous and
non-ferrous. Ferrous metals have iron as their principal element and are
magnetic. These metals include cast irons and steels. Non-ferrous metals have
little or no iron and are non-magnetic. Aluminum, magnesium, copper, and
zinc are examples of non-ferrous metals.
 Table 5.3
General template of finish symbol.

Ferrous Metals
Cast Iron
Cast iron is an alloy of iron containing 2–4% carbon and 1–3% silicon and
various other elements existing in insignificant amounts. The American
Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) identification numbering system is
used to specify cast irons in production drawings. A typical callout would be
CASTING ASTM 30A.

Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron containing varying amounts of carbon (.08–1.5%). It
is the most important of all ferrous materials and the dominant material used
in manufacturing and construction. The properties of steel can be changed by
adding other alloying elements such as nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and
vanadium, and by heat treatment. Production prints utilize the American Iron
and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
numbering system for specifying steels, as shown in Figure 5.10.

A typical callout for carbon steel would be SAE 1020.

A typical callout for chromium stainless steel would be CRES SAE 3030F.

Non-Ferrous Metals
Aluminum
Aluminum is the most heavily used non-ferrous metal. It is mined from
bauxite ore, which contains approximately 45% aluminum plus oxygen and
other impurities. Its main properties include good conductivity, light weight,
high resistance to corrosion, non-sparking, non-toxic, non-magnetic, and easy
forming and machining.
Production drawings utilize the Aluminum Association (AA) numbering
system for wrought and cast alloys.

Wrought Aluminum Alloys

Wrought alloys are produced by running the coarse-grained metal between a
set of rollers at an elevated temperature. The metal is compressed into
specific shapes such as bars, rods, and tubes of smaller grain size and
improved strength. Additional heat treatment or tempering of the metal
further increases its strength.

Most wrought alloys are easily machined, but some may require special tools
and production practices.

The AA system for wrought alloys consists of four digits followed by a

temper designation, as illustrated in Figure 5.11.

A typical callout for a wrought aluminum alloy would be AL ALY 7075-T6.

Figure 5.10
The SAE/AISI system for identifying steels.
 Figure 5.11
The AA system for identifying wrought aluminum alloys.

Figure 5.12
The AA system for identifying cast aluminum alloys.

Cast Aluminum Alloys

Cast alloys are made by pouring molten metal into a mold to form a part.
Increased strength can be accomplished by applying heat treatment after
casting. Wrought alloys tend to have higher strength than castings. In most
cases, thicker sections are required to produce a part as a casting.
A part with intricate curved surfaces may be less expensive to produce in
rough form as a casting rather than machining from wrought stock.

The AA identification system for castings uses a four-digit code with the last
digit separated by a period, as shown in Figure 5.12.

A typical callout for a cast aluminum alloy would be CASTING 535.0.

5.11 Understanding Heat Treatment
Notes
Many parts require heat treatments before or after rough machining, and
again after finish machining. Heat treatments involve controlled heating and
cooling of the metal, and can be accompanied by diffusion processes in
which the surface of the part is hardened by absorbing carbon, nitrogen, or a
combination of both. Typical reasons for applying heat treatments are as
follows:

Reducing the hardness of metals to improve their machinability.

Improving hardness and wear resistance after machining.

Easily machining regular carbon steels, and then heat treating to achieve
the same performance as that of alloy steels.

Preventing distortions and cracking resulting from internal stresses

induced by rough machining.

In larger companies the methods engineer specifies the sequence of

operations such as rough machining, heat treatment, and finish machining,
and the material allowances for each process. In medium to smaller
companies, the CNC programmer must specify the amount of material that is
to be left for these operations. Allowances are determined by applying
reference data from publications such as Machining Data Handbook to the
following production factors:

Size of the part.

Part material.

Type of machining operation.

Type of work-holding fixture.

 Type of heat treatment.

Material Hardness
Hardness of a metal has been defined in terms of its resistance to local
penetration, to scratching, to machining, to wear or abrasion, and to yielding.
The most common type of testing is to measure resistance to penetration by a
hardened steel ball.

Rockwell Hardness Tests

This is the most widely used test of hardness. A minor load is first applied to
a steel ball or diamond brale penetrator to create a reference point, followed
by the application of a major load. The major load is removed and the tester
displays the Rockwell hardness number based upon the depth of penetration
sensed. The tester has a reversed scale so that harder metals having smaller
indentations produce higher Rockwell numbers and softer metals with larger
indentations generate lower Rockwell numbers. A letter is commonly placed
to the left of the hardness number to indicate the combination of major load
and penetrator used.

Example 5.8
HRC 50–60

Specifies that a hardness range of 50–60 was obtained when a major load of
150 kg was applied to a brale penetrator.

Rockwell hardness testing is easily adapted to mass production and causes

minor marks on the surface of the tested part.

Brinell Hardness Tests

The Brinell test is an earlier method of measuring hardness that is still in use
today. The test involves using a 500-, 1500-, or 3000-kg load to press a
hardened steel ball 1 cm in diameter into the test metal. The resulting surface
area of indentation is measured. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is then
determined as

BHN = LoadSurface area indentation

Harder metals have lower indentation surface areas and higher Brinell
numbers. Softer metals have larger indentation areas and lower hardness
numbers.

Brinell tests cannot be used on very hard or very soft metals, or metals
hardened only at their surfaces. The test may also produce unacceptable
marks in the surface of tested parts. The Brinell number reflects the hardness
over a larger area of the material than does Rockwell. Conversion tables exist
for relating Brinell hardness numbers to Rockwell hardness values.
Heat Treatments Affecting the
Entire Part Material
Heat treatments such as hardening, tempering, annealing, normalizing,
spheroidizing, and stress relieving affect the surface as well as the interior of
the part material. They influence the mechanical properties of the metal but
do not change its chemical composition.
Heat Treatments Affecting Selected
Part Areas
Through heat treatments cause some amount of distortion. In many cases it
may be necessary to harden only selected areas of the part: the punch portion
of a center punch or the contact surfaces of a gear. This approach ensures
greater dimensional stability as well as faster and less costly production time.
Furthermore, it provides for certain areas of the part to be hard and wear
resistant as needed and other areas to be flexible to prevent cracking during
operation.

Surface heat treatments, which involve hardening the part at its surface and at
some controlled depth below the surface, fall into two broad categories. The
first involves treatments that do not change the chemical composition of the
metal. These include induction hardening and flame hardening. The second
covers treatments that change the chemical composition of the surface region.
These treatments include carburizing or case hardening, and nitriding.
5.12 Reading Surface Coating Notes
It is common practice to treat parts with surface coatings after machining
principally to

Enhance the part’s visual appearance.

Improve corrosion resistance.

Decrease service wear, fatigue, and friction control.

Control or alter dimensions.

The CNC programmer needs to understand that coatings such as electroplate,

phosphate, chromate, electroless, hot dip, and anodize alter the part’s
dimensions. Special attention must be paid to drawing notes that specify
whether the dimensions are to apply before or after coating. If the
dimensions are to be met after coating, the programmer must subtract the
coating thickness from the given dimensions, and the CNC program is then
written for the corresponding before-coat dimensions.

Example 5.9
NOTES:

1. ALL DIMENSIONS SHOWN TO BE MET AFTER CADIMUM

PLATING.

2. THICKNESS OF PLATE .0003 MIN–.0005 MAX.

3. DO NOT CADIMUM PLATE OR PAINT HOLES MARKED WITH

DOUBLE ASTERISK.
5.13 Interpreting Geometric
Dimensioning and Tolerancing
(GDT)
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GDT) is a system of specifying
tolerances based on how a part is to function. GDT ensures that high-quality,
interchangeable, low-cost parts are manufactured via CNC technology. GDT
specifies the features that are to be manufactured into a part that conventional
tolerances of position and size cannot. See Figure 5.13.

GDT Terminology
Feature: Any surface, angle, line, hole, etc. that is to be controlled in a
part.

GDT Control Symbols: The USA document on GDT, ASME Y14.5M,

and the European ISO standards use symbols to indicate the type of
control being specified. The symbol for straightness, for example, is —
while that for position is ⊕.

GDT Control Frame: A rectangular box containing the GDT control

symbol, the tolerance value for control, and any additional
supplementary symbols.
 Figure 5.13
Conventional and GDT tolerancing.

Example 5.10

Maximum Material Condition (MMC): The condition in which an

 external feature (shaft) is at its largest size and an internal feature (hole)
is at its smallest size. The important concept is that MMC is the
condition at which the part weighs the most. The GDT symbol for
maximum material condition is Ⓜ. In most cases, geometric tolerances
should be set at Ⓜ.

Least Material Condition (LMC): The condition in which an external

feature (shaft) is at its smallest size and an internal feature (hole) is at its
largest size. When the part is at LMC it weighs the least. The GDT
symbol for least material condition is Ⓛ .

Example 5.11
A SHAFT FEATURE WITH DIAMETER SIZE LIMITS OF Ø .500 ± .002

IS AT Ⓜ FOR Ø = .502

IS AT Ⓛ FOR Ø = .498

Example 5.12
A HOLE FEATURE WITH DIAMETER SIZE LIMITS OF Ø .250 ± .002

IS AT Ⓜ FOR Ø = .248

IS AT Ⓛ FOR Ø = .252

Perfect Form Envelope: An important GDT principle that the perfect

part form envelope exists only at Ⓜ. The part’s size may vary between
Ⓛ and Ⓜ but must never violate the Ⓜ boundary.

Regardless of Feature Size: The specification regardless of feature size

means that the same geometric tolerance value for straightness, position,
etc. applies to the feature at Ⓛ, Ⓜ, and all part sizes in between. Current
changes in ASME Y14.5M-1994 specify that the use of the RFS symbol
 Ⓢ is to be discontinued. The RFS condition is to be assumed if the
symbol Ⓜ or Ⓛ does not appear.

Tolerance Zone: The zone that represents the tolerance and its position
relative to the basic size. The diameter symbol Ø is placed before a
tolerance value to indicate a cylindrical tolerance zone.

Virtual Condition: The virtual condition of a part is also known as its

mating condition. For external features, it is the distortion that results
when the part’s size at Ⓜ is added to the GDT tolerance zone value
specified at Ⓜ. For internal features it is the distortion that results when
the part’s size at Ⓜ is subtracted from the GDT tolerance zone value
specified at Ⓜ.

Refer to Appendix E for a comprehensive listing of GDT symbols and their

meanings.
5.14 Datums
As was discussed in Section 5.7, a datum is a common surface point from
which measurements are made. The same datums are used for CNC
manufacturing as well as GDT inspection. The tolerances discussed in the
following sections control how one part feature relates to another. For
example, the position of one hole with respect to another, or the

Figure 5.14
A datum plane is created from a part datum feature.

parallelism between holes. The basic rule here is that measuring one feature
relative to another is not permitted. All measurements should be made from
common datums.

A part must be fixed in space in order to be manufactured and inspected. A

datum reference frame is used to fix the part and locate all its features in
three-dimensional (3D) space. In practice, exact or theoretical reference
frames must be simulated by using actual part features. A datum feature is
any feature of a part used to establish a datum. The GDT symbol for a datum

feature A, for example, is .

A simulated datum plane is created when the datum feature is firmly seated in
the manufacturing or inspection fixture as shown in Figure 5.14.

Usually, only one datum is needed for controlling orientation features, but
positioning relationships often require a datum system consisting of two or
more datum planes. The basic 3-2-1 principle is followed when establishing
points of contact for creating the datum planes. The planes are mutually
perpendicular, as shown in Figure 5.15, and are placed in order of
importance.

Primary (A): This is the datum from which most size and location
dimensions are taken. A minimum of three points of contact are needed
to establish datum plane A.

Secondary (B): Proper orientation is established via the secondary datum

plane B. A minimum of two points of contact are required to create
datum plane B.

Tertiary (C): This datum plane completes the system and locates the part
in 3D space. Only one point of contact is needed to establish datum
plane C.

For cylindrical parts, the axis of a cylinder formed by the intersection of two
mutually perpendicular center planes can be used as a datum feature. A
datum axis feature is shown in Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.15
A datum reference frame for a rectangular part follows the 3-2-1
principle.
Figure 5.16
A datum axis for a cylindrical part.
5.15 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Mechanical drawings utilize the principle of orthographic projection to

show the true shape and size of parts.

2. Third angle projection is an orthographic projection where the object is

placed in the third quadrant behind the projection planes. Third angle
projection is used in the United States.

3. First angle projection is an orthographic projection that involves placing

the object in the first quadrant in front of the projection planes.
European countries use first angle projection.

4. Auxiliary views are needed to show the true shape and size of part faces
that are inclined with respect to the principal orthographic views.

5. A section view is used to expose the internal features of a part.

6. Dimension standards for mechanical drawings are outlined in the

document ASME Y14-5M-1994.

7. Inch (in.) units are used for dimensioning parts in the United States. The
international communities use units of millimeters (mm) for
dimensioning parts.

8. Tolerances control the accuracy with which a part is manufactured.

9. Surface roughness influences such key operating factors as friction,

fatigue life, corrosion resistance, contact stresses, and vibration.

10. The part material influences such important machining parameters as

cutting tool material, cutting speed, cutting feed, and depth of cut.

11. CNC programmers take into consideration the necessary machining

 operations and material allowances that are made when the part drawing
notes call for heat treatments.

12. The CNC programmer reads the part drawing notes to determine if the
part dimensions are to be met before or after specified coatings.

13. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GDT) is a system designed to

control part features that cannot be specified by conventional positioning
and size tolerancing.

14. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing ensures parts made on CNC

machines will be of high quality, of low cost, and interchangeable.

15. Maximum material condition Ⓜ is the condition at which an external

feature (shaft) is largest and an internal feature (hole) is smallest. The
greatest GDT accuracy is specified at Ⓜ.

16. Least material condition Ⓛ is the condition at which an external feature

(shaft) is smallest and an internal feature (hole) is largest. The least GDT
accuracy is specified at Ⓛ.

17. The same datums are used for CNC manufacturing and GDT inspection.
Review Exercises
1. 5.1. Name the six principal orthographic views.

2. 5.2. What angle projection system is used in the United States? Describe
it.

3. 5.3. How is a section view created?

4. 5.4. What is meant by referring to a dimension as “basic size”?

5. 5.5. Describe the term datum.

6. 5.6. Specify a .25-diameter hole with a .375 diameter × .25 deep

counterbore in ASME Y14.5 standard.

7. 5.7. How many threads per inch does a 1/4–20 thread have?

8. 5.8. In what units is roughness measured in inches? In metric?

9. 5.9. Why is reading material specifications important?

10. 5.10. What additional part features are controlled by GDT that cannot be
controlled by conventional tolerancing?

11. 5.11. What is maximum material condition Ⓜ?

12. 5.12. What is least material condition Ⓛ?

13. 5.13. Describe the positional relationship between GDT datum planes.
Bibliography
1. American National Standard Drafting

Practice:

ANSI/ASME Y14.1M-
• Multi and Sectional view Drawings
1994
ANSI/ASME Y14.1M-
• Dimensioning and Tolerancing
1994
ANSI/ASME Y14.1M-
• Screw Thread Representations
1993
• Types and Applications of Engineering ANSI/ASME Y14.24M-
Drawings 1989
ANSI/ASME Y14.36-
• Surface Texture Symbols
1993

2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Dimensioning and

Tolerancing ASME Y14.5-1994 [Revision of ANSI Y14.5M-1982
(R1988)] N.Y.:ASME 1995. Foster W.L. Geo-Metrics. Addison-Wesley
Publishing, Reading, MA, 1994.

3. Brown W. C. Blueprint Reading for Industry. Goodheart-Wilcox, South

Holland, IL, 1989.

4. Degarmo E. P., Black J. T., Kohser R. A. Materials and Processes in

Manufacturing. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1977.

5. Kirkpatrick J. M. Industrial Blueprint Reading and Sketching. Merrill

Publishing, Columbus, OH, 1989.

6. Krar S. F., Rapisadra M., Check A. F. Machine Tool and Manufacturing

Technology. Delmar Publishers, Albany, NY, 1998.

7. Machinery’s Handbook, 27th Edition. Industrial Press, New York, 2005.

 8. Machining Data Handbook, Vol l and 2. 3rd Edition. Machinability
Data Center, Cincinnati, OH, 1980.

9. Madsen D. A., Shumaker T. M., Turpin J. L., Stark C. Engineering

Drawing and Design. Delmar Publishers, Albany, NY, 1996.

10. Maruggi E. A. Current Practices for Interpreting Engineering

Drawings. West Publishing, Tucson, AZ, 1995.

11. Schultz R. Blueprint Reading for the Machine Trades. Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1988.

12. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Volume 1–6 SME,

Dearborn, MI.
Chapter Six Mathematics for CNC
Programming
6.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Compute the sides of right triangles.

2. Compute the angles of right triangles.

3. Use KwikTrig software to solve right triangles and bolt circles.

6.2 Introduction
Many problems in CNC programming involve finding the X and Y
coordinates of tool motion based on a given length and angle. These tasks can
usually be accomplished by using basic right-triangle trigonometry, so
knowledge of this subject is a must for manual programming. A review of the
essential principles is given in this chapter.
6.3 Determining Sides of Right
Triangles
A right triangle is a three-sided figure, one angle of which is 90°. See Figure
6.1. The longest side of the triangle is called the hypotenuse.

The relationship between any two sides and the included angle is given by the
following general side–angle formulas:

sin(θ)= side opposite (θ)hypotenusecos(θ)= side adjacent (θ)hypotenusetan(θ)=

Specific side-angle formulas are given in Table 6.1.

Figure 6.1
A right triangle.
Table 6.1 Determining the
Sides of Right Triangles
Known angle Side–angle formulas
θA AC = sin (θA)
θA BC = cos (θA)
θA AB = tan (θA)
θB BC = sin (θB)
θB AC = cos (θB)
θB BA = tan (θB)
The sides of a right triangle are also related by the Pythagorean
formula: C2=A2+B2
6.4 Useful Angle Concepts
The following facts concerning angles are useful when dealing with problems
involving triangles:

1. A circle contains 360°. See Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2
A circle contains 360°.

2. Vertical angles are equal. See Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3
Vertical angles are equal.
 3. Alternate interior angles are equal. See Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4
Alternate interior angles are equal.

4. A minute (′) is defined as 1/60 of a degree. Convert minutes to fractions

of a degree before using the trigonometric functions:

Degrees=minutes × 160′

Example 6.1
Determine the unknown side in the triangles shown in Figures 6.5 through
6.7.

1.

Figure 6.5
Triangle with 30° angle.
2.

Figure 6.6
Triangle with 60° angle.
 3.

Figure 6.7
Triangle with 50° angle.

Example 6.2
Assume you are working on a CNC machine with no rotary table. Determine
the coordinates that must be input for drilling hole 2. Refer to Figure 6.8.

Because the machine has no rotary table, hole 2 cannot be located by directly
inputting its angle from 0° and distance from the center of rotation C. Instead,
its X2 and Y2 absolute coordinates must be determined. A circle contains 360°
and there are four equally spaced holes in the circular pattern. Thus, each
hole makes an angle of 360°/4=90° with its neighbor. Refer to Figure 6.9.

The required angle θ is given by

θ =180°−90°−30° =60°

Figure 6.8
Circle within square, 30° angle.
 Figure 6.9
Circle within square, with angles and measurements.

The sides of the right triangle can then be found:

Thus, the absolute coordinates of hole 2 are

X2=2 − ΔXX2=2 − 1X2=1Y2=2 + ΔYY2=2 + 1.7321Y2=3.7321

The same calculations can be made when drilling holes using a milling
machine.

Example 6.3
Determine the unknown side in the triangle shown in Figure 6.10.
 Figure 6.10
Triangle with 26°40′ angle.

Convert minutes to fractions of a degree:

26°40′=26°+40′ × 1°60′ =26.6667°

6.5 Determining Angles of Right
Triangles
The side-angle formulas given in Table 6.1 can be inverted to determine the
included angle when any two sides of a right triangle are known. It should
also be noted that the sum of all the interior angles of a triangle always equals
180°. Refer to Figure 6.1 when using Table 6.2.

In Table 6.2, sin–1, cos–1, and tan–1 are the inverse or arc sine, cosine, and
tangent functions found on standard scientific calculators.

Table 6.2 Determining the

Angles of Right Triangles
Known sides Inverted side–angle formulas
A, C θA=sin−1(AC)
B, C θA=cos−1(BC)
A, B θA=tan−1(AB)
B, C θB= sin−1(BC)
A, C θB=cos−1(AC)
B, A θB=tan−1(BA)
Inside angle formula: θA + θB + 90°=180°

Example 6.4
Find the required angle in the triangles shown in Figures 6.11 through 6.13.
1.

Figure 6.11
Triangle with sides 3 and 4.

2.

Figure 6.12
Triangle with sides 3 and 5.
3.

Figure 6.13
Triangle with sides 4 and 6.
6.6 Oblique Triangles
An oblique triangle is a three-sided figure, none of whose sides is 90°. See
Figure 6.14. Formulas for determining the included angle when any two sides
are known are given in Table 6.3.

Figure 6.14
An oblique triangle.
6.7 KwikTrig
Trigonometry/Geometry Software
KwikTrig, created by Mr. John Fracaro, is designed to easily solve
trigonometric and geometric problems encountered by CNC programmers.

Version 2.12 is available at the Companion Website at http://

www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino and can be applied to the following
calculations:

Right triangles

Oblique triangles

Bolt circles

Compound sines

Conversion, inches to millimeters and vice versa

Version 3.05 can be downloaded from the website www.fracaro.net and used
for a 14-day free trial period. Version 3.05 offers the additional calculations:

Inscribed and circumscribed polygons

Geometry tangents

Milling speeds and feeds

Area

Table 6.3 Determining the sides

and angles of oblique triangles
Law of sines
A sin (θA) = B sin (θB) = C sin (θC)
Law of cosines
a2=b2+c2−2bc cos (θA)
b2=a2+c2−2ac cos (θB)
c2=a2+b2−2ab cos (θC)
Inside angle formula: θA+θB+θC=180
6.8 Installation
A Windows PC is all that is required to run KwikTrig.

Go to the Companion Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/

valentino and download the KwikTrig software onto your computer by
clicking on the Kwik Trig Software link. Unzip the Kwik_Trig.zip file
on your computer and navigate to the KWIKTRIG installation program
icon. Click on this icon and install the KwikTrig software by following
the displayed instructions.
6.9 Starting KwikTrig
Double-click the KwikTrig icon in the Windows desktop. See
Figure 6.15.

Figure 6.15
Starting KwikTrig from the Windows desktop.

Example 6.5
Use KwikTrig to solve the right triangles given.

Start KwikTrig

Click the button

1. Determine the unknown side?

Figure 6.16
Determine the unknown side.

Click the down arrow button

 Click

Click in Length of side c box; enter

Click in the Angle C box; enter

Click the button

KwikTrig will present a graphical display of the solution.

2. Find the required angle ?

 Figure 6.17
Find the required angle.

Click the down arrow button

Click

Click in the Length of side b box; enter

Click in the Length of side c box; enter

Click the button

KwikTrig will present a graphical display of the solution.

6.10 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Problems involving tool location based on a given angle can be solved

by right-triangle trigonometry.

2. If an angle and a side are known, any other side of a triangle can be
found. The sin, cos, and tan functions are used to solve for sides.

3. If any two sides are known, any interior angle of a right triangle can be
found. The inverse functions sin–1, cos–1, and tan–1 are employed for
finding angles.
Review Exercises
1. 6.1. Determine the unknown side in each right triangle shown in Figure
6.18.

1. by using the side–angle formulas given in Table 6.1

2. by using KwikTrig
 Figure 6.18
Three right triangles, find sides.

2. 6.2. Determine the unknown angle for each triangle shown in Figure
6.19.

1. by using the inverted side–angle formulas given in Table 6.2

2. by using KwikTrig

Figure 6.19
Three right triangles, find angles.

3. 6.3. Use Table 6.1 or KwikTrig to find the distances ΔX and ΔY in the
part shown in Figure 6.20.
 Figure 6.20
Figure with side length 6.5.

4. 6.4. Use Table 6.1 or KwikTrig to find the absolute coordinates X and
Y, indicated for the metric part shown in Figure 6.21.
 Figure 6.21
Figure with side length 75.

5. 6.5. Given the bolt circle shown in Figure 6.22:

 Figure 6.22
Circle within rectangle, quadrant length 7.

1. Use Table 6.1 as a guide for computing the absolute X and Y

coordinates for each equally spaced hole. Enter the values in the
table below.

Hole ΔX ΔY X Y
1
2
3
 4

2. Use KwikTrig and select the button to determine

absolute X and Y coordinates of each equally spaced hole.

6. 6.6. Determine the unknown side in each right triangle in Figure 6.23.

1. by using the side-angle formulas given in Table 6.1

2. by using KwikTrig and selecting Add Minutes And Seconds

Figure 6.23
Three right triangles with minutes and seconds.

7. 6.7. For the machining shown in Figure 6.24:

1. Determine the absolute X and Y coordinates of the .5 DIA cutter

center.
 2. Determine the I and J distances from the cutter center to the 1R arc
center.

Figure 6.24
Machining figure with measurements.

8. 6.8. Use Table 6.1 or KwikTrig to determine the absolute depth of the
countersink ZDEPTH given the data listed below.
 Figure 6.25
Countersink Zdepth.

Variable Description Value

DC DIA OF COUNTERSINK .625
DIA OF FLAT PORTION OF COUNTERSINK
DF .06
TOOL
θC ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK TOOL (60°, 90°, or
82°
82°)
Chapter Seven An Overview of
CNC Shop Activities
7.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Identify the three major areas of activities in a CNC machine shop.

2. Explain the importance and the order of CNC process planning.

3. Describe what factors influence the programmer’s selection of a CNC

machine for a job run.

4. Explain the conditions for proper work holding.

5. State what information is important in setup and machining

documentation.

6. Understand the terms machine home, part origin, and tool change
position.

7. Explain the significance of tool length offset.

8. Identify the functions of the programmer and setup person in getting a

job through setup and prove-out.
7.2 Introduction
This chapter concentrates on the many actions that a CNC shop must perform
in order to cost effectively produce quality parts. It cannot be stressed enough
that the programmer must be thoroughly familiar with the part drawing and
the manufacturing specifications. The order of machining is decided
according to the required accuracy and orientation of the workpiece. To get
the most out of the CNC machine, the programmer must also select tools that
are the most appropriate for the intended cutting operation.
7.3 Essential CNC Shop Activities
The most important activities normally carried out by the departments in a
CNC shop are presented in the form of a flowchart in Figure 7.1.

A more detailed description of the activities shown in the flowchart is given

in Sections 7.4 through 7.15.
7.4 Part Drawing Study
The first step to be taken before preparing any part program is to thoroughly
study the part drawing. The drawing indicates what the part looks like, its
material, tolerances, surface finish, material treatments (if any), and any other
requirements. The programmer determines from the part drawing whether or
not the part can be machined on a machining center. See Figure 7.2.

Important factors in the decision to utilize CNC operations in the part’s

manufacture include the quantity of parts to be machined, the part quality
requirements, the tooling costs, the fixture manufacturing, and the design and
cost of running the CNC machine. An operations sheet is written following a
decision as to how the part is to be manufactured.
Figure 7.1
Typical machine shop CNC activities chart.
 Figure 7.2
A part production drawing for manufacturing the part COVER.

Safety Rules for Job Setup on a

CNC Machining Center
Fix workpieces securely using adequate blocking and clamping.

Use safety goggles and follow personal safety precautions.

For cutting operations above OSHA limits, wear a face mask.

Make sure the workpiece is free of burrs and foreign particles.

Completely check all machining operations:

Read the setup instructions and check for axis positioning accuracy
 and operation correctness.

Make a dry run.

Adjust cutting speeds and feeds for each operation within the
recommended limits.

Be sure there is sufficient clearance between the cutting tool and

surrounding objects when moving each axis manually.

After operations, be sure to remove all chips and thoroughly clean the
working area.
7.5 Methodizing of Operations for
CNC Machining Centers
Methodizing involves creating a plan that indicates the sequence and methods
of operations to be carried out in order to produce a part. In a small machine
shop where no methods engineer is available, the programmer takes the
responsibility for breaking down the manufacturing of the part into
operations. In a larger shop, specially trained manufacturing engineers handle
this important job. The operations sheet contains information the programmer
needs concerning the condition of the part material prior to machining. The
operations sheet would indicate, for example, if the part material is in the
form of a plate, casting, or forging. Whether the plate is to be precut to
specific dimensions or if the castings and forgings are to be annealed before
machining would also be taken into account. The sheet also specifies if there
should be material left for finishing due to shrinkage, expansion, or distortion
after heat treating or plating. Operations sheets are used in conjunction with
the drawing.
7.6 Deciding on a CNC Machine
The programmer selects a CNC machine based on its ability to optimize the
cutting operations required to manufacture the part. Availability as well as the
capacity of the CNC machine must be known. The machine’s capacity is
measured by its travel horsepower, tooling magazine size, accuracy, and
number of machine axis movements.

Figure 7.3
The Manufacturing Operations Sheet that accompanies the
production drawing for the part COVER.
7.7 Methods of Holding the Part
During Machining
It is the programmer’s job to determine how the part is to be held during
machining operations. The first decision to be made is how the part is to be
oriented with respect to the work-holding device. Next, the part must be held
without distorting its dimensions and located by the work-holding device.
Locating a part involves positioning it properly with respect to datum planes
created by the work-holding device. Datum planes are specified on part
drawings that use geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T). When
working with drawings that do not use GD&T, the programmer should
consider the side from which most dimensions are taken as a datum. Proper
locating and clamping ensure the part can be repeatedly produced with
accuracy. A part is located by using the basic 3-2-1 principle as stated in
Section 5.14.

A part surface to be used as a datum must be straight and flat or “qualified.”

Pins must be used to create datum planes for surfaces that are not qualified,
such as those surfaces produced by casting, roughing, or sawing.

For milling operations, there are three basic types of work-holding devices
used: a mill vise, fixture, and a chuck. A right-angle plate is used to mount
the work at 90° with respect to the machine table. A tombstone is used to
mount parts on pallet work changing systems that are used on horizontal
machining centers.

Precision Mill Vise

For simple shape machining, a precision mill vise is adequate. Operation in a
mill vise may be manual or air or hydraulic powered. Mount the vise so that
its clamping surfaces are parallel to the X or Y axis of machine travel, using
an indicator for this operation. The vise will locate the part according to the
3-2-1 principle, as shown in Figure 7.4. Note the movable jaw portion of the
vise should not be used to establish a datum plane since it can slide and twist.

Fixtures
Fixtures are used in the following cases:

if the stock requires some peripheral machining

if the stock is too large to be held by a machine vise

if the stock is not rectangular in shape

Figure 7.4
Using a precision machine vise to locate and hold a part.

Figure 7.5
Using a fixture with clamps and pins to locate and hold a part.
If the bottom surface of the part is qualified, it can be clamped directly to the
fixture plate to create datum plane . If not, datum plane must be
created by placing the bottom surface on three pins.

Chuck
A three-jaw chuck mounted to the machine table is often used in cases where
a cylindrical surface is to be clamped.

Right-Angle Plate
A right-angle plate is used to mount the work at a 90° orientation with respect
to the machine table. It can be mounted to sub-plate or the machine table
directly. This type of work holding is suitable for machining on a horizontal
machining center.

Tombstone
A tombstone fixture allows for multiple parts to be held on any or all of its
sides. Manual or power clamping devices can be used. Tombstones are
usually mounted on the machine pallets of a horizontal machining center.
Each side is presented to the spindle for machining by rotating the pallet
about the B axis. In many cases complete parts can be produced in one setup.
The idea of increasing productivity via pallet loading systems was discussed
in Section 4.8.

Many times a fixture plate is manufactured for the job. As part of setup
operations, the fixture plate is aligned and bolted to the machine table. The
part in turn is located and held to the fixture plate by pins and clamps.

A detailed drawing or a sketch with manufacturing notes must be prepared, as

shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.6
Using a three-jaw chuck to locate and hold a part.
Figure 7.7
A right-angle plate mounted for use on a horizontal machining
center.
Figure 7.8
A tombstone fixture mounted on the pallet of a horizontal
machining center.
Figure 7.9
The fixture plate drawing for setting up the part COVER.
 Figure 7.10
The CNC setup sheet for setting up the fixture plate on the machine
table.

CNC setup sheets must also be created describing where and how the part is
to be held during the machining operations.

Sheet 1 can contain the following information:

1. ① Blueprint number

2. ② Sheet number

3. ③ Job number (assigned by CNC shop management)

4. ④ Fixture number

5. ⑤ Program number

6. ⑥ Operation number (operation performed)

7. ⑦ Part number

8. ⑧ Part name

9. ⑨ Prepared by (programmer’s name)

10. ⑩ Date (programming date)

11. ⑪ Setup instructions (how and where the fixture plate is set down)

12. ⑫ Setup sketch (illustration of how fixture plate is held to the machine
table)
 Figure 7.11
The CNC setup sheet for setting up the part COVER.

Sheet 2 of the setup sheet can indicate the following information:

1. ⑬ Work-holding information (description of how and where the work is

located and held: clamps, pins, etc.)

2. ⑭ Location of the part origin

3. ⑮ Setup sketch (illustration of how part is held down in the work-

holding device)
7.8 Machining Determination
While the fixture is being completed in the toolroom, the programmer
continues to plan the machining sequences and the corresponding tooling
required.

In general, machining should proceed in the following order:

The cutting sequence together with the required cutting tools is documented
on the CNC tool and operations sheet. See Figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12
The CNC Tool and Operations Sheet for machining the part
COVER.
7.9 Cutting Conditions
The spindle speed and feed rate must be determined and entered in the part
program. A discussion of how these parameters are calculated for milling and
drilling was presented in Chapter 3. Once entered, they are optimized
(adjusted up or down) after a trial machining. The selection of the proper
cutting tools for an operation and optimization of the speed and feed during
the cutting process will cut down on machining time and subsequently
increase productivity.
7.10 Writing a Programming
Manuscript
The program is ready to be coded after all the planning is complete. The
programmer makes certain programming decisions based on the drawing
requirements and fixturing configuration. These include the following:

Establishing the location of programming zero or part origin (X0Y0)

Establishing the location of part Z0

Determining the mode of programming (absolute or incremental)

Determining the units of programming (English or metric)

The tool change position is determined by the machine specifications. For X-

axis tool removal the stroke from the spindle must be taken into
consideration. In addition, the spindle must be fully retracted with part Z set
to maximum before executing any X or Y movements to the tool change
position.
7.11 Inputting Programs to the
Machine Control Unit
The features of the machine control unit (MCU) were discussed in Chapter 3.

Several methods can be used to input the part program to the control’s
memory.

Method 1: The program file has been created on a PC or workstation and

saved. An RS-232 cable runs from the computer’s serial port to the
MCU. For this scenario, the operator can use file transfer programs such
as Laplink or PC-talk to download the program file from the computer
to the MCU. See Figure 7.13.

Figure 7.13
Downloading a program from PC or workstation to the MCU.
 Figure 7.14
Downloading a program to the MCU via diskette, flash, or
CD-ROM devices.

Method 2: A floppy disk, flash, or CD-ROM disk drive unit is attached

directly to the CNC machine and connected to its MCU, as shown in
Figure 7.14. The operator inserts the floppy disk, flash, or CD-ROM
containing the part program into the drive and downloads the part
program.

Method 3: For small machining jobs, the programmer can use the
alphanumeric keypad on the control panel. First, the mode switch is set
to EDIT. Then the PROG button is pressed to create a new program
page. The program number is manually keyed in, and then the INSERT
button is pressed to register the number into the control’s memory. Each
block (one line) of the program is entered. The INSERT button must be
pressed after each block is typed to register it into the control’s memory.
The cursor position keys are used to move the cursor to a location where
editing is to occur. The ALTER button is pressed to execute editing of
the program. Note: Modern MCUs are PC-based and contain dedicated
online programming software that facilitates the manual method of
program creation and entry. See Figure 7.15.
Figure 7.15
Manual entry of a program into the MCU in EDIT mode.
7.12 Setup Procedure
The setup operation can begin after the fixtures, tooling, program, setup
sheets, and part blank arrive at the CNC machine. Usually, the setup person
starts by securing the cutting tools in the tool holders. The tooling assemblies
are loaded into the tool magazine according to the order outlined in the setup
sheets. Next, the work-holding device is put into place on the machine table.
It may require clamping and some minor machining. The part blank is loaded
into the work-holding device as requested by the programmer. After loading
the program into the MCU, the setup person determines another important
parameter: the location of the part origin X0Y0 with respect to machine home.
Machine Home and Part Origin
The machine home position or machine zero is a location set once by the
machine manufacturer. The CNC machine is homed at the start of the part
program setup. When homed, the machine retracts the spindle to its
maximum height above the table (machine Z0) and moves the table to a preset
machine zero position (machine X0Y0).

The part origin is the (0, 0, 0) location of the part XYZ coordinate system.
When absolute coordinates are used, all programmed tool movements are
taken with respect to this origin. See Figure 7.16 for an illustration of these
positions.

If datums are specified in the part print, the part origin is the point of
intersection of the three datums. This is the case for parts that use GD&T. If
no datums are provided on the print, then the programmer should consider the
sides from which most dimensions are given for a part origin. The part origin
should be placed at a point that makes it easy to program the X and Y tool
movements.

The setup person must determine the XYZ locations of the part origin in
relationship to machine home. Again, this could be the center of a hole, the
edge of the part, or a predetermined distance from the edge. Proper location
of the part origin is an important factor in assuring that parts are machined
with repeatable results.
Figure 7.16
Machine home and part origin locations.
Locating the Part Origin with an
Edge Finder
An edge finder has a .200 DIA. cylindrical probe that is connected to the
body by a spring. The body of the edge finder is mounted on the spindle and
spun at about 200 rpm, causing the probe to offset. The MCU’s jog buttons or
the handwheel are used to move or “tram” the edge finder from machine
home to the part edge. The operator stops tramming when the probe realigns.
The final X, Y values displayed at the control panel of CRT are the locations
of the part origin from machine home.
Methods of Programming the Part
Origin Location into the MCU
Manual Handwheel Method
The machine is first homed, and then a machine axis X or Y is selected for
jogging. The handwheel is used to manually tram the probe to each reference
surface; the center of the probe should locate the surfaces representing the
part origin. The X and Y values of the location of the part origin from
machine home will be displayed at the control panel’s CRT when both
reference surfaces are reached. If a .200 DIA. probe is used, each X and Y
value must be compensated by .100. The operator selects the manual data
input (MDI) mode and enters the single-line command G92X0Y0. The G92
Figure 7.17
Edge finding a part origin.
code directs the control to shift the absolute zero point from the current
position to the part origin. The operator then presses the CYCLE START
button to execute the command. The CRT will display the current location as
X0, Y0. This will be the part zero.

This method is seldom used since the part origin values are not stored in the
control’s memory and will be lost when the control is turned off.
Absolute Zero Shift (G92) Entry in
the Part Program
With this method, the machine is first homed, and then a machine axis X or Y
is selected for jogging. The handwheel is used to manually tram the probe to
each reference surface. The X and Y values of the location of the part origin
from machine home will be displayed at the control panel’s CRT when both
reference surfaces are reached. If a .200 DIA. probe is used, each X and Y
value must be compensated by .100. The setup person selects the EDIT mode
and then presses the PROG button and the ALTER button to edit the part
program. The block containing the G92 code is edited. The X and Y values
found by tramming but with all signs reversed replace the existing values
coded. Note this method has drawbacks in that every time the work-holding
location changes, the program must be reentered and new values must be
entered in the G92 block. Also, some shops have a strict policy of not
allowing setup personnel to edit part programs.

Fixture or Work Offset Method

The fixture offset method is available in most controllers and allows for parts
to be set up in multiple fixtures on the machine table. Normally, up to six
parts can be set up. Each part is assigned its own code in the part program as
follows: G54, G55, G56, G57, G58, G59.

The operator homes the machine, and then the probe is trammed to the
reference surfaces of each part origin. The corresponding X and Y values are
recorded at the control panel CRT, the fixture offset page is opened, and the
part origin values or “work coordinates” are entered. When the program
executes and a particular fixture offset code (G54–G59) is encountered, the
corresponding part origin values will automatically be called from memory
and used.

The fixture offset method is safe and flexible. Setup personnel do not have to
edit part programs for the purpose of keying in part origin values.
Figure 7.18
Using fixture offsets (G54–G59) to set up multiple parts.
Programming the Tool Length
Offsets into the MCU
The setup person must next measure and enter the values of the tool length
offsets of each tool. The different tools used for the machining operations in a
program may vary in length, and the control must be directed to compensate
for these variations when moving a tool in the Z direction. It can only do so if
it knows the initial distance between the bottom of the tool and the part Z0.
The setup person sets the spindle to full retract height or machine Z0. A tool
is loaded, and then the spindle is slowly jogged down until the bottom of the
tool makes contact with the top of the work. The corresponding Z value is
displayed at the control panel CRT. The spindle is fully retracted, the next
tool is loaded, and a similar measurement is made and recorded. This
procedure is carried out for each tool used in the part program. The values are
entered and stored in the control in a location called the tool length offset and
under the number assigned by the programmer. In some cases a tool can have
a few tool length offsets. See Figure 7.19.

When the program is executed, an code in a block will specify the

memory address where the value of the tool length offset of the current tool is
stored. Thus, the control will know the tool length offset of each tool it places
in the spindle.
Figure 7.19
Tool length offsets.
7.13 Debugging and Verifying the
Program
The debugging and verification process begins after the part program has
been successfully loaded.

Graphical checkout can be made using PC- or workstation-based simulation

software. Such software is contained on the CD at the back of this text.
Similar checkout can also be made at the MCU itself. During program
playback, modern MCU units have the capability of displaying the tool path
created by a current block of code. These methods allow the operator to
quickly visually check the path of the tool as it machines the part. This type
of checking is referred to as “off line” since it can be done while the CNC
machines other parts.

Physical checking is very important for prove-out of items that many

graphical simulation programs may not check, including possible collisions
between the tool and fixtures or work-holding devices.

Physical checking proceeds as follows:

1. The setup person locks the machine and runs the program using only the
output from the MCU to check the controller’s recognition of all the
codes in the program.

2. If step 1 is successful, the program can run with the machine Z axis
locked, which will guard against any possible collisions between the tool
and the work holding or part itself.

3. Next is the so-called “dry run” with the part removed. During this test,
the setup person slows down the rapid feeds and speeds up the actual
feeds. The dry run will indicate whether there are any extraordinary
moves that could cause a collision of the work and/or work holding with
the cutting tool.
4. A blank is loaded and cut to verify that the program produces a proper
part. If the production blanks are made of a costly material, some shops
may first cut a test part using aluminum, wax, wood, or Styrofoam in
order to save on material, cutting tools, and prove-out time.

5. The actual cutting test is run with the control set to single block mode
(versus automatic mode) to give the setup person time to see the effects
of each command and to aid in spotting any wrong move.

6. The program is further optimized by eliminating any unnecessary

moves.

7. After the part is completed, it is measured to determine if the drawing,

operation sheets, and programmer specifications have been satisfied.

8. Adjustments are made. If necessary, another part is made and checked

by the quality control department.

9. If everything is found to be satisfactory, the part goes into production.

7.14 Part Production
A completed and checked program is ready for executing production runs
only if it is capable of repeatedly producing the same results, i.e., quality
parts in the time projected. Programs that meet these criteria are a direct
reflection of the programmer’s professionalism.

The setup person tries to optimize the speeds and feeds when parts are
manufactured in production to speed up the cutting cycle, increase tool life,
and improve part quality.
7.15 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. The programmer must make a thorough study of the part drawing as a

first step in preparing the part program.

2. Important factors entering into the decision to utilize CNC operations

include the quantity of parts to be manufactured, the part quality, the
tooling costs, fixture manufacturing, and the cost of running the CNC
machine.

3. Methodizing is the process by which a sequence of operations for

producing a part is formulated.

4. The operations sheet contains important information concerning the

condition of the part material prior to machining.

5. The CNC setup sheet contains information pertaining to where and how
the work is to be held during the machining operations.

6. The CNC tool and operations sheets document the cutting sequence
together with the required cutting tools.

7. The programmer is responsible for writing the part program, selecting

the required tooling, and specifying the work-holding and fixturing
design.

8. The setup person is responsible for loading the tooling into the tool
magazine as well as securing the work-holding device and part blank in
the CNC machine. Other setup activities include loading the part
program into the MCU, measuring the location of the part origin,
entering the tool length offsets, and running the part program.

9. Tool length offset is the distance from the bottom of the tool to the part
Z0 reference plane with the spindle fully retracted.
10. A part is ready for production only after the program has been tested and
proven to consistently manufacture quality parts in the time proposed.
Review Exercises
1. 7.1. Name five factors that enter into the decision to manufacture a part
by CNC operations.

2. 7.2.

1. What is methodizing?

2. In a large shop the person is responsible for this job, whereas

in a small shop it is the person.

3. 7.3.

1. What is the purpose of the operations sheet?

2. List three specifications that can be given in the operations sheet.

4. 7.4. List three factors that must be considered when selecting a CNC
machine for an operation.

5. 7.5. Does the programmer or the setup person carry out each of the
following CNC shop activities?

1. Planning operations for part manufacture

2. Fixture design

3. Loading fixture and part into the CNC machine

4. Specifying tooling required

5. Entering the part program into the MCU

6. Determining the part origin and tool change position

7. Entering the location of the part origin and tool length offsets into
 the MCU

8. Testing and prove-out of the part program

6. 7.6.

1. What are three important functions provided by the work-holding

device?

2. Name three types of work-holding devices used for milling

operations.

7. 7.7.

1. What is the purpose of the setup sheet?

2. List four important specifications contained in the setup sheet.

8. 7.8.

1. What is the purpose of the CNC tool and operations sheet?

2. List four important specifications contained in the tool and

operations sheet.

9. 7.9. List all the items that must be delivered to the CNC machine in
preparation for setting up a job.

10. 7.10. Define the terms machine home, part origin, and tool change
position.

11. 7.11. Describe three methods by which the setup person can locate the
part origin.

12. 7.12

1. What is the tool length offset?

2. How is the tool length offset measured?

13. 7.13. Explain the purpose of each of the following tests:

1. MCU run with the CNC machine locked

2. Dry run

3. Test part run

14. 7.14. What three important criteria must a part program satisfy in order
to qualify for use in production runs?
Chapter Eight Word Address
Programming
8.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Understand the meaning of important terminology connected with word

address programming.

2. Explain what comprises a program.

3. State how addresses should be arranged in a block and identify their use.

4. Describe the importance of G and M codes in a program.

8.2 Introduction
The fundamental concepts concerning the word address format for
programming are considered. The reader is introduced to such terms as
programming characters, addresses, words, and blocks. The general
arrangement of information in a command block is given and discussed in
detail. G and M codes are central to word address programming. A list of
these codes, together with an explanation of their use in programs, is given.
8.3 Programming Language Format
A program format is a system of arranging information so that it is suitable
for input to a CNC controller. The current standard for CNC programming is
based on ISO 6983. Several different types of format exist. The ANSI/EIA
274-D-1980: Interchangeable Variable Block Data Format, also known as
word address format, will be used in this text. It was originally developed for
use with NC tapes and has been retained for CNC programming.
Programming of CNC equipment involves the entry of word address code for
precisely controlling all machine movements.

English language Word address programming language

English characters Program characters
English word Program word
English sentence Program block
English characters Program characters
Period End of block

Word address programming language is similar to the English language and

is divided into the following parts.
8.4 Programming Language
Terminology
The following terminology is important when using the word address format.

Programming Character
A programming character is an alphanumeric character or punctuation mark.

Example 8.1
The following are programming characters:

N G ;

Addresses
An address is a letter that describes the meaning of the numerical value
following the address.

Example 8.2
Identify the address and the number in the codes G00 and X–.375;
It is important to note that a minus (–) sign may be inserted between the
address and the numeric value. Positive values do not need a plus sign.

Words
Characters are used to form words. Program words are composed of two
main parts: an address followed by a number. Words are used to describe
such important information as machine motions and dimensions in programs.

Blocks
A block is a complete line of information to the CNC machine. It is
composed of one word or an arrangement of words. Blocks may vary in
length; thus, the programmer need only include in a block those words
required to execute a particular machine function.

Example 8.3
Point out the components of the block N0020X–2.5Y3.75S1000;
Each block is separated from the next by an end-of-block (;) code.

Note
The end-of-block character is automatically generated when the programmer
enters a carriage return at the computer. The same holds true when the end-
of-block key is depressed at the machine control unit during manual entry.
Therefore, this character will not appear in the regular program listings in
this text.

Programs
A program is a sequence of blocks that describe in detail the motions a CNC
machine is to execute in order to manufacture a part. The MCU executes a
program block by block. The order in which the blocks appear is the order in
which they are processed.

Example 8.4
Illustrate the order in which the MCU executes the following program.
8.5 Arrangement of Addresses in a
Block
The order in which addresses appear in a block can vary. The following
sequence, however, is normally used:

General Syntax

N Sequence number, indicates the sequence number of the block.

Preparatory function, specifies the mode of operation in which a
G
command is to be executed.
X,
Dimension words, designate the amounts of axis movements.
Y, Z
I, J,
K
U,
V,
W
A, B,
C
P, Q,
R
Feed rate, designates the relative speed of the cutting tools with respect
F
to the work.
S Spindle function, designates the spindle speed in revolutions per
 minute (rpm).
T Tool function, designates the number of the tools to be used.
Miscellaneous function, designates a machine function such as spindle
M
on/off or coolant on/off.
Auxiliary input function, specifies tool length offset number, number
H, D
of repetitions of a fixed cycle, and so on.

Example 8.5
Give an example of addresses arranged in a block.
8.6 Program and Sequence
Numbers (O, N Codes)
Program Number (O)
Programs are stored in the MCU memory by program number. The machine
recognizes programs according to a numeric code, and most machines can
store several different programs at a time. Program numbers range from O1
to O9999. See Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1
MCU memory to disc.

Sequence Number (N)

A sequence number is an optional tag that can be coded at the beginning of a
block if needed. The MCU will execute program blocks in the order in which
they appear regardless of the sequence number entered.

Sequence numbers are used so that operators can locate specific lines of a
program when entering data or performing checkout operations.

These numbers range from N1 to N9999.

Example 8.6
Give an example of the use of a program number and sequence numbers.
8.7 Preparatory Functions (G
Codes)
A preparatory function is designated by the address G followed by one or two
digits to specify the mode in which a CNC machine moves along its
programmed axes. The term preparatory signifies that the word (G address
and digit code) prepares the control system for the information that is to
follow in the block. Preparatory functions are also referred to as G codes. A
G code is usually placed at the beginning of a block so it can set the control
for a particular mode when acting on the other words in the block.

G Codes Fall into One of Two Major Categories:

G code
Effect
category
The G code specification will remain in effect for all subsequent
Modal
blocks unless replaced by another modal G code.
The G code specification will only affect the block in which it
Nonmodal
appears.

Many G codes have been standardized and others are unique to a particular
CNC control. It should also be noted that there are differences between the G
codes used for CNC machining centers and those used for CNC lathes. The
following G codes are especially useful when executing operations involving
Fanuc controllers.

G
Mode Specification
code
Rapid positioning mode. The tool is moved to its
programmed XYZ location at maximum feed rate. The tool
G0 Modal
will travel at a 45° angle with both drive motors running at
top speed until one or the other runs out of travel.
G1 Modal Linear interpolation mode. The tool is to be moved along a
straight-line path at the programmed feed rate.
 Inch mode for all units. This code is entered at the start of a
G20 Modal
word address program to specify units are in inches.
G21 Modal Specifies metric (mm) mode for all units.
G28 Nonmodal Returns tool to reference point.
G43 Modal Specifies tool length offset (positive direction).
G49 Modal Cancels tool length offset.\
G53 Modal Cancels G54–G59 fixture offsets.
G54– Modal Specifies fixture offset locations.
• G54—specifies fixture offset location 1
• G55—specifies fixture offset location 2
• •
• •
G59 G59—specifies fixture offset location 6
Cancels any fixed cycle. This word should appear prior to
G80 Modal starting a new program and at the end of a program to
cancel any fixed cycles. Refer to Chapter 8.
G90 Modal Specifies absolute position programming.
G91 Modal Specifies incremental position programming.
Directs the controller to shift the absolute zero point for
programmed moves from the current tool position to the
part origin. If the current tool position is at machine home,
G92 Modal
the shift will be from machine home to the part origin. The
X and Y values following G92 are measured from the part
origin to the current tool position.
Specifies a return to the initial point in a machining cycle
G98 Modal
that had been created by a modal G code.

A more comprehensive listing of G codes is given in Appendix B.

Example 8.7
Explain the effect of modality of the G codes in the word address blocks
below:
In the following chapters we will explain in more detail the use and
application of G codes in commands.
8.8 Dimension Words (X, Y, Z ...
Codes)
As was stated previously, dimension words specify the movement of the
programming axes. Remember from Chapter 2 that programming axes are
laid out according to the Cartesian coordinate system. The positive or
negative direction of movement along an axis is given by the right-hand rule.
For a review, see section 2.6.

Address Information stored

X, Y, Z Linear axes
A, B, C Rotary axes
U, V, W Axes parallel to the X, Y, Z axes
I, J, K Axes used as auxiliary of the X, Y, Z axes
R, Q Axes used as auxiliary of the Z axis

Example 8.8
Explain the meaning of the following word address blocks.

Word address
Meaning
command
N0030 G0X.5Y.5 Move tool at rapid speed (G0) to X.5 Y.5.
N0040 G90G1Z-.5F10. Absolute mode positioning (G90).
Liner interpolation mode (G1).
Move tool to absolute Z–.5 at a feed rate (F) of 10
ipm.
Move tool to absolute X2.5 at a feed rate (F) of 10
N0050 X2.5
ipm.
N0060 Y1.5 Move tool to absolute Y1.5 at a feed rate (F) of 10
ipm.
8.9 Feed Rate (F Code)
The feed rate is the rate at which the cutting tool moves along a programming
axis, and is specified by the numerical value following the address F. In the
English system, the feed rate is expressed in inches per minute, and in the
metric system in millimeters per minute. The student is encouraged to review
the presentation of how the feed rate for hole and milling operations is
computed. See Sections 3.6 and 3.9. Additionally, recommended feeds for
drilling and milling various materials are listed in Appendix C.

An F specification is modal and remains in effect in a program for all

subsequent tool movements. The feed rate can be changed by entering a new
F command. Decimal point input is required with an F address.

Example 8.9
Explain the meaning of the feed rate words F10 and F10. in the English
system.

F10 specifies a feed rate of .001 in./min (ipm).

F10. specifies a feed rate of 10 in./min (ipm).

8.10 Spindle Speed (S Code)
When programmed directly for milling centers, the address S specifies the
spindle speed in RPM. When programmed with a G96 word, the address S
specifies spindle speed in surface feet per minute. A value up to four digits
maximum is entered following the address S. No decimal point is allowed
with the numerical value.

Example 8.10
Explain the meaning of the word S1600.

S1600 directs the control to set the CNC machine spindle at 1600 revolutions
per minute or 1600 rpm.

The address S is modal and remains in effect for every subsequent command,
until replaced by a new S code or canceled by a spindle-off (M5) word.

A review of how tool speed is computed for milling operation is

recommended. Refer to Section 3.6. Appendix C also contains a listing of
recommended speeds for drilling and milling various materials.

Spindle speed should be specified prior to entering blocks containing cutting

commands. An S code is usually entered in the same block containing an axis
movement instruction. Upon executing the block, the controller will direct
the CNC machine to start the spindle turning and move it along the
programmed axis.
8.11 Miscellaneous Machine
Functions (M Codes)
M codes specify CNC machine functions not related to dimensional or axes
movements. Unlike G codes, they do not prepare the controller to act in a
particular mode when processing the other words in a block. Instead, they
direct the controller to immediately execute the machine function indicated.

The numbers following the address M call for such miscellaneous machine
functions as spindle on/off, coolant on/off, program stop/automatic tool
change, program end, and so on. M codes are usually classified into two main
groups:

Type A: Those executed with the start of axis movements in a block.

Type B: Those executed after the completion of axis movements in a

block.

The following M codes are especially useful in many programming

applications.

M
Type Specification
code
M0 B Causes a program stop.
Causes a program end. An M02 code must appear in the last
M2 B
block in a program. If used, do not use M30.
M3 A Turns spindle on clockwise (CW).
M4 A Turns spindle on counterclockwise (CCW).
Turns spindle off. Usually used prior to a tool change and at the
M5 B
end of a program.
M6 B Stops the program and calls for an automatic tool change.
M7 A Turns the coolant tap oil on.
M8 A Turns the external coolant on.
M9 B Turns the coolant off.
Directs the controller to end program processing, and reset the
M30 B memory unit. This code must appear in the last block of a
program. If used, do not use M02.

A complete list of M codes is given in Appendix B.

8.12 Automatic Tool Changing (M6
Code)
To execute a tool change on a machining center, the programmer must first
make the spindle move rapidly up to a safe Z distance. Retracting to a safe
height will ensure that the tool does not strike the part or fixturing when
moving in the XY plane. The tool must then be repositioned from its current
location to the tool change position, on many machining centers by returning
the tool to the Z and Y machine home reference points Z0Y0. Using the code
G91 G28 Z0 Y0, it should be noted that the spindle does not have to be reset
to the X0 reference point. On some machines a move to the tool change
position only requires that the spindle return to the Z0 reference position.

The number of the new tool to be used is identified by the T word. The word
M6 directs the CNC machine to change to the new tool.

Example 8.11
Explain the meaning of the following word address blocks.

Word address command Meaning

N0100 G91G28Z0Y0 Return to reference (tool change) position (G28).

Execute an automatic tool change (M6).

N0110 T2M6
Change to tool #2 (T2).
8.13 Tool Length Offset and Cutter
Radius Compensation (H, D Codes)
The H code is used to specify where the values of the tool length offset and
the tool position offset are located. The D code indicates where the value of
the cutter radius compensation for a tool is to be found if needed.

A two-digit number ranging from 01 to 99 is used with the H or D address.

The number used for the H specification should not be used for the D
specification. However, it is recommended that the same number be used for
both the H and T codes. Thus, T1 should be used with H1 and T10 with
H10, and so forth.

Example 8.12
Explain the meaning of the following word address blocks.

Word address
Meaning
command

Execute an automatic tool change (M6).

N0010 T5M6
Change to tool #5 (T5).

Apply tool length offset (+ direction) (G43) to the tool in the

spindle.
N0020 G43H5
The value of the tool length offset for tool #5 is located in
register 5 (H5) of the tool length offset file.
8.14 Comments
A comment is the labeling text that is displayed with a program. Information
that is written between the left and right parentheses ( ) is considered to be a
comment and is ignored by the controller. Long comments placed in the
middle of a program will interrupt motion for a long time. It is good practice
to write comments without sequence numbers and place them where
movement is allowed to be interrupted or where no movement is specified.

Example 8.13
The following comments are used for labeling purposes only, and are ignored
by the controller.
8.15 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. The word address is a format for writing programs.

2. A program word is used to describe important machine motions and

dimensions in a program.

3. A block is composed of words that represent a complete command to the

CNC machine.

4. Program blocks may vary in length depending upon the information

needed to command a CNC operation.

5. A preparatory function (G code) is used to specify the mode in which a

CNC machine moves along programming axes.

6. A miscellaneous function (M code) is entered to specify machine

functions other than dimensional or axis movements.
Review Exercises
1. 8.1. What is a program format?

2. 8.2. CNC programming is based on what current standard?

3. 8.3. Briefly describe word address format.

4. 8.4. Match the terms on the left with the definitions on the right:

A letter describing the meaning of a number following the

Character
letter
Address A sequence of blocks
Word Alphanumeric or punctuation mark
Block An address followed by a number
Program A complete command to the CNC machine

5. 8.5. What is G code?

6. 8.6. What is the difference between modal and nonmodal G codes?

7. 8.7. Explain the mode and use of the following G codes:

1. G49

2. G1

3. G80

4. G0

5. G92

8. 8.8. Describe what an M code is.

9. 8.9. Into what two main groups do M codes fall?

10. 8.10. State the type and use of the following M codes:

1. M6

2. M30

3. M0

4. M3

5. M5

11. 8.11. Explain the effect of each block on the CNC machine.

1. N0010 G1 X1.5 F5.0

2. N0100 G0 X2.Y0.S500

3. N0050 T2 M6

4. N0060 G43 H2

5. N0020 G92 X–2.Y5.

6. N0070 G90 G20

Chapter Nine Programming Hole
Operations
9.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Understand the meaning of a fixed or “canned” cycle.

2. Explain the purpose of the most important fixed cycles for hole
operations.

3. Identify the different codes of information required to program a fixed

cycle.

4. Describe the general sequence of operations to be followed in

programming hole operations.

5. Write simple hole operation programs with the aid of canned cycles.
9.2 Introduction
The concept of a fixed or “canned” cycle is discussed in this chapter. The
most important fixed cycles related to such hole operations as drilling,
counterboring, deep drilling, tapping, and boring are explained in detail. The
reader is introduced to the format that can be followed when writing hole
operation programs for a vertical machining center. Complete programs are
given, together with a comprehensive explanation of the commands.

The student is encouraged to use the hole machining simulation software

described in and available at the Companion Website at http://
www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino.
9.3 Fixed or Canned Cycles
The simplest operations to program are those related to producing holes,
including drilling, boring, tapping, spot drilling, and counterboring. The
simplicity of programming lies in the fact that the programmer only needs to
specify the coordinates of the hole center and type of machine motions to be
performed at the center. A fixed cycle, if used properly, takes over and causes
the machine to execute the required movements. The controller stores a
number of fixed cycles that can be recalled for use in programs when needed,
which reduces the programming time and length of program required. See
Figure 9.1.

A fixed cycle for drilling, center drilling, or reaming is programmed by

entering in one block containing the following information: the fixed cycle G
code, the X and Y coordinates of the hole center, the final Z-axis depth, the Z-
axis clearance plane (R), and the feed rate F of the tool into the hole.

The following sequence of operations automatically occurs:

1. Rapid move to the X and Y coordinates of the hole center.

2. Rapid move to the Z-axis clearance plane (R).

3. Feed to Z-axis final depth.

4. Rapid move back to either the Z-axis initial position or the Z-axis
clearance plane (R).

To perform the same operations in the next block, the programmer need only
enter the X and Y coordinates of the next hole center.
 Figure 9.1
A boring operation executed using a fixed cycle.

(Photo courtesy of Moreno Soppelsa/Fotolia.com)

Safety Rules for Hole Operations

Make sure the fixture setup is rigid enough to withstand the high thrusts
generated by drilling.

Take necessary precautions when drilling:

Make sure machine safety guard is up.

Wear safety goggles.

Avoid skin contact with cutting fluids.

For long boring cuts select the heaviest possible boring bar with the
shortest overhang.

Set cutting speeds and feeds to values recommended by the tool

manufacturer.

Adjust recommended values to allow for accuracy, quality of surface

finish, rate of tool wear, chip control, and machine capability.

Press the EMERGENCY STOP button before entering the work area to
remove chips or clean the CNC machine.

Be mindful of overhead obstructions when leaning into the working

area.
9.4 Hole Operation Commands
Listed in this section are the word address commands for executing various
hole operations on a vertical milling machine equipped with a Fanuc
controller. The cycles described are the most important ones used; this is not
a complete listing of all the cycles that can be obtained. The variety and
availability of codes vary from machine to machine, depending upon the
machine builder and the options selected.

Notes:
1. The cycles described are modal. They operate automatically on all
subsequent data blocks that include rapid movement (G00) in the XY
plane. A cycle is canceled by a G80 code or replaced by another
autocycle.

2. Zinitial is the current Z-axis position when a fixed cycle is initiated.

3. The fonting in the diagrams carries the following meanings:

represents rapid feed

represents programmed feed rate

General Syntax
Drill, Center Drill, or Ream Cycle
A G81 cycle causes the machine to ① rapidly move the tool from the Zinitial
position to the Rplane, ② drill the hole to a depth Zn at feed rate Fn, ③ rapidly
move the tool back to either the Rplane or the Zinitial position, and ④ rapidly
move the tool to the center of the next hole if the Xn Yn coordinates of that
hole are programmed in the next block.

G81 Xn Yn Zn Rn Fn
G81 Specifies simple drilling.
Xn Numeric values of n specify the absolute X and Y coordinates of the
Yn hole center. Coordinates can be absolute (G90) or incremental (G91).
Numeric value of n specifies the depth of the drill in absolute (G90) or
Zn the distance below the Rplane to the hole bottom in incremental (G91)
code.
Numeric value of n specifies the distance to the Rplane in absolute (G90)
or the distance below the initial tool position to the Rplane in incremental
Rn
(G91) code. If not programmed, the last active Rplane is used, and if
none is specified, the tool returns to the Zinitial position.
Numeric value of n specifies the feed rate of the tool [(in./min) or
Fn (mm/min)] into the hole. If not programmed, the system will use the last
programmed feed rate.
Counterbore Cycle or Spotface
Cycle
A G82 cycle causes the machine to ① rapidly move the tool from the Zinitial
position to the Rplane, ② bore the hole to a depth Zn at feed rate Fn, ③ dwell
for Pn seconds at depth Zn, ④ rapidly move the tool back to either the Rplane
or the Zinitial position, and ⑤ rapidly move the tool to the center of the next
hole if the Xn Yn coordinates of that hole are programmed in the next block.

G82 Xn Yn Zn Fn Pn
Specifies a counterbore
G82
cycle.
Numeric values of n
specify the absolute X and
Xn Y coordinates of the hole
Yn center. Coordinates can be
 absolute (G90) or
incremental (G91).
Numeric value of n
specifies the depth of the
drill in absolute (G90) or
Zn the distance below the
Rplane to the hole bottom
in incremental (G91)
code.
Numeric value of n
specifies the distance to
the Rplane in absolute
(G90) or the distance
below the initial tool
position to the Rplane in
Rn
incremental (G91) code. If
not programmed, the last
active Rplane is used, and
if none is specified, the
tool returns to the Zinitial
position.
Numeric value of n
specifies the feed rate of
the tool [(in./min) or
Fn (mm/min)] into the hole.
If not programmed, the
system will use the last
programmed feed rate.
Numeric value of n
specifies the dwell time at
Pn
the bottom of the hole in
seconds (.01–99.99).

Deep Drill or Peck Drill Cycle

A G83 cycle causes the machine to ① rapidly move the tool from the Zinitial
position to the Rplane, ② drill into the hole a specific peck distance Qn at feed
rate Fn, ③ rapidly move the tool to either the Rplane or the Zinitial position, ④
drill again at feed rate to a depth of 2Qn, and ⑤ rapidly move the tool back
to either the Rplane or the Zinitial position. The process is repeatedly executed
with uniform increases in the peck depth until the total hole depth is reached
at ⑥; upon reaching the total hole depth, a final rapid move ⑦ is made back
to either the Rplane or the Zinitial position. A rapid move ⑧ is made to the
center next hole if the Xn Yn coordinates of that hole are programmed in the
next block.

G83 Xn Yn Zn Qn Rn Fn
Specifies a peck drill
G83
cycle.

Numeric values of n
specify the absolute X
Xn and Y coordinates of the
Yn hole center. Coordinates
can be absolute (G90) or
incremental (G91).
Numeric value of n
specifies the depth of the
drill in absolute (G90) or
Zn the distance below the
Rplane to the hole bottom
in incremental (G91)
code.
Numeric value of n
specifies the first peck
 distance below the Rplane.
Qn
This value is added
successively to the last
total for each pass until
the final hole depth is
reached.
Numeric value of n
specifies the distance to
the Rplane in absolute
(G90) or the distance
below the initial tool
position to the Rplane in
Rn incremental (G91) code.
If not programmed, the
last active Rplane is used,
and if none is specified,
the tool returns to the
Zinitial position.

Numeric value of n
specifies the feed rate of
the tool [(in./min) or
Fn (mm/min)] into the hole.
If not programmed, the
system will use the last
programmed feed rate.

Tap Cycle
A G84 cycle causes the machine to ① rapidly move the tool from the Zinitial
position to the Rplane, ② cut threads as the tool advances in at feed rate Fn,
③ automatically reverse the spindle at maximum depth and retract at feed
rate to either the Zinitial position or the Rplane, and ④ rapidly move the tool to
the center of the next hole if the Xn Yn coordinates of that hole are
programmed in the next block.

Because the Z-axis motion is instantaneously reversed for up motion

when the spindle is reversed, it is advisable to use a floating tap holder.

G84 Xn Yn Zn Rn Fn
G84 Specifies a tap cycle.
Numeric values of n
specify the absolute X and
Xn Y coordinates of the hole
Yn center. Coordinates can
be absolute (G90) or
incremental (G91).
Numeric value of n
specifies the thread depth
in absolute (G90) or the
Zn distance below the Rplane
to the bottom of the
thread in incremental
(G91) code.
Numeric value of n
specifies the distance to
the Rplane in absolute
(G90) or the distance
below the initial tool
position to the Rplane in
Rn
incremental (G91) code.
If not programmed, the
last active Rplane is used,
and if none is specified,
the tool returns to the
Zinitial position.
Numeric value of n
specifies the feed rate
[(in./min) or (mm/min)]
of the tool into or out of
Fn the hole. The feed rate
should be (rpm × lead of
tap). If omitted, the last
programmed feed rate is
used.

Bore Cycle
A G85 cycle causes the machine to ① rapidly move the tool from the Zinitial
position to the Rplane, ② advance the tool into the hole at feed rate Fn, ③
retract the tool at feed rate to either the Zinitial position or Rplane, and ④
rapidly move the tool to the center of the next hole if the Xn Yn coordinates
of that hole are programmed in the next block.

G85 Xn Yn Zn Rn Fn
G85 Specifies a bore cycle.

Numeric values of n
specify the absolute X and
Xn Y coordinates of the hole
Yn center. Coordinates can
be absolute (G90) or
incremental (G91).
Numeric value of n
specifies the depth of the
drill in absolute (G90) or
Zn the distance below the
Rplane to the hole bottom
in incremental (G91)
code.
 Numeric value of n
specifies the distance to
the Rplane in absolute
(G90) or the distance
below the initial tool
position to the Rplane in
Rn incremental (G91) code.
If not programmed, the
last active Rplane is used,
and if none is specified,
the tool returns to the
Zinitial position.

Numerical value of n
specifies the feed rate of
the tool [(in./min) or
(mm/min)] into or out of
Fn
the hole. If not
programmed, the system
will use the last
programmed feed rate.

Example 9.1
For each hole operation shown in Figures 9.2 through 9.6, write the
appropriate G code blocks in both absolute and incremental modes.

1. Drill autocycle
 Figure 9.2
2. Counterbore autocycle
 Figure 9.3
3. Deep drill autocycle
 Figure 9.4
4. Tap autocycle
 Figure 9.5
5. Bore autocycle
Figure 9.6
9.5 Writing a Hole Operation
Program
A suggested pattern or format that can be followed for programming a typical
vertical machining center with a Fanuc 6M controller is shown in Figure 9.7.
 Figure 9.7
Suggested pattern/format for programming typical vertical
machining center.

Example 9.2
Write a word address program for executing the drilling operation as shown
in Figure 9.8. Use the CNC tool and operations sheet given.

Figure 9.8
Drilling operation.
Setup Notes:
1. The part is held in a vise with a stop on the left side.

2. Set X0Y0 at the upper left-hand corner.

3. Z0 is the top of the part.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Tool Operation Tooling Speed (rpm) Feed (ipm)
1 Deep drill (4) holes thru .25 DIA* drill 1600 5
*DIA indicates diameter.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 9.3
Write a word address program for executing the hole operations as indicated
in Figure 9.9 and outlined in the following CNC tool and operations sheet.

Figure 9.9
Hole operations.
Setup Notes:
1. The part is held against three pins by two clamps.

2. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

3. Z0 is the top of the part.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Tool Operation Tooling Speed (rpm) Feed (mm/min)
1 Drill (3) Ø4 holes Ø4-mm drill 2200 60
2 Drill (2) Ø6.7 holes Ø6.7-mm drill 1800 80
Run the stimulation software to see a solid model animation of this
machining example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 9.4
Write a word address program for a vertical CNC machining center to
execute the hole operations specified in the CNC tool and operations sheet.
The planned tool paths are shown in Figure 9.10.

Figure 9.10
Planned tool paths.
Setup Notes:
1. Set X0Y0 at the center of the .201 diameter.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is held by two clamps against three pins.

4. Outside contour is finished.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
1 Drill .201 DIA* (4) places No. 7 drill 1400 6
2 Tap 1/4-20 (3) places 1/4-20 tap 400 20
Counterbore .312 DIA × .40 5/16-2 FLT end
3 800 4
deep mill
*DIA indicates diameter.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

9.6 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. A fixed or “canned” cycle is a complete set of machine movements that

are initiated by issuing a single G code command.

2. The fixed cycles for hole operations are modal. Once programmed, they
are repeatedly executed at various locations specified in a part. They are
canceled by a G80 code or replaced by another fixed-cycle code.

3. The spindle should be retracted to a sufficient height before

programming an XY-axis move to ensure that the tool will clear any
clamps or obstructions.

4. The spindle should be retracted to a safe height before executing a tool

change and at the end of a program before returning to machine home
(machine X0Y0Z0) position.

Use the Predator simulation software to write and verify these exercise
programs.

Click and write the word address program.

Click and run the solid model machining animator.

Click and check the dimensions of the machined part.

Refer to Appendix H for complete instructions.

Review Exercises
1. 9.1. A program has been written for executing the drilling operation
listed in the CNC tool and operations sheet. A print of the hole sizes and
their locations is shown in Figure 9.11. Fill in the meaning of each of the
program blocks.

Figure 9.11
 Print of hole sizes and their locations.

Setup Notes:
1. Set X0Y0 at the center of the part.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is held by three clamps against three pins.

4. Finish holes as per the print.

CNC Tool and Operations

Sheet
Tool Operation Tooling Speed (rpm) Feed (ipm)
1 Drill (4) 3/16 DIA* thru 3/16 drill 1800 5
*DIA indicates diameter.
Word address command Meaning
O0905
(X0Y0 IS THE CENTER OF THE PART)
(Z0 IS THE TOP OF THE PART)
(TOOL1: 3/16 DIA. 16 DRILL)
N0010 G90 G20 G40 G80
N0020 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N0030 G92 X–10.0 Y5.0 Z0
N0040 T1 M6
(TOOL 1: DRILL (4) 3/16 DIA. HOLES THRU)
N0050 G0 G90 X0 Y0 Z0 S1800 M3
N0060 G43 Z.1 H1
N0070 M8
N0080 G83 X0 Y0 Z–.5363 R.1 Q.12 F5.0
N0090 X1.0
N0100 X –.5Y.866
N0110 Y–.866
N0120 G80
N0130 G0 G90 Z1.0 M5
N0140 M9
N0150 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N0160 M30

Note:
The machine home reference point in each case is a suggested location.
The true location must be determined at the time of setup.

For the remaining exercises in this chapter, write a CNC program using
the following general format:

1. Program number/headings

2. Job setup data listing

3. Tool 1 in spindle, machine start-up

4. Hole operation 1 sequence

5. Machine stop
 6. Change to tool 2, machine start

7. Hole operation 2

8. Machine stop, program end sequence

2. 9.2. Program number: O0906 (Figure 9.12).

Figure 9.12
 Setup Notes:
1. The part is held by three clamps against three pins.

2. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

3. Z0 is the top of the part.

4. Finish holes as per the print.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation (ipm)
Tooling (rpm)
Deep drill (3) .25 DIA* hole × .35
1 .25 DIA drill 1500 5
deep
.125 DIA
2 Deep drill (1) .125 DIA hole thru 2000 5
drill
*DIA indicates diameter.

3. 9.3. Program number: O0907 (Figure 9.13).

Setup Notes:
1. The part is held in a vise with a stop on the left.
2. Set X0Y0 at the upper left-hand corner.

3. Z0 is the top of the part.

4. Determine the proper feed rate for tapping.

Figure 9.13
CNC Tool and Operations Sheet
Speed Feed
 Tool Operation Tooling (rpm) (ipm)
Center drill (6) equally spaced No. 2 center
1 1500 6
holes ×.15 deep drill
.147 DIA*
2 Deep drill (6) holes ×.5 deep 1500 6
drill
10–24 UNC
3 Tap (6) holes ×.4 deep 70 2
tap
*DIA indicates diameter.

4. 9.4. Program number: O0908 (Figure 9.14).

 Figure 9.14
Setup Notes:
1. The part is held in a vise with a stop on the left side.

2. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

 3. Z0 is the top of the part.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
1 Drill (2) places 9/32 DIA* drill 1200 8
13/32—2 FLT end
2 Counterbore (2) places 600 6
mill
Drill .2500 DIA to .238
3 B drill 1400 8
DIA
Bore .2500 DIA to .248
4 .248 DIA B/bar 1000 2
DIA
Ream .2500 + 0000
5 .2499 DIA reamer 500 15
.0002
*DIA indicates diameter.

5. 9.5. Program number: O0909 (Figure 9.15).

 Figure 9.15
Program number: O0909.

Setup Notes:
1. The part is held in a three-jaw chuck.

2. Set X0Y0 at the center of the part.

 3. Z0 is the top of the part.

4. Determine the proper feed rate for tapping.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
1 Drill (4) 9/32 holes thru 9/32 DIA* drill 1800 7
Counterbore (4) 13/32 × 13/32–2 FLT/ end
2 1000 6
.27 deep mill
Drill (4) places for 1/4-20
3 No. 7 drill 2000 8
UNC
4 Tap 1/4-20 holes 1/4-20 tap 400 20
*DIA indicates diameter.
Chapter Ten Programming Linear
Profiles
10.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Explain what linear profiling is.

2. Understand the word address command for executing linear profiling.

3. Understand the sequence of commands required for executing typical

linear profiling operations.

4. Write complete CNC programs for linear profiling.

5. Compute cutter offsets for inclined line profiles.

10.2 Introduction
The important operation of linear profiling is covered in this chapter; its basic
syntax in word address is given and explained in detail. See Figure 10.1. A
generalized pattern for writing profiling programs is discussed and applied to
a profile formed by horizontal and vertical lines. The reader is introduced to
the trigonometry involved in computing cutter offsets for profiles consisting
of inclined lines. Detailed examples of computing cutter offsets and writing a
corresponding program are also given.

The student is encouraged to use the machining simulation software

described in Appendix G, and which is available at the Companion Website
at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino.
10.3 Linear Interpolation
Commands
When executing linear interpolation, a continuous path machine moves the
tool along a straight-line path from the initial point to the final point by
simultaneously actuating its drive motors. Linear profiling involves cutting
contours composed of straight lines only, though the lines may be horizontal,
vertical, or at any angle.

The following word address commands are used extensively for cutting linear
profiles on a vertical or horizontal machining center that utilizes a Fanuc 6M
controller.

Note
↓ represents tool motion at the programmed feed rate.
10.4 Writing a Linear Profiling
Program
A typical pattern that can be followed for planning many types of basic
profiling programs is given in Figure 10.2. This pattern is used in the
examples that follow.

Figure 10.1
Machining a linear profile.

(Photo courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tools.)

Safety Rules for Milling Operations

 For climb milling, feed work in the direction of cutter rotation.

A deep first cut should be made on castings, forgings, and other rough
surfaces in order to enable the tool to penetrate the hard outer scale.

Position the side milling cutter in such a way that the cutting edges are
not brought against the vise or fixture.

Observe the following practices when milling:

Hold the tool as close as possible to the work fixture and arbor
support arm.

Direct the cutting forces toward the spindle.

Move the tool toward the solid vise jaw or vertical leg of an angle
plate.

Supply a continuous flow of cutting fluid when machining cast iron or

steel with carbide end mills.

Wear hearing protection when noise levels exceed OSHA standards.

General Syntax
Linear Profile Milling
G1 Zn Fn

Xa Ya

Xb Yb

etc.

Specifies the linear interpolation mode. The tool is moved at

G1
programmed feed rate along a straight line.
Zn The value of n specifies the absolute depth of cut.
The value of n specifies the feed rate of the tool into the material
Fn along each subsequent straight line programmed. If not entered, the
system will use the last feed rate programmed.
Xa Ya The values of a, b, ... etc. specify the absolute coordinates of the
cutter center at the end of line-a cut, line-b cut, and so on.

Xb Yb

•
 •

Example 10.1
Write a word address program to profile mill the contour shown in Figure
10.3. Use the CNC tool and operations sheet given.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0.03 in. from the lower left corner.

2. The blank for the part is 5116 in.×4116 in.×0.5 in.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile mill contour ×.52 .5 DIA* end
1 1200 8
deep mill

*DIA indicates diameter.

The cutter can be thought of as a circle whose diameter is the tool diameter.
For profiling, the tool must be positioned such that it is always tangent to the
line it follows. Specifying the X, Y locations of the cutter center is relatively
easy when dealing with horizontal and vertical line profiles. The programmer
simply adds the cutter radius to the part geometry or subtracts the radius as
required, as shown in Figure 10.3.

Then, the computed X, Y values are used in the CNC program. A complete
listing is given below.
Figure 10.2
Eight-step diagram.
 Figure 10.3
The programmer simply adds the cutter radius to the part geometry
or subtracts the radius as required.

Absolute
coordinates
Position X

−.35
2.25

2.25

5.25

5.25

−.25

−.25
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

10.5 Determining Cutter Offsets for
Inclined Line Profiles
Many parts contain profiles consisting of inclined lines, which means the
programmer cannot simply add or subtract the cutter radius. Right-triangle
trigonometry must be applied to determine the position of the cutter center.
The ΔX and ΔY values given in Figures 10.4 through 10.6 are used to
compensate for inclined lines. In each case, they are added to or subtracted
from the part geometry, and the resulting value gives the proper location of
the cutter center.

1. Inclined profile case 1

2. Inclined profile case 2

3. Inclined profile case 3

Example 10.2 illustrates the use of these formulas.

Figure 10.4
Inclined profile case 1.
Figure 10.5
Inclined profile case 2.
 Figure 10.6
Inclined profile case 3.

An Approach to Determining
Cutter Offsets for Inclined Line
Profiles
Step Procedure Visual

EXTEND THE
1 PART PROFILE
LINES

DRAW A CIRCLE
REPRESENTING
THE CUTTING
2 TOOL TANGENT
TO THE TWO
EXTENSION
LINES
DRAW A LINE
FROM THE
CENTER OF THE
3 CIRCLE TO THE
INTERSECTION
OF THE PART
PROFILE LINES
 DROP A
PERPENDICULAR
4
TO THE CUT
SIDE

DETERMINE θ,
THE ANGLE THE
SECOND
PROFILE LINE
5
MAKES WITH
THE EXTENSION
LINE OF THE
FIRST PROFILE
THE ACUTE
ANGLE OF THE
RIGHT
TRIANGLE AT
THE
6 INTERSECTION t=tan(180°−θ2).
OF THE TWO
PROFILE LINES
WILL ALWAYS
BE GIVEN AS 180°
−θ2
THE CUTTER
OFFSET IS
DETERMINED BY
7 DIVIDING THE ΔY=Rt
CUTTER RADIUS,
R, BY THE
TANGENT
VALUE, t

Example 10.2
Determine the absolute coordinates of the center of the cutter for milling the
profile shown in Figure 10.7.

Figure 10.7
 Determine the absolute coordinates of the center of the cutter of
milling the profile.

The required calculations and coordinates are as follows:

Position Calculation
 X = 5 +.25 Y = −5 −.25
X = −.25 Y = −5 −.25
X = −.25 Y = .25

Example 10.3
Write a word address program to profile mill the contour given in Example
10.2. Additionally, include statements for drilling the holes shown in Figure
10.8. Use the CNC tool and operations sheet as an aid in writing the program.
 Figure 10.8
Tool center coordinates for profiling the contour.

The tool center coordinates for profiling the contour were calculated in
Example 10.2 and will be used in the program that follows.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile mill contour × .375 .5 DIA* end
1 1500 7
deep mill
2 Deep drill all holes thru .4375 DIA drill 1500 7

*DIA indicates diameter.

The CNC program written with absolute coordinates is given below.

Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 10.4
Write a word address program for milling the inside and outside of the part
shown in Figure 10.9.
 Figure 10.9
Milling the inside and outside of the part shown.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. For inside machining the part is held by two clamps against three pins.

4. For outside machining, stop the machine.

5. Clamp the part from the inside and remove the outside clamps.

Inside machining

Outside machining

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

 CNC Tool and Operations Sheet
Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile inside 316 DIA* center cut end
1 2000 4
contour mill
Profile outside
2 14 DIA end mill 1700 6
contour

*DIA indicates diameter.

Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 10.5
The metric part illustrated in Figure 10.10 is to be machined. Write a word
address program to carry out the operations as outlined in the CNC tool and
operations sheet.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is roughed and finished in the slot by holding the blank against
three pins by two clamps.
 4. For outside machining, stop the machine, place a clamp from inside, and
remove outside clamps.

Inside machining

Outside machining

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (mm/min)
Rough inside contour .25 Ø6-mm roughing
1 2100 120
full end mill
Finish inside contour as
2 Ø4-mm end mill 2600 100
required
Rough outside contour Ø6-mm roughing
1 2100 120
.25 full end mill
Finish outside contour as
2 Ø4-mm end mill 2600
required
Figure 10.10
Operations 1 and 2; operations 3 and 4.
Figure 10.11
Clamp/banking pin with part blank.

Figure 10.12
Clamp.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 10.6
A .250-in. deep pocket is to be machined in the part shown in Figure 10.13.
Write a word address program for executing the operation per the CNC tool
and operations sheet.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is held in a vise against a stop on the left. The outside profile is
assumed to be finished.
Outside machining

Figure 10.13
Print of part with .250 in. deep pocket.
 Figure 10.14
Tool paths for roughing and finishing the pocket.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Finish pocket depth; leave .01 12 DIA* center
1 1500 6
on the sides cutting end mill
2 Finish sides 38 DIA end mill 2000 5

*DIA indicates diameter.

Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

10.6 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Linear profiling involves cutting a contour composed of straight-line

segments.

2. The word address code for linear profiling is G1.

3. The cutter circle must be tangent to the profile line it cuts.

4. Right-triangle trigonometry must be used to compute cutter offsets for

the case of inclined line profiles.
Review Exercises
For each of the exercises in this chapter, write a CNC program containing the
following general format:

1. Program number/headings

2. Job setup data listing

3. Tool 1 in spindle, machine start-up

4. Profiling operation 1

5. Machine stop

6. Change to tool 2, machine start

7. Profiling operation 2

8. Machine stop, program end sequence

The machine home reference point is a suggested location. The true location
must be determined at the time of setup.

Use the Predator simulation software to write and verify these exercise
programs.

Click and write the word address program

 Click and run the solid model machining animator

Click and check the dimensions of the machined part

Refer to Appendix H for complete instructions.

1. 10.1. Program number: O1007 (Figure 10.15).

Figure 10.15
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 10.1.

Setup Notes:
 1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile mill contour × .5 .25 DIA* end
1 2000 5
deep mill

*DIA indicates diameter.

2. 10.2. Program number: O1008 (Figure 10.16).

Figure 10.16
 Print and tool paths for producing the part for 10.2.

Setup Notes:

1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile mill contour × .25 .25 DIA end
1 1600 8
deep mill

*DIA indicates diameter.

3. 10.3. Program number: O1009 (Figure 10.17).

Setup Notes:

1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is to be roughed and finished in the slot by holding the

blank against three pins with two clamps.

4. For outside machining, stop the machine, place a clamp from the
inside, and remove outside clamps and pins. Finish as required.
Inside machining

Outside machining
 Figure 10.17
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 10.3.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (mm/min)
Rough inside .25 mm full × 5-mm roughing
1 2000 100
.35 mm deep end mill
2 Finish inside as required 3-mm end mill 2400 70
Rough outside .25 mm full 5-mm roughing
3 2000 100
× .35 mm deep end mill
4 Finish outside as required 3-mm end mill 2400 70
Figure 10.18
Clamp/banking pin part blank.

Figure 10.19
Clamp.
 Figure 10.20
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 10.4.

4. 10.4. Program number: O1010 (Figure 10.20).

Setup Notes:

1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. For inside machining, the part is held by two clamps against three
pins.

4. For outside machining, shop the machine. Clamp the part from the
 inside and remove the outside clamps and pins.

Inside machining

Outside machining

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Speed(rpm)
(ipm)
Profile inside outside × .5 DIA* center cutting
1 2000 4
.40 deep end mill

*DIA indicates diameter.

5. 10.5. Program number: O1011 (Figure 10.21).

 Figure 10.21
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 10.5.

Setup Notes:

1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. For inside machining, the part is held by two clamps against three
pins.

4. For outside machining, shop the machine. Clamp the part from the
inside and remove the outside clamps and pins.
 Outside machining

Inside machining

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile inside outside × .150 .25 DIA* end
1 1800 8
deep mill

*DIA indicates diameter.

6. 10.6. Program number: O1012 (Figure 10.22).

Setup Notes:

1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

 Figure 10.22
Print and toolpaths for producing the part for 10.6.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Rough profile × .650 34 DIA roughing
1 2200 12
deep end mill
Finish profile contour ×
2 .25 DIA end mill 2000 8
.650 deep

*DIA indicates diameter.

7. 10.7. Program number: O1013 (Figure 10.23).

Setup Notes:

1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is held in a vise against a stop on the left.

4. The outside profile is assumed to be finished.

 Figure 10.23
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 10.7.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Finish pocket to depth. .375 DIA* center
1 1600 7
Leave .01 in. per side cutting end mill
2 Finish sides of the pocket .25 DIA end mill 1800 5

*DIA indicates diameter.

Chapter Eleven Programming
Circular Profiles
11.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Explain what circular interpolation is.

2. Describe how to specify the plane for executing circular interpolation.

3. Explain the commands used for clockwise, as well as counterclockwise,

circular interpolation.

4. Compute cutter offsets for important line-arc profiling cases.

5. Code complete CNC programs for executing line-arc profiling

operations.
11.2 Introduction
Milling of contours with circular arc elements will be discussed in this
chapter. These machining operations involve circular interpolation for
determining tool movements in the clockwise direction as well as the
counterclockwise direction. The specific word address commands for
executing such interpolations will also be listed and explained. Useful
formulas for determining cutter offsets for important circular arc contours are
given. Finally, complete CNC programs for executing typical circular
profiling operations are illustrated and discussed.
11.3 Specifying the Plane for
Circular Arc Interpolation
Circular interpolation is executed on a plane. Therefore, the programmer
must first identify this plane before issuing any circular interpolation
commands. Certain word address codes are used to specify the plane.
11.4 Circular Interpolation
Commands
The commands for circular interpolation direct CNC servos to move the tool
simultaneously in the X and Y directions in order to cut a programmed circle
or portion of a circle. The actual path followed by the tool is a series of
straight-line approximations generated by software algorithms (refer to
Section 2.3). Remember, the programmer must first define the plane in which
interpolation is to occur, and then the tool must be moved to the start point of
the circular arc that is to be cut. Upon receiving a command to execute
circular interpolation, the controller determines the radius between the start
point and the center of the circular arc. It moves the tool from the start point
to generate this radius. Tool motion around the circular arc is either
clockwise (G2) or counterclockwise (G3). If the circular arc is cut properly,
the distance from the end point to the center point will be equal to the radius.

General Syntax

Specifies circular interpolation in the XY

G17 plane. This is the default mode at
machine power-up.

Specifies circular interpolation in the XZ

G18 plane.

Specifies circular interpolation in the YZ

G19
plane.

Note
The plane selection is modal and will stay in effect for all subsequent circular
interpolation commands until canceled by another plane selection word.

The programmer can execute circular interpolation in either the absolute

(G90) mode or the incremental (G91) mode.

Below are the word address commands for circular interpolation on a vertical
milling machine under the control of a Fanuc 6M. The programmer should
take care that the following operations have been performed prior to issuing a
circular interpolation command:

1. Plane selection (G17, G18, or G19) has been coded, if needed.

2. The tool has been positioned at the starting point of the arc.

3. The control is in the linear interpolation mode (G1).

 4. A feed rate has been specified.

5. The system is in the proper motion mode (G90, absolute, or G91,

incremental).

General Syntax
Circular Profile Milling (Absolute
Coordinates)—Clockwise
G2 Xn Yn In Jn (XY⁢ plane)
G2 Specifies the circular interpolation in the clockwise direction.
Specifies the absolute ± X distance to the tool center at the end of the arc
Xn
cut.
Specifies the absolute ± Y distance to the tool center at the end of the arc
Yn
cut.
Specifies the incremental ± X distance from the center of the tool at the
In
start of the arc to the center of the arc.
Specifies the incremental ± Y distance from the tool center at the start of
Jn
the arc to the center of the arc.
Specifies the absolute ± Z distance to the tool center at the end of the arc
Zn
cut (for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).
Specifies the incremental ± Z distance from the tool center at the start of
Kn
the arc to the center of the arc (for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).
General Syntax
Circular Profile Milling (Absolute
Coordinates)—Counterclockwise
G2 Xn Yn In Jn (XY⁢ plane)
G3 Specifies the circular interpolation in the counterclockwise direction.
Specifies the absolute ± X distance to the tool center at the end of the arc
Xn
cut.
Specifies the absolute ± Y distance to the tool center at the end of the arc
Yn
cut.
Specifies the incremental ± X distance from the center of the tool at the
In
start of the arc to the center of the arc.
Specifies the incremental ± Y distance from the tool center at the start of
Jn
the arc to the center of the arc.
Specifies the absolute ± Z distance to the tool center at the end of the arc
Zn
(for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).
Kn Specifies the incremental ± Z distance from the tool center at the start of
the arc to the center of the arc (for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).

Circular Profile Milling

(Incremental Coordinates)—
Clockwise
G2 Xn Yn In Jn (XY⁢ plane)
G2 Specifies circular interpolation in the clockwise direction.
Specifies the incremental ± X distance from the tool center at the start of
Xn
the arc to the tool center at the end of the arc cut.
Specifies the incremental ± Y distance from the tool center at the start of
Yn
the arc to the tool center at the end of the arc cut.
Specifies the incremental ± X distance from the center of the tool at the
In
start of the arc to the center of the arc.
Specifies the incremental ± Y distance from the tool center at the start of
Jn
the arc to the center of the arc.
Zn Specifies the absolute ± Z distance from the tool center at the start of the
arc to the tool center at the end of the arc (for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).
Specifies the incremental ± Z distance from the tool center at the start of
Kn
the arc to the center of the arc (for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).

Circular Profile Milling

(Incremental Coordinates)—
Counterclockwise
G3 Xn Yn In Jn (XY⁢ plane)
G3 Specifies the circular interpolation in the counterclockwise direction.
Specifies the incremental ± X distance to the tool center at the start of the
Xn
arc to the tool center at the end of the arc cut.
Specifies the incremental ± Y distance to the tool center at the start of the
Yn
arc to the tool center at the end of the arc cut.
Specifies the incremental ± X distance from the center of the tool at the
In start of the arc to the center of the arc.

Specifies the incremental ± Y distance from the tool center at the start of
Jn
the arc to the center of the arc.
Specifies the absolute ± Z distance from the tool center at the start of the
Zn
arc to the tool center at the end of the arc (for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).
Specifies the incremental ± Z distance from the tool center at the start of
Kn
the arc to the center of the arc (for XZ- or YZ-plane selection).

Example 11.1
Write the appropriate plane selection, linear cut to position, and circular
interpolation commands for profiling the arc shown in Figure 11.1 in the
absolute coordinate mode.

G90

G17

G1 X3.0 Y.25 F10.

G2 X4.125 Y-3.9486 10. J-2.25

 Figure 11.1
Profiling a 150° arc-absolute coordinate mode.

ΔX ΔY X

ΔX=2.25 cos (60)=1.125 ΔY=−2.25 sin (60)=1.9486 3+1.125=4.125 −2−1.9486

Example 11.2
The circular arc shown in Figure 11.2 is to be cut using absolute coordinate
programming. Write the appropriate linear cut and circular interpolation
commands.

Figure 11.2
Profiling a 30° arc-absolute coordinates.

G90

G17

G1 X3.875 Y−2. F10.

G3 X3.757 Y−1.5625 I−.875 J0

ΔX Y X Y
ΔX=.875 cos (30)=.7578 ΔY=.875 sin (30)=.4375 3+.7578=3.7578 −2+.438=−

Example 11.3
Incremental coordinates are used when cutting the circular arc shown in
Figure 11.3. Write the necessary plane selection, linear cut, and circular
interpolation commands.

Figure 11.3
 Profiling a 150° arc-incremental coordinate mode.

G91

G17

G1 X1.5 F6.

G2 X1.125 Y-4.1986 10.J-2.25

ΔX ΔY X Y

ΔX=2.25 cos (60)=1.125 ΔY=−2.25 sin (60)=1.9486 1.125 −.25−2−1.9486=−

11.5 Circular Interpolation via
Direct Radius Specification
The programmer also has the option of coding the radius (R) of the circular
arc instead of I, J, and K. The arc center can be located at either of two
positions: center 1 or center 2. To determine center 1 or center 2,

1. Connect line 1 between the arc starting point and ending point.

2. Construct line 2 perpendicular to line 1 at its midpoint.

3. Construct arc 1 of radius R from the arc starting point.

4. Centers 1 and 2 are located at the intersection of arc 1 and line 2, as

shown in Figure 11.4.

Figure 11.4
Direct radius specification.
General Syntax
Circular Profile Milling
(Incremental Coordinates)
G2(G3) Xn Yn Rn (XY⁢ plane)
G2 Specifies the circular interpolation in the clockwise direction.
G3 Specifies the circular interpolation in the counterclockwise direction.
Specifies the incremental ± X distance to the tool center at the start of the
Xn
arc to the tool center at the end of the arc cut.
Specifies the incremental ± Y distance to the tool center at the start of the
Yn
arc to the tool center at the end of the arc cut.
Specifies the incremental ± Z distance from the tool center at the start of
Zn the arc to the tool center at the end of the arc cut (for XZ- or YZ-plane
selection).
Specifies the radius of the tool path when the arc is cut. +n is the tool
Rn path radius from center 1 (for arcs < 180°). −n is the tool path radius
from center 2 (for arcs > 180°).
Note
Full circles cannot be machined using the R command. For these cases I and J
must be programmed.

Example 11.4
Code the direct radius command to machine the circular arcs shown in
Figures 11.5 and 11.6. A feed rate of 2 ipm is to be used.

Figure 11.5
Profiling an arc greater than 180° by direct radius.
Figure 11.6
Profiling an arc less than 180° by direct radius.
11.6 Profiling at Constant Feed Rate
To achieve the required surface finish and/or machining characteristics for a
material, it is often necessary to maintain a constant feed rate while profiling
a contour. During linear interpolation operations, the distance traveled at the
center of the tool is the same as that traveled at the edge of the tool. However,
for outside circular motion the distance traveled by the tool center is greater
than that traveled by the tool’s edge, because the tool center follows the
longer arc based on the tool path radius, just as the tool edge follows the
shorter arc based on the part radius. Because the center of the tool must travel
a longer distance, the feed rate of the tool center must be adjusted upward. A
formula is used to adjust the feed rate of the tool center so that a constant feed
rate is maintained on the periphery of the tool as it moves from a linear cut to
a circular cut.

Cutter path radiusPart radius ×Linear feed rate=Constant feed rate

Example 11.5
A .500-DIA end mill is to be used to machine a radius of 1 in. See Figure
11.7. A constant feed rate of 5 ipm on the tool periphery is to be maintained.

(1+.5/2)1.000 ×5=6.25 ipm

 Figure 11.7
Profiling an arc at constant feed rate.

Therefore, a feed rate of 6.25 ipm for the tool center will ensure that the tool
maintains a feed rate of 5 ipm on its periphery when machining a 1.25R arc.
11.7 Determining Cutter Offsets for
Line–Arc Profiles
Right-triangle trigonometry is applied when calculating the locations of the
tool center as it moves from a line to an arc, and vice versa. Some of the most
common interface cases are illustrated in Figures 11.8 through 11.10.

Figure 11.8
Line–arc interface case 1.
Figure 11.9
Line–arc interface case 2.

Figure 11.10
Line–arc interface case 3.
Example 11.6
Determine the coordinates for specifying circular interpolation of the profile
shown in Figure 11.11. Use the coordinates to write for machining the
profile.

Figure 11.11
Print and tool path for profiling the part.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

 CNC Tool and Operations Sheet
Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile mill contour × .25 .5 DIA* end
1 1200 6
deep mill
*DIA indicates diameter.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the folder,
and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G 11 if further instructions are needed.

Example 11.7
The slot shown in Figure 11.12 is to be machined per the CNC tool and
operations sheet. Write the required word address program in absolute
coordinates.
 Figure 11.12
Print and tool paths for producing the part of Example 11.7.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. Finish the slot by holding the part in a vise and banking it against a stop
on the left.
 CNC Tool and Operations Sheet
Speed Feed
Tool Operations Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Finish slot to depth .10 .25 DIA* stub end
1 2000 6
in. mill
*DIA indicates diameter.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino
 Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; Click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 11.8
Given the part shown in Figure 11.13, write a word address program in
absolute coordinates to execute the hole and profiling operations as specified
in the CNC tool and operations sheet.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
716 DIA
1 Drill 716 DIA* thru 1200 8
drill
Finish 1.375 DIA × .25 deep. Rough .625 .5 DIA end
2 1200 5
DIA to .620 ± .002 DIA> mill
.6250 DIA
3 Finish bore .625 ± .0005 DIA hole 600 2
boring bar
*DIA indicates diameter.
Figure 11.13
Print the part of Example 11.8.
Figure 11.14
Tool path for operation 1.
 Figure 11.15
Tool paths for operations 2 and 3.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0Y0 at the center of the part.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. Finish the part by holding the blank in a vise a minimum of 3 in. above
the jaws. Bank against a stop on the left.
4. The blank is supplied with 2 in. square dimension completed. See
Figures 11.14 and 11.15
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 11.9
Write a word address program in absolute coordinates for roughing and
finishing the contour shown in Figure 11.16. Follow the instructions specified
in the CNC tool and operations sheet.
Figure 11.16
Print the part of Example 11.9.
 Figure 11.17
Tool paths for operations 1 through 4.

Setup Notes
1. The blank for the part is 65 mm 3 38 mm 3 6 mm.

2. X0 is 18.5 mm from the right-hand side. Y0 is 18.5 mm from the far

side. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. For inside machining, the part is held by two clamps against three pins.

4. For outside machining, stop the machine, clamp the part from the inside,
and remove the outside clamps and pins. Finish as required. See Figures
11.17.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (mmpm)
Rough inside contour .2 0.6-mm roughing
1 2100 120
mm full end mill
0.6-mm finishing
2 Finish inside contour 2600 100
end mill
Rough outside contour .2 0.6-mm roughing
1 2100 120
mm full end mill
0.6-mm finishing
2 Finish outside contour 2600 100
end mill
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
 folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

11.8 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Circular profiling involves cutting a circular contour in either a

clockwise (G2) or a counterclockwise (G3) direction.

2. The following operations should be executed prior to coding a circular

interpolation command:

1. The plane selection (G17, G18, G19) is coded if needed.

2. The tool is positioned at the arc’s starting point.

3. The controller is in the linear interpolation (G1) mode.

4. The feed rate is specified.

5. The absolute (G90) or incremental (G91) mode is specified.

3. Right-triangle trigonometry is used to compute cutter offsets for many

profiles composed of lines and circular arcs.

4. To maintain a constant feed rate at the outside periphery of the tool

when cutting arcs, the feed rate specification for the tool center must be
increased.
Review Exercises
For each of the exercises in this chapter, write a word address program in
absolute coordinates containing the following general format:

1. Program number/headings

2. Job setup data listing

3. Tool 1 in spindle, machine start-up

4. Operation 1 (drilling or profiling)

5. Machine stop

6. Change to tool 2, machine start

7. Operation 2 (drilling or profiling)

8. Machine stop, program end sequence

Use the Predator simulation software to write and verify these exercise
programs.

Click and write the word address program

Click and run the solid model machining animator

Click and check the dimensions of the machined part

Refer to Appendix H for complete instructions.

1. 11.1. Program number: O1110 (Figure 11.18).

Figure 11.18
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 11.1.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0Y0 at the upper left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

 3. The part is drilled by holding the blank against three pins by two
clamps. See Figure 11.19.

4. Stop the machine after using tool 1. Hold down the part by three
3/8 screws thru holes that have been drilled. Remove three pins and
two clamps. Finish contour.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)

Peck drill (3) 1332 DIA* 1332 DIA

1 900 6
holes drill

.5 DIA end
2 Profile contour as required 1000 4
mill
*DIA indicates diameter.

Figure 11.19
Pins and clamps required for operations 1 and 2.
 Use the coordinate table below as an aid for determining the cutter
locations.

Position ΔX ΔY X Y I J
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

2. 11.2. Program number: O1111.

The CNC program for the part shown in Figure 11.20 has been coded.
Using the coordinate chart format given in Exercise 11.1, provide the
calculations needed for determining the cutter locations.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Drill (5) 932* DIA holes
1 thru 932 DIA drill 1800 6
 .5 DIA end
2 Mill profile as required 1200 5
mill
*DIA indicates diameter.

Figure 11.20
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 11.2.

O1111

(X0Y0 IS THE UPPER LEFT-HAND CORNER)

(Z0 IS THE TOP OF THE PART)

(TOOL 1: 9/32 DIA. DRILL)

(TOOL 2: .5 DIA. END MILL)

N0010 G90 G20 G40 G80

N0020 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0

N0030 G92 X−10. Y5. Z0

N0040 T1 M6

(TOOL 1: DRILL (5) 9/32 DIA. HOLES THRU)

N0050 G0 G90 X2.5 Y−2. Z0. S1800 M3

N0060 G43 Z.1 H1

N0070 M8

N0080 G81 X2.5 Y−2. Z−.48 R.1 F6.0

N0090 Y−.75

N0100 X4.25 Y−2.

N0110 X2.5 Y−3.25

N0120 X.75 Y−2. N0130 G80

N0140 G0 G90 Z1. M5

N0150 M9

N0160 G91 G28 Z0 Y0

N0170 T2 M6

(TOOL 2: MILL PROFILE X .25 DEEP)

 N0180 G0 G90 X−.5 Y.5 Z0. S1200 M03

N0190 G43 Z.1 H2

N0200 M8

N0210 G1 Z−.27 F5. N0220 Y.25

N0230 X4.75

N0240 Y0

N0250 G3 X5. Y−.25 I.25 J0

N0260 G01 X5.25

N0270 Y−3.6036

N0280 X4.6036 Y−4.25

N0290 X.75

N0300 G2 X−.25 Y−3.25 I0. J1.

N0310 G1 Y−.8964

N0320 X.9964 Y.35

N0330 G0 G90 Z1. M5

N0340 M9

N0350 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0

N0360 M30

3. 11.3. Program number: O1112 (Figure 11.21).

 Figure 11.21
Print for producing the part for 11.3.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0Y0 at the center of the part.
 2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. Finish all hole operations by holding the part in a vise and banking
against a stop on the left.

4. The blank is supplied with 2.5 in. square dimension completed. See
Figures 11.14 and 11.15.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
1 Drill .50 DIA* hole thru .5 DIA drill 1200 7
932 DIA
2 Drill (4) 932 DIA holes thru 1800 6
drill
Finish 1.375 counterbore .5 DIA end
3 1000 7
×.125 deep mill
*DIA indicates diameter.

4. 11.4. Program number: O1108 (Figure 11.22).

Figure 11.22
 Print and tool paths for producing the part for 11.4

Setup Notes
1. The blank for the part is 72 mm × 42 mm × 5 mm.

2. X0 is 21 mm from the right-hand side. Y0 is 21 mm from the far

side. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is roughed and finished from inside by holding the blank
against three pins by two clamps.

4. For outside operations, stop the machine. Place clamps from inside
and remove outside clamps and pins. Finish as required. See Figure
11.23.
 Figure 11.23
Tool paths for inside and outside operations.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Rough contour inside and 10.0-mm
1 1800 120
outside .4 full roughing end mill
Finish contour inside and
2 8.0-mm end mill 2200 100
outside as required

5. 11.5. Program number: O1114 (Figure 11.24).

 Figure 11.24
Print and tool paths for producing the part for 11.5.

Setup Notes
1. The blank size is 4.25 in. × 2.125 in. × .5 in.

2. X0Y0 is 1.06 in. from the upper left-hand corner.

3. Z0 is the top of the part.

4. Hold the blank against three pins by two clamps. See Figure 11.25.

5. After finishing counterbores operation 3, stop the machine.

Reclamp from the inside, and then finish contour as required. See
Figures 11.26 through 11.30.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
1 Drill .5 DIA* hole thru (2) places .5 DIA drill 1100 7
a Profile R.625 arc −.6 deep .5 DIA end
2 1200 8
mill
b Profile R1 and R.5 counterbores .5 DIA end
2 1200 8
−.125 deep mill
c Execute linear and passes −.125 .5 DIA end
2 1200 8
deep mill
d Reclamp from inside. Finish .5 DIA end
2 1200 8
outside profile mill
*DIA indicates diameter.
Figure 11.25
Pins and clamps required for operations 1, 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d.

Figure 11.26
Tool paths for operation 1.
Figure 11.27
Tool paths for operation 2a.
Figure 11.28
Tool paths for operation 2b.

Figure 11.29
Tool paths for operation 2c.
 Figure 11.30
Tool paths for operation 2d.

6. 11.6 Program number: O1115 (Figure 11.30).

The Print for producing the part is shown in Figure 11.32

Figure 11.31
Print for producing the part for 11.6.
 Figure 11.32
Pins and clamps required for operations 1 and 2.

Setup Notes
1. The blank has size 5.125 in. × 6.875 in. × .25 in.

2. X0 is located at 2.56 in. from the left side.

3. Y0 is located at 2.56 in. from the near side.

4. Z0 is the top of the part.

5. Hold the blank against three pins by four clamps. See Figure 11.32.

6. After tool 1 finishes the inside contour, stop the machine. Reclamp
from the inside and remove outside clamps and (3) pins. Finish part
complete. See Figures 11.33 and 11.34.
Figure 11.33
Tool path to finish inside profile.
 Figure 11.34
Tool path to finish outside profile.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Finish inside profile. Reclamp 38 DIA* center
1 cutting end mill 1250 6
 from inside. Finish outside contour
*DIA indicates diameter.
Chapter Twelve Programming with
Cutter Diameter Compensation
12.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Explain what cutter diameter compensation is.

2. Recognize the advantages of invoking cutter diameter compensation in

programs.

3. State the restrictions involved in applying cutter diameter compensation.

4. Apply cutter diameter compensation in programming milling operations.

12.2 Introduction
The important technique of cutter diameter compensation is presented in this
chapter. A description of tool motion with cutter diameter compensation is
considered first, and the main advantages of using compensation are listed
and discussed. The reader is introduced to the various restrictions and
conditions that apply when using compensation with most MCU controllers.
The word address commands for initiating diameter compensation, as well as
canceling this mode, are given and explained. Examples are provided to
illustrate how this technique can be applied to manufacturing parts.

The student is encouraged to use the machining simulator described in

Appendix G and available at the Companion Website at http://
www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino.
12.3 Cutter Diameter Compensation
Up to now the center of the cutter has been programmed to move around the
part geometry. It has been found that more complex part geometries having
inclined lines, lines tangent to arcs, and lines intersecting arcs involve
substantial trigonometric computations to determine the center of the cutter.
Cutter diameter compensation involves programming the part geometry
directly instead of the tool center. In effect, the programmer considers the
cutter radius as zero when programming the tool path. The actual cutter
radius is entered separately in the MCU tool register prior to running the
program. Upon executing the program, the machine will automatically
compensate by offsetting the programmed tool path by the radius of the cutter
read. In many cases this approach will allow for highly accurate side milling
and true circle cutting. Furthermore, it will enable the programmer to use the
same tool path for different cutter types and radii. Refer to Figure 12.1 for an
illustration of this type of programming.
12.4 Advantages of Using Cutter
Diameter Compensation
Cutter diameter compensation offers four main advantages:

1. The mathematical computations for determining a tool path are greatly

simplified.

2. Because the part’s geometry, and not the tool center, is programmed, the
same program can be used for a variety of different cutter diameters.

3. The same program can be used for roughing or finishing cuts.

4. Both inside and outside cuts can be programmed.

Figure 12.1
Tool center versus cutter diameter compensation programming.
12.5 Some Restrictions with Cutter
Diameter Compensation
The restrictions listed in this section apply to cutter diameter compensation
moves within the Fanuc family of controllers. Similar restrictions will also
apply when other types of controllers are used.

The plane in which compensation is to occur is specified by the code G17,

G18, or G19. In the discussion below, it is assumed that a G17 code has been
entered; thus interpolation occurs in the XY plane. The conditions given will
apply for most controllers.

1. A cutter diameter compensation G code entered in a separate block in a

program must be followed by an XY linear tool motion code. A linear
motion code (G1) must be the first or second command directly in
sequence. The motion command will signal the controller to initiate
(ramp on) or cancel (ramp off) cutter diameter compensation. This
command is required because most MCUs read program commands two
blocks ahead of the current block to determine the next cutter move.
Circular interpolation (G2 and G3) blocks may be programmed after the
initial G1 linear motion block.

2. The first XY linear tool movement following a cutter diameter

compensation block must be equal to or greater than the radius of the
cutter being used. See Figures 12.2 and 12.3.
Figure 12.2
Ramp on move to initiate cutter diameter compensation left.
 Figure 12.3
Ramp on move to initiate cutter diameter compensation right.

3. The MCU will compensate by offsetting the cutter in a direction

perpendicular to the next X, Y axis tool movement. The offset will be
equal to the cutter radius previously entered at setup. See Figure 12.4.

4. The first move for an inside cut should be to a location away from an
inside corner in order to prevent the cutter from notching the part. See
Figure 12.5.

5. A step-down cut smaller than the radius of the cutter will result in
overcutting or notching the part. See Figure 12.6.
Figure 12.4
Offset vectors generated by MCU control when cutter diameter
compensation is active.
Figure 12.5
Ramp on errors.
 Figure 12.6
Step-down error.

6. When cutter diameter compensation is in effect, it is not possible to

program two blocks in succession that contain tool motion in the XY
plane. For example, with a G17, XY-plane selection, it is not possible to
utilize cutter diameter compensation for two successive blocks
containing Z-axis moves. Additionally, some controls will not
compensate rapid moves, or inside line intersections of 90° or less.
12.6 Cutter Diameter Compensation
Commands
Cutter diameter compensation is invoked by programming a G41 or G42
word. The system offsets the tool (ramp on) in the direction of the offset
vector by the value previously input in the D register. The direction of the
vector will be automatically adjusted such that the tool remains tangent to the
part boundary as it moves along. The first two motion commands after a G41
or G42 code contain information for properly executing ramp on. The first
move read must be a G1 linear motion code, which creates the offset vector.
The next move is used by the controller to indicate the direction of the vector.

General Syntax
Cutter Diameter Compensation Left
—(Conventional Milling)
G41 Xn Yn Dn (XY⁢ plane)
Directs the controller to offset the tool (ramp on) to the left side of
G41 upward tool motion. The offset will occur on the next linear XY-axis
move.
Specifies the address in memory where the cutter radius offset value is
Dn stored. n indicates the number of the register containing the offset
value.
General Syntax
Cutter Diameter Compensation
Right—(Conventional Milling)
G42 Xn Yn Dn (XY⁢ plane)
Directs the controller to offset the tool (ramp on) to the right side of
G42 upward tool motion. The offset will occur on the next linear XY-axis
move.
Specifies the address in memory where the cutter radius offset value is
Dn stored. n indicates the number of the register containing the offset
value.
General Syntax
Cutter Diameter Compensation—
Cancel
G40 Xn Zn
Cancels cutter diameter compensation (G41 or G42). The controller will
G40 change the tool to an uncompensated position (ramp off) on the next
linear (G00 or G01) XY-axis move. A G02-G03 code cannot be
programmed to trigger a G40 move.
Note
1. More than one D code can be programmed with any tool to allow the
use of the same tool for executing rough and finish cuts. Furthermore,
this feature can be used to compensate for change in tool diameter due to
tool wear.

2. G02/G03 motion cannot be used to initiate a G41, G42, or G40 word in

a program.

3. G41 and G42 are modal, which means they remain in effect for all
subsequent tool motions until canceled by a G40 word. G40 is also
modal and remains in effect until canceled by a G41/G42 word.

4. The initial state of the control at machine start-up is G40.

Example 12.1
Utilize cutter diameter compensation in writing code to profile the rectangle
shown in Figure 12.7.

Word address
Meaning
command
G90 G0 X–11.
Rapid move to position ②.
Y6. Z.1S800
G1 Z–.5 M03
Plunge to –.5 in. Spindle on (CW).
F10.
G41 X–10.5 Ramp on to left of upward tool motion on next move to ③.
D21 Offset tool by radius value in address D21.
1 Cut to ④ at feed rate 10.
Y–6. Cut to ⑤.
X–10. Cut to ⑥.
Y 6.5 Cut to ⑦.
G0 G40 Y7. Ramp off to the next move to ⑧.
Z.1 Rapid move to .1 in. above the part.

Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

 Figure 12.7
Print and tool path for Example 12.1.

Example 12.2
Use cutter diameter compensation to machine the outside of the circle in
Figure 12.8.

Word
address Meaning
command
G90 G0 X–2.
Y6. S400 Rapid move to position ②.

G1 Z–.6 M03
Plunge to –.6 in. Spindle on (CW).
F10.
Ramp on to the left of upward tool motion on next move to
G41 X–1. D20
③. Offset tool by radius value in address D20.
G1 X0 Cut to ④.
G2 X0 Y6. J-
Cut arc to ⑤.
6.
G1 X1. Cut to ⑥.
G0 G40 X2. Ramp off to the next move to ⑦.

Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

 Figure 12.8
Print and tool path for Example 12.2.

Example 12.3
The inside circle shown in Figure 12.9 is to be machined via cutter diameter
compensation. Use this technique for executing operation 1 (rough profiling)
and operation 2 (finish profiling). To complete operation 2 see Figure 12.10.

Program for Operation 1—Rough

Profiling
Word
address Meaning
command
G90 G0 X5.
Rapid move to position ②.
Y10. S600
G1 Z-.6 M03 Plunge to -.6 in. Spindle on (CW).
F10.
G41 X15. F6. Ramp on to the left of upward tool motion on next move to
D22 Y15. ③. Offset tool by radius value in address D22.
G3 X5. Y15.
Cut arc to ④.
I0 J-5.
G0 G40 X10. Ramp off to the next move to Y10. ⑤.
Z.1 Rapid move to .1 in. above the part.

Figure 12.9
Print and tool path for operation 1.
 Figure 12.10
Print and tool path for operation 2.

Program for Operation 2—Rough

Profiling
Word
address Meaning
command
G90 G0 X5.
Rapid move to position ②.
Y10. S500
G1 Z-.6 M03
Plunge to -.6 in. at feed rate 5 rpm. Spindle on (CW).
F5.
G41 X8. Y12. Ramp on to the left of upward tool motion on next move to
D23 Y12. ③. Offset tool by radius value in address D23.
G3 X5. Y15.
Cut R3 arc to ④.
R3.
I0. J6. Cut R5 arc to ⑥.
X2. Y12. R3. Cut R3 arc to ⑥.
G0 G40 X5.
Ramp off to the next move to X5. Y10. ⑦.
Y10.
Z.1 Rapid move to .1 in. above the part.

Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

12.7 Cutter Diameter Compensation
with Z-Axis Movement
As discussed previously, the controller will read two blocks ahead in
processing programs. Additionally, for XY motion, it is permitted to code
only one Z-axis move between the block calling for a G41 or G42 move and
the next G1 linear axis move. If two Z-axis moves are programmed, proper
compensation will not be applied.

Example 12.4
The following is correct:

Word address command Meaning

G00 G41 X2. Y3. D05 Ramp on at X2. Y3.
G01 Z–.5 F2. Plunge to –.5 in. at feed rate.
X4. First cut in new compensation.

The following is incorrect:

Word address
Meaning
command
G00 G41 X2. Y3.
Ramp on at X2. Y3.
D05
Z.1 Rapid move to .1 in. above part.
G01 Z–.5 F2. Plunge to –.5 in. at feed rate.
First XY cut will not be made with new compensation
X4.
applied.
12.8 Cutter Diameter Compensation
Interruptions
Cutter diameter compensation will be interrupted by the following
conditions:

Condition Result
Two or more blocks in a G41 or G42 cutting An error in the last cutting
sequence do not contain motion in the proper block in the proper plane will
plane. occur.

Example 12.5
Compensation is interrupted by two or more blocks containing only the
codes:

Dwell: G4

M Code: M5

G Code: G90

S Code: S1500

Condition Result
A G28, G29, or G92 is Compensation is temporarily canceled. It can be
programmed in a G41 or reestablished with any subsequent blocks
G42 cutting sequence. containing motions in the proper plane.

Example 12.6
Write a word address program for profile milling the part shown in Figure
12.11. Apply cutter diameter compensation and use two different register
numbers in the cutter offset address D.

Figure 12.11
Print and tool path for Example 12.6.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA* Effect
(rpm) (ipm)
 Rough .5 DIA DIA
1 600 8
profile; end 21 =
leave .01 mill .26
for finish

.5 DIA DIA
Finish
2 end 800 6 22 =
profile
mill .25

*DIA indicates diameter.

Dn is the address in the control memory where the cutter radius offset value
is stored. n (XX) is the number of the register containing the offset value.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 12.7
Write a word address program to finish the inside and outside boundaries of
the part shown in Figure 12.12. Use cutter diameter compensation to program
the tool paths.
 Figure 12.12
Print and tool paths for Example 12.7.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA*
(rpm) (ipm)
Finish inside and outside 3/8 DIA DIA 25 =
1 1200 6
contour, ×.27 deep end mill .1875

*DIA indicates diameter.

Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 12.8
Use cutter diameter compensation and a program to profile mill the outside
and inside contours of the part shown in Figure 12.13.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA*
(rpm) (ipm)
Profile mill contour inside and .25 DIA DIA 21 =
1 1200 8
outside × .25 deep end mill .125

*DIA indicates diameter.

Figure 12.13
Print and tool paths for Example 12.8.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

If you have not already done so, download the Predator data files onto
your computer by clicking on the Student Simulations for Introduction
to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 5e link at the Companion
Website at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/valentino

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Navigate to the Predator data files folder on your computer, open the
folder, and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

12.9 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. A cutter diameter compensation involves programming the part

geometry directly instead of the cutter center.

2. Because the controller automatically determines the location of the

cutter center at each point along the part boundary, mathematical
computations are simplified.

3. A cutter diameter compensation program can be used for a variety of

cutter sizes.

4. The word address command for cutter diameter compensation left of

upward tool motion is G41. Compensation right of upward tool motion
is a G42 code and compensation cancel is a G40 code.

5. Compensation is initiated or canceled by the next linear tool motion

command directly following a G41, G42, or G40 code. The motion must
be in the selected G17, G18, or G19 plane.

6. The first in-plane tool motion command following a G41 or G42 code
must be equal to or greater than the cutter radius.

7. Compensation is always applied by the controller in a direction

perpendicular to the next in-plane axis move.

8. Care must be used to avoid notching the part when cutting inside
corners or step-downs.
Review Exercises
For each of the exercises in this chapter, write a CNC program using cutter
diameter compensation. Programs should contain the following general
format:

1. Program number headings

2. Job setup data listing

3. Tool 1 in spindle, machine start-up

4. Profiling operation 1

5. Machine stop

6. Change to tool 2

7. Profiling operation 2

8. Machine stop, program end sequence

Use the Predator simulation software to write and verify these exercise
programs.

Click and write the word address program

 Click and run the solid model machining animator

Click and check the dimensions of the machined part

Refer to Appendix H for complete instructions.

1. 12.1. Program number: O1209 (Figure 12.14).

Figure 12.14
Print and tool paths for 12.1.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

 CNC Tool and Operations Sheet
Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA*
(rpm) (ipm)
Finish profile ×.52 .75 DIA end DIA 20 =
1 800 7
deep mill .375

*DIA indicates diameter.

2. 12.2. Program number: O1210 (Figure 12.15).

 Figure 12.15
Print and tool paths for 12.2.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA*
 (rpm) (ipm)
Finish outside and inside .5 DIA DIA 22
1 1200 8
profiles as shown end mill = .25

*DIA indicates diameter.

3. 12.3. Program number: O1211 (Figures 12.16 and 12.17).

Figure 12.16
Print and tool path for roughing cut.
 Figure 12.17
Print and tool path for finishing cut.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA* Effect
(rpm) (ipm)
Rough
part
1. DIA DIA
inside.
1 end 600 10 20 =
Leave
mill .505
.005 for
finish

Finish .75 DIA DIA

 2 inside as end 800 6 22 =
shown mill .375

*DIA indicates diameter.

4. 12.4. Program number: O1112 (Figure 12.18).

 Figure 12.18
Print and tool path for 12.4.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA*
(rpm) (ipm)
Finish outside and inside .1875 DIA DIA 26 =
1 1800 4
profiles as shown end mill .09375

*DIA indicates diameter.

θ=tan−1(hd)+sin−1(R2h2+d2¯)⁡ΔX=R⁢sin⁡(θ)
ΔJ=R⁢cos⁡(θ)ΔY⁢= R(1−cos⁡(θ))

5. 12.5. Program number: O1213 (Figure 12.19).

 Figure 12.19
Print for 12.5.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling DIA*
(rpm) (ipm)
1 Finish outside and inside .125 DIA 1200 8 DIA 15 =
profile as shown end mill .0625

*DIA indicates diameter.

Chapter Thirteen Programming
with Subprograms
13.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Explain what a subprogram is.

2. Understand the commands and rules for creating and processing

subprograms.

3. Describe the advantages of subprogramming.

4. Write complete programs by utilizing subprogramming.

13.2 Introduction
In this chapter the reader is introduced to an important efficiency device
known as subprogramming. The need for using a subprogram is discussed
first. The advantages of subprogramming are given, followed by a detailed
explanation of the commands required to call and execute subprograms for
the Fanuc family of CNC controllers. The important restrictions and
conditions that must be observed when writing subprograms are given.
Several programming examples with explanations are presented throughout
the chapter.
13.3 Subprogram Concept
The programmer will often encounter a sequence of machining instructions
that must be repeated, such as for a part that has an identical geometric
pattern at different locations within its body. The programmer could code the
instructions to machine each pattern individually for the part shown in Figure
13.1, but it would result in a program that has the same machining sequences
three times. The program would be lengthy, the chances for error would be
increased, and the program would occupy more memory in the MCU. A
better approach is to create a separate program, called a subprogram, that
contains the instructions for machining one pattern. A main program is also
created that calls the subprogram as many times as the machining sequence is
repeated. In this case, the subprogram would be called three times to machine
pattern A. The subprogram can also be used by other main programs any time
pattern A is required. In fact, a library of subprograms can be created for
machining specific patterns. See Figure 13.2.

It should be noted that both the main program and each subprogram are
separate programs that must be stored in the MCU’s memory prior to
execution.
Figure 13.1
Subprograms are used to machine repeat patterns in a part.

Figure 13.2
Setups for executing multiple machining via subprograms.

(Photo courtesy of Chris Fertnig/Alamy)

13.4 Fanuc Commands for Calling a
Subprogram and Returning to the
Main Program
The following commands apply to the Fanuc family of CNC controllers.

General Syntax
Calling a Subprogram from a Main
Program
G00 Xn Yn

M98 Pn Ln
G00 Rapid movement of tool to the X Y location where the subprogram is
n n
Xn
Yn to be executed.
M98 Calls for a jump to the subprogram.
n is a one-to-four-digit number of the subprogram in memory. The
Pn number, n, is usually preceded by the letter, O (EIA), format or : (ISO)
format when stored in memory.
n is the number of times to repeat the call of the subprogram. If
Ln
omitted, the subprogram is repeated only once.

Format of the Subprogram

Returning to the Main Program
from the Subprogram
M99
Is the last statement in the subprogram and signals a return to the main
M99 program. The system will return to the very next statement in the main
program following the M98 Pn Ln command.

Note
It is also possible to program a motion command in the same block as an
M98 to M99 code. Transfer will occur after the motion command has been
completed.
Example 13.1
The process by which a main program transfers to a subprogram and vice
versa is illustrated in Figure 13.3 below.

A subprogram may call another subprogram.

Figure 13.3
A main program accessing a single subprogram.
 Figure 13.4
A main program accessing two levels of subprograms.

Example 13.2
The general programming shown in Figure 13.4 illustrates the action that
results when a main program accesses two levels of subprograms.
13.5 Additional Subprogram
Control Features
Programmers can utilize other important features when writing subprograms
for Fanuc controllers.

1. M99 Pn may be coded in the main program with n as a four-digit block

number, which will result in the controller returning to the block whose
number has been entered. Thus, a continuous loop can be created.

Example 13.3
Coding a M99 P (block#) in the main program. See Figure 13.5.

If Pn is omitted, control will return to the top of the main program and
execution will continue.

Figure 13.5
Coding an M99 P (block#) in the main program.
 2. M99 Pn may also be coded in the subprogram with n as a one- to four-
digit number of a block in the main program. Upon encountering this
code in the subprogram, the controller will transfer to the block in the
main program whose number has been coded.

Example 13.4
Coding a M99 P (block#) in the subprogram. See Figure 13.6.

3. The operator has the option directing the controller to skip the execution
of selected blocks in a program. Any block to be skipped has a slash (/)
coded as the first character. The appropriate skip switch on the machine
panel must also be turned on. Refer to Chapter 4, Section 4.9.

Skip switches are useful when a trial or gauge run is to be made and checked
out. After prove-out the skip switch may be turned off and the program
continuously runs in order to cut multiple parts.
Figure 13.6
Coding an M99 P (block#) in the subprogram.
 Figure 13.7
Coding a skip switch (/) in the main program.

Example 13.5
Coding a skip switch character (/) in the main program. See Figure 13.7.
13.6 General Rules for
Subprogramming
Some general conditions will apply when writing subprograms with Fanuc
controllers.

1. One subprogram may call another subprogram (nesting). The nesting is

limited to four levels deep.

2. Oxxxx (EIA code) is used to indicate subprogram numbers. Words

beginning with the address O specify subprogram numbers. Subprogram
numbers can range from 1 to 9999.

3. If the ISO coding system is used, a colon (:) is entered as the address for
specifying program numbers.

4. The mode of motion (G90 or G91) must be reset to the main program
mode just prior to or just after transfer to the main program, which can
occur, for example, if the main program is set to G90 (absolute) mode
and the subprogram is set to G91 (incremental) mode. In such cases a
G90 block must be inserted at the end of the subprogram, but it could
also appear in the main program as the first block to be processed after
transfer from the subprogram.

5. An active canned cycle in the main program not required in the

subprogram should be canceled with a G80 prior to or just after
transfer to the subprogram. Also, an active canned cycle in the
subprogram not required in the main program should be canceled with
a G80 prior to or just after transfer to the main program.

6. If cutter diameter compensation is required in the subprogram, it should

be set up with a G41 or G42 in the subprogram. This holds true
regardless of whether diameter compensation is active in the main
program.
Example 13.6
Write a conventional word address program for drilling the holes shown in
Figure 13.8. Contrast this approach with a more efficient method that utilizes
a main program and a subprogram.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is held in a pneumatic vise with a stop on the left.

4. The blank supplied is 2 × 2.5 × .625.

 Figure 13.8
Print and tool paths for Example 13.6.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling
(rpm) (ipm)
Execute hole Cycle 1 (4) times. Cycle 1 .25 DIA
1 2000 10
(Drill(3).25 DIA holes × .5 deep) Drill
Method 1: Conventional Word
Address program
O1306

( ... ... ... )

(X0 Y0 IS THE LOWER LEFT-HAND CORNER)

(Z0 IS THE TOP OF THE PART)

( ... ... ... )

N0010 (TOOLING LIST:)

N0020 (TOOL 1: .25 DIA DRILL)

N0030 G90 G20 G40 G80

N0040 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0

N0050 G92 X-10. Y5.

N0060 G0G90 X0.Y0.Z0. S2000 M3

N0070 T1M6

N0080 G43 Z.1 H01

N0090 M8

N0100 G83 X.5 Y.5 Z−.5 R.1 Q.1 F10.

N0110 X1. N0120 X1.5

N0130 X2.
N0140 X.5 Y1.

N0150 X1.

N0160 X1.5

N0170 X2.

N0180 X.5 Y1.5

N0190 X1.

N0200 X1.5

N0210 X2.

N0220 X.5 Y2.

N0230 X1.

N0240 X1.5

N0250 X2.

N0260 G80

N0270 G0 G90 Z1. M5

N0280 M9

N0290 G91 G20 X0 Y0 Z0

N0300 M30
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

Place the DATA CD enclosed at the back of this text into the CD drive

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Click on the CD drive; open and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 13.7
Use a main program and a subprogram to drill the hole patterns shown in
Figure 13.9.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is held in a pneumatic vise with a stop on the left.

4. The blank supplied is 7.5 in. × 2.5 in. × .75 in.

 CNC Tool and Operations Sheet
Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
Execute hole Cycle 1 (3) times. No. 4
1 Cycle 1 (Center drill (5) holes center 1200 8 0003
×.2 deep) drill
7/16
2 Drill (3) 7/16 DIA holes 1000 10
DIA drill
Counterbore (3) 5/8 DIA × .5 5/8 DIA
3 600 5
deep end mill
Execute hole Cycle 2 (3) times.
1/4 DIA
4 Cycle 2 (Drill (4) 1/4 DIA holes 1600 6 0004
drill
thru)
Figure 13.9
Print and tool paths for Example 13.7.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

Place the DATA CD enclosed at the back of this text into the CD drive
 Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Click on the CD drive; open and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 13.8
Write a program for milling the part shown in Figure 13.10. Use the
technique of subprogramming.
Figure 13.10
Print and tool paths for Example 13.8.
Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0 at the upper left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The blank is supplied in size 6 in. × 3.75 in. × .375 in.

4. Hold the blank on a plate against three pins by four clamps.

5. After the inside patterns are finished, stop the machine and reclamp
from the inside. Remove the outside clamps and finish the outside
complete.
 Figure 13.11
Pins and clamps for inside machining.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
1/2 DIA
1 Drill (3) .5 DIA entrance holes 800 10
drill
Execute Cycle 1 (3) times.
.375 DIA
2 Cycle 1 (Profile mill Contour 1200 8 0005
end mill
A)
.375 DIA
3 Reclamp and finish outside 1200 8
end mill
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

Place the DATA CD enclosed at the back of this text into the CD drive

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click click

Click on the CD drive; open and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

Example 13.9
The multiple-part shapes shown in Figure 13.13 are to be machined. Write a
word address program for executing the operations listed in the CNC tool and
operations sheet, using main and subprograms.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0 is given on the fixture.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The blank for the part is turned on the lathe to the dimensions 3 1/8D ×
.5

4. The part is machined on a 4-up fixture in the following order:

Locate the blanks off the 1/2 diameter holes by pins.

Hold the blanks down by clamps.

Remove the pins and machine the blanks as required. See Figure
13.12.
Figure 13.12
 Four up fixture for Example 13.9.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
Execute Cycle 1 (4) times.
1/2 DIA
Cycle 1 (semi-finish .625 DIA
1 stub finish 800 8 0006
to .620 DIA—counterbore—
end mill
profile)
Execute Cycle 2 (4) times.
.625 DIA
2 Cycle 2 (finish .625 ± .0005 500 2 0007
reamer
DIA hole)
Figure 13.13
Operation 1 and 2 tool paths for Example 13.9.
Run the simulation software to see a solid model animation of this machining
example.

Place the DATA CD enclosed at the back of this text into the CD drive

Open Predator’s Virtual CNC

Click ; click
 Click on the CD drive; open and run the file:

Refer to Appendix G if further instructions are needed.

13.7 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. Subprogramming is an efficiency device used to make the task of

programming complex parts easier and less prone to error.

2. Subprogramming can significantly reduce the number of program blocks

for a job. A program written with subprograms requires less MCU
memory space and executes faster.

3. Subprogramming should be used when a machining pattern is repeated

at several locations in a part.

4. The main program and subprogram are separate programs. Each must be
assigned a unique program number and title in the MCU.
Review Exercises
For each of the parts given in this section, write a main program and the
appropriate subprograms required for executing the machining operations.
Use the data table information in each case for specifying operations, tooling,
tool speeds, and tool feeds.

Use the Predator simulation software to write and verify these exercise
programs.

Click and write the word address program

Click and run the solid model machining animator

Click and check the dimensions of the machined part

Refer to Appendix H for complete instructions.

1. 13.1 Main program number: O1313 (Figure 13.14)

 Figure 13.14
Print for 13.1.

Setup Notes
1. X0 Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The part is held in a pneumatic vise with a stop on the left.

 4. The blank supplied is 3.5 in. × 3.5 in. × .5 in.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
Drill (18) .25 DIA .25 DIA
1 1800 8 0008
holes × .5 deep Drill

2. 13.2 Main program number: O1311 (Figure 13.15).

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
3/8 DIA
1 Drill (6) entrance holes 1800 8
Drill
Execute Cycle 1 (6) times.
.25 DIA
Cycle 1 (profile mill contour
2 end 1300 7 0009
A, stop, reclamp inside, finish
mill
outside profile).
 Figure 13.15
Print for 13.2.

Setup Notes
 1. X0 Y0 at the upper-left hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The blank is supplied in size 5.125 in. × 3.375 in. × .25 in.

4. Hold the blank on a plate against three pins by four clamps.

5. After the inside contours are finished, stop the machine and
reclamp from the inside. Remove the outside clamps and finish the
outside complete.

3. 13.3 Main program number: O1312 (Figure 13.16).

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
1/2 DIA
1 Drill (3) entrance holes 1000 10
Drill
Execute Cycle 1 (3) times.
.5 DIA
Cycle 1 (finish pattern A.
2 end 1200 8 0010
Stop, reclamp from inside,
mill
and finish outside).
Figure 13.16
Print for 13.3.
 Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0 at the upper left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. The blank is supplied as 6.000 in. × 4.125 in. × .5 in.

4. Hold the blank on a plate against three pins by four clamps.

5. After the inside contours are finished, stop the machine and
reclamp from the inside. Remove the outside clamps and finish the
outside complete.

4. 13.4 Main program number: O1313 (Figure 13.17).

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
Execute hole Cycle 1 (2)
3/16 DIA
1 times. Cycle 1 (drill (3) 3/16 1500 6 0011
drill
DIA holes thru)
Execute hole Cycle 2 (2)
9/32 DIA
2 times. Cycle 2 (drill (3) 9/32 1500 7 0012
drill
DIA holes thru)
 Execute hole Cycle 3 (2) 1/2 DIA
3 times. Cycle 3 (c’bore (3) flat end 600 4 0013
1/2 DIA ×.2 deep) mill

Figure 13.17
Print for 13.4.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0 at the lower left-hand corner.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

 3. The part is held in a pneumatic vise with a stop on the left.

4. The blank is supplied as size 5.0 in. × 2.6 in. × 1.0 in.

5. 13.5 Main program number O1314 (Figure 13.18, 13.19).

 Figure 13.18
Print and fixturing for executing hole Cycle A.

Setup Notes
1. Set X0 Y0 as shown on the fixture illustration.

2. Z0 is the top of the part.

3. After operation 1, stop the machine and add 1/4-20 screws thru
holes. Finish setup complete.

4. The blank is supplied as size 6.0 in. × 3.5 in. × .125 in.
 Figure 13.19
Print, fixturing, and tool paths for operations 1, 2, and 3.

CNC Tool and Operations Sheet

Speed Feed
Tool Operation Tooling Subprogram
(rpm) (ipm)
Execute hole Cycle A (4)
1/4 DIA
1 times. Cycle A (drill 1600 8 0014
drill
(2).250 DIA holes thru)
3/8 DIA
Rough profile .01 full (4) rough stub
2 2000 10 0015
times end mill
1/4 DIA
3 Finish profile (4) times stub end 2200 6 0016
mill
Chapter Fourteen Introduction to
the CNC Lathe
14.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Understand the basic elements comprising the CNC lathe.

2. Identify the axis of motion for CNC lathes.

3. Describe the most important cutting operations performed on the CNC

lathe.

4. State the different types of tooling used for CNC lathe operations.

5. Name the important components of CNC lathe tooling.

6. Explain lathe feeds, speeds, and depth of cut.

7. Understand the importance using right hand, left hand, neutral tooling,
and rake angles for cutting materials.
14.2 Introduction
This chapter considers the basic elements of modern CNC lathes and turning
centers. The lathe axes are discussed and illustrated. The most important lathe
operations are examined, together with the type of tooling required for each
operation. Speeds, feeds, and depth of cut for lathe work are important for
both prolonging tool life and producing a quality cut. Thus, a concise
presentation of these parameters and a brief table for various materials are
given. The concept of right, left, and neutral tooling is fundamental and a
brief discussion is given. The chapter ends with a discussion of rake angles
and selecting the proper rake angle for cutting different materials.
14.3 Backround on the CNC Lathe
The CNC lathe is a machine tool designed to remove material from stock that
is clamped and rotated around the spindle axis. Most metal cutting is done
with a sharp single-point cutting tool. Drilling, reaming, tapping, turning, and
boring are operations performed on a CNC lathe. Modern CNC lathes use a
chuck attached to the spindle. The chuck grips and rotates the work. A turret
mechanism is often used to hold and index cutting tools that are called by a
word address part program. Some machines employ two turrets: front and
rear. Tools may also be mounted on the slide. A front turret is built to move
tools from below the spindle centerline up to the work. A rear turret, on the
other hand, moves
 Figure 14.1
Components of the modern CNC lathe.

(Photo by James V. Valentino.)

tools from above the spindle centerline down to the work. Machines equipped
with both front and rear turrets can execute cutting operations simultaneously
from above and below the work. Refer to Figure 14.1.
A two-spindle-opposed-type CNC lathe is composed of two spindles facing
each other and two turrets. It is capable of machining the front and the back
of the part by moving it from one spindle to the other.

The CNC vertical turret lathe is similar to a horizontal machine, but the
spindle is vertical and perpendicular to the chuck. It is designed to machine
work that is large and/or heavy. The automatic screw machine is an
automated turret lathe especially designed to produce high-volume, low-cost
parts. A metal rod is fed into the machine and turned to meet the
manufacturer’s specifications. A “live tooling” mechanism attached to the
turret has its own motor and spindle for holding and rotating milling tools.
Lathes equipped with live tooling can tap side holes, mill hexes, flats, or
similar patterns on the part circumference while the lathe spindle remains
locked. This adds flexibility by reducing setup time for secondary operations.

Components of CNC Lathes

CNC lathes have the following primary components:

Bed—The bed aligns and rigidly supports the turret, tailstock, ways, and
other key components of the lathe. The bed is designed to transfer
vibrations away from the cutting area. Most CNC lathes have slanted
beds to allow chips and coolant to fall away easily.

Headstock—The spindle and gear transmission system for rotating the

cutting material are contained in the headstock. A variable speed motor
drives the spindle.
 Chuck—The chuck is connected to the spindle. A chuck clamps and
rotates the work. A manually operated chuck is tightened by a chuck
wrench, and a power chuck is controlled by a foot switch. The three-jaw
or “self-centering” chuck moves all of its jaws simultaneously to clamp
or unclamp the work, and it is used for work with a round or hexagonal
cross section.

General Safety Rules for Lathe

Operations
Prior to operation, confirm that there are no other personnel in the
immediate vicinity of the machine.

Be sure the machine has completely stopped before entering work area.

Wear ANSI-approved safety goggles. Secure all loose clothing. Put long
hair up.
 Observe the following practices when cleaning the machine:

Clean the spindle bore and collets.

Use a wire brush to remove foreign particles from the threads.

Do not use an air hose.

Check all seating areas on the tool holder to be sure each tool rests
solidly.

Revolve the spindle by hand before starting any operation. Check to see
that the chuck jaws work and clear the carriage.

Avoid excessive overhang of the cutting tool or boring bar.

Position splash guards to contain the coolant and chips.

Keep area around machine clean, dry, and free of obstructions.

A four “independent jaw” chuck can clamp on the work by moving each jaw
independent of the others. This chuck exerts a stronger hold on the work and
it has the ability to center nonround shapes (squares, rectangles) exactly.
A lathe faceplate is used for work of irregular shape that cannot be held in a
chuck or mounted between centers. It is mounted on the headstock of the
lathe instead of the chuck. A fixture or any other means of holding the part to
the faceplate is used. In the arrangement below, the work is attached to an
angle plate by bolts, and the angle plate is fastened to the faceplate by bolts
and T-nuts. Counterweights must be used to offset the throw when a heavy
piece of work, such as an angle plate, is mounted off center in order to reduce
vibration and chatter, and to guarantee a round shape.

The two main types of jaws used with the chuck are as follows:

Hard jaws—These are used to apply maximum gripping to unfinished

surfaces where jaw marks are permissible.
Soft jaws—These types of jaws are machined from mild steel to exactly
fit the outside shape of the work. They are used for operations where
runout must be controlled and to protect finished surfaces when
clamping on them.

A collet chuck is used when high precision and speed are needed for
work of a small cross section. Cross sections normally do not exceed a
diameter of 1 in. A feed system usually feeds the bar stock. Collet
shapes include round, hexagonal, square, and custom shapes.

Turret—Holds the cutting tool and replaces on old tool with a new tool
(indexes) during a tool change.

Carriage—Moves the cutting tool into the revolving work; contains the
 saddle, cross slide, and apron.

Tailstock—The tailstock supports the end of work that is long or has

low stiffness and tends to flex away from the cutting tool during
machining. Manual and programmable tailstocks are available on CNC
lathes. The tailstock moves along its own way with a center to the work.
Most CNC lathes use tailstocks with a “live center.” A live center has
the 60° taper end that fits into the work free to rotate on ball bearings.
Friction is greatly reduced and lubrication is not required.

Slant Bed—Supports all the components listed and provides a path for
chips and lubricant as they fall.

Machine Control Unit (MCU)—The MCU is used to generate, store, and

process CNC programs, as well as to make physical adjustments in the
way the CNC behaves during manual and automatic operation.
Important data for setting up a job is entered into the MCU.

Tool Changing Mechanism

A turret on a CNC lathe is used to quickly change tools when required. Each
tool position on the turret is numbered to identify the tool it holds. Tools can
be mounted on the face of the turret as well as on its sides. Upon receiving a
tool change command from the MCU, the turret moves to a safe tool change
location and indexes the old tool out and the new tool in,
 Figure 14.2
Turret motion during a tool change.

and then it proceeds to the proper coordinates programmed for cutting the
part with the new tool. For turning centers with programmable tailstocks, the
tailstock may have to be moved back before a tool change is executed. The
motion of the turret during a typical tool change operation is illustrated in
Figure 14.2.
14.4 CNC Lathe Axes of Motion
In this text we will only consider programming basic two-axis machine
motions when dealing with CNC lathes. The important axes are Z and X. The
Z axis is in the direction of the spindle. Positive +Z is motion away from the
spindle and work and negative –Z is motion toward the spindle and into the
work. The X axis controls the cross-slide movements. Positive +X is motion
away from the spindle centerline and negative –X is motion toward the
spindle centerline and into the work. Refer to Figure 14.3. In some machines
with programmable tailstocks, the W axis is used to designate the movement
of the tailstock which accounts for a third axis on these machines. More
complex turning centers may have a fourth axis.
14.5 Features of the Machine
Control Unit (MCU) Lathes
Specific details and features of MCUs vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer. This section provides a generic presentation of what is found
on most MCUs for lathes. Remember to consult the machine tool builder’s
manual for the detailed information relating to a particular MCU used.

In larger companies, it is the CNC setup person, not the programmer, who
sets up tooling, loads the job, and runs the first piece on the CNC machine. In
smaller operations, the programmer can be expected to get involved in some
or all of these tasks. To be more versatile, the programmer needs to acquire a
basic knowledge of the features of the MCU.

The MCU is divided into two types of operation panels: the control panel and
the machine panel.

The machine panel is designed and built by the machine tool builder. It
contains buttons and switches for controlling the physical behavior of the
CNC machine tool. Power
 Figure 14.3
Typical machine axes for CNC lathes.

A machine control panel is shown in Figure 14.4

 Figure 14.4
The Fanuc 0i CNC control panel is used on both machining centers
and turning centers.

buttons turn the CNC lathe on and off. An emergency stop button stops all
machine motions. The operator moves a machine axis manually by turning a
handwheel. Dial controls can override programmed spindle speeds and feeds,
etc.
Control Panel On/Off power
Buttons

The operator powers the control panel on or off by depressing these

buttons.

Soft or Function Keys

Depressing a soft key causes a screen menu to appear on the CRT

display. The screen menus are used for executing specific functions such
as checking a program, displaying the axis position of the machine, or
entering tool offsets.

Axis Position Button

 Depressing this button causes the CRT to display the current position of
the axis of the CNC machine.

Program Button

Depression this button allows the operator to create new word address
part programs or see and edit existing programs at the CRT display.

Tool Offset Button

This button is used in combination with the cursor position keys to enter
the tool offset page and place the cursor at a particular offset value that
is to be edited.

Address and Numeric Keys

Enables the operator to enter alphabetic and numeric characters. It

should be noted that some control panels only contain those alpha keys
 needed to create word address part programs. An example would be the
keys N, G, X.

The Input Key

The operator presses this button to enter data, like tool offsets, into the
control’s memory.

Cursor Position Keys

Pressing one of these buttons positions the blinking cursor (left, right,
up, or down) on the CRT display. Data will be entered at the current
cursor position.

The Program Insert Key

The operator presses this button to store a block (one line) of word
address code in the control’s memory.
The Reset Key

The operator presses this key to return the cursor to the start of the
program when editing. The key is also used to stop the execution of a
part program that has a problem. When this happens all the program’s
commands in the look-ahead buffer will be cleared. It should be noted
that if the program is executed immediately after reset is pressed,
problems may arise as it will run with the commands in the look-ahead
buffer skipped. Pressing this key when the CNC is running in alarm state
will cancel the alarm.

Select Mode Switch

The operator must first select the proper function before any operation can
be performed by the CNC machine tool. The select mode switch is used for
this purpose.

Setting the switch to EDIT mode enables the operator to insert, save,
delete, and edit word address part programs at the CRT display using the
control panel keypad. The operator can also move to a particular line in
a program and begin executing it from that point.
With the switch set to MEMORY, the operator can access the program
number of a word address part program that is stored in the control's
memory. Pressing the START CYCLE button will direct the control to
execute the program in the automatic cycle mode.

The operator selects TAPE mode to input a word address part program
from external units like a PC, diskette, Zip diskette, or CD-rom using a
RS-232 cable.

When the switch is set to Manual Data Input or MDI mode, setup data
like tool length offsets, spindle speed for edge finding, and fixture
offsets can be entered in. Pressing the START CYCLE button will direct
the control to enter the data into memory.
 JOG mode puts the CNC machine tool into a manual mode of operation.
In this mode the operator can use several devices on the machine panel
to manually control its movement. For example, motion along each of
the machine axes can be controlled by pressing the + or − JOG buttons.
Spindle speed can also be regulated, etc.

The HANDLE setting enables the operator to manually jog each of the
machine axes by turning the handwheel on the machine panel.

The HOME setting enables the operator to return each of the machine
axes to their extreme travel limit or home. Pressing the HOME button
will direct the control to home the CNC machine.

The Cycle Start Button

 The operator presses this button to direct the CNC machine tool to
execute a part program selected from the control’s memory. Execution
will occur in automatic cycle mode.

The Feed Hold Button

This button is used to cause a momentary halt in the movement of the

CNC machine axis. This is done, for example, to remove chips, correct
water flow, or prevent a problem from occurring during the execution of
the program. If the program needs to be edited, the operator presses the
RESET key to cancel its execution. Pressing the CYCLE START key
takes the CNC out of feed hold.

The Feed Override Switch

 The programmed feed rate, F, can be changed when commands to cut
material, such as G01, G02, G03, are executed. Normal increments are
10%. The feed rate can be adjusted from 0, or no feed, to 200%, or
double the feed rate. Note, this switch has no effect on the rapid
movements of the CNC machine tool.

The Spindle Override Switch

The programmed spindle speed, S, can be changed when commands to

turn the spindle on clockwise (M03) or counterclockwise (M04) are
executed. Normal increments are 10%. The switch starts at 50%, for
safety, and does not allow for a zero spindle speed override. This could
cause a crash if the corresponding feed override were set high.

The Rapid Override Switch

 Control over the rapid rate of motion toward or away from the work is
useful when testing a program containing G00, G27, G28, G29, or G30
commands. The rapid rate can be adjusted to 0, 25%, 50%, 75%, or
100% of its normal value.

The Axis Select Switch

The operator uses this switch to select the machine axis (X or Z) that is
to be jogged by using the jog buttons or the handwheel.

The Rate Switch

The rate switch controls the distance the machine moves along an axis
with a single push of the jog button or a single click of the handwheel.
 MOVEMENT ALONG A MACHINE AXIS CAUSED BY A
SINGLE BUTTON PUSH OR WHEEL CLICK
RATE
OPERATING IN METRIC OPERATING IN INCH
MODE MODE
×1 0.001 mm 0.0001 in.
×10 0.01 mm 0.001 in.
×100 0.1 mm 0.01 in.

The Hand Wheel (Manual Pulse

Generator)

The mode switch must be set to HANDLE before the handwheel or

manual pulse generator (MPG) can be used. The AXIS SELECT switch
selects the axis to jog and the RATE switch the distance the machine
will move along an axis with each click of the wheel. Wheel rotations
clockwise cause electrical pulses that produce +axis CNC movement
Counterclockwise rotations result in −axis CNC machine movement.
The handwheel is very useful for moving the machine axis during setup.
The handwheel is often mounted on a pendent making it more
 convenient for the setup person to move around when working.

Conditional Switches
The way the CNC machine tool operates in manual and auto mode is also
controlled by a set of on/off toggle switches. They must be set correctly for
the CNC machine to execute a part program in the manner intended.

The Dry Run Switch

When this switch is set to ON the feed rate, F, as specified in the

running part program is ignored by the control. Instead, the machine
axes are moved at higher feed rates. Also, the rapid feed rate can be
controlled by the rapid override switch. This is usually done when
testing a new part program with the part not mounted.

The Single Block Switch

 Setting this switch to ON directs the control to execute a single block of
the part program and then stop the CNC machine by canceling the
AUTO cycle. To execute the next block in the program the operator
must press the CYCLE START button, etc. This is usually done to
carefully check the machine motions when running a new part program.

The Machine Lock Switch

The operator sets this to ON to stop movement along any machine axis
when a part program is executed by the control. When in effect, the
CRT will display the programmed movements along the axes, the
spindle will run, and other machine functions will operate normally.
Machine lock is used to check a new part program.

Optional Block Skip Switch

Any block in a part program that has a slash (/) as the first character will
not be executed when this switch set to ON.

Optional Block Stop Switch

 When this switch is set to ON, the control will stop the execution of a
part program and take the control out of AUTO cycle when a M01
block is executed in the part program. The operator presses the CYCLE
START button to start the machine again in AUTO mode. If this switch
is OFF, the control will ignore any programmed M01 codes.

The Work Grip Switch

The operator uses this switch to select the chuck grip direction when the
foot petal is used.

The INT setting causes the jaws to move outward away from the
spindle to grip the work ID.

The EXT setting causes the jaws to move inward toward the
spindle to grip the work OD.

The Tailstock Forward/Retract

Buttons
 These buttons are active when the mode switch is set to JOG mode.

Pressing TAILSTOCK FOR causes the tailstock to be manually

moved forward by jogging it toward the spindle.

Pressing TAILSTOCK RET causes the tailstock to be manually

retracted by jogging it away from the spindle.

The Turret Index Direction

Key/Turrent Index Button

These buttons are active when the mode switch is set to JOG mode.

The operator first selects the direction in which the turret is to

index by pressing one of the direction keys:

The turret is then jogged in the direction selected by pressing the

INDEX TURRET button.
Emergency Stop Button

The EMERGENCY STOP button should only be pressed when it is

necessary to immediately halt the motion of the CNC machine in order
to prevent a collision between the tool and the work.

Power to the CNC machine will be turned off. Control power will
remain.

The control unit will automatically be RESET.

After fixing the problem, RESET the CNC by turning the

EMERGENCY STOP button and releasing it.

Select HOME mode and press the HOME button to home the
machine.

Press the CYCLE START button to start the program again from
the beginning.
14.6 Basic Lathe Operations
This text will consider programming the most basic lathe operations: facing,
turning, grooving, parting, drilling, boring, and threading. Some of these cuts
are performed on both the outside surface of the part (OD operations) and the
inside surface (ID operations). These are illustrated in Figures 14.5 through
14.11.

Facing
This operation involves cutting the end of the stock such that the resulting
end surface is perpendicular or square with respect to the stock centerline. A
smooth, flat end surface should be produced. The tool is fed into the work in
a direction perpendicular to the stock centerline.

Figure 14.5
OD facing.
Figure 14.6
Turning.

Figure 14.7
Grooving.
Figure 14.8
Parting.

Figure 14.9
Drilling.
Figure 14.10
Boring.

Figure 14.11
Threading.
Turning
Turning involves the removal of material from the outside of rotating stock.
Rough turning is usually done first in multiple passes along the Z axis. For
each X-axis depth value, the tool removes stock as it travels along the Z axis
at feed rate. Different profile shapes can be created including tapers,
contours, and shoulders.

In finish turning the servo motors move simultaneously in the X and Z

directions at feed rate so that the finished shape is cut. The actual path
followed by the tool is a series of straight-line approximations generated by
software algorithms.

Chamfer
A chamfer is a smooth beveled edge machined on the inside or outside of a
finished diameter. A chamfer breaks a sharp edge and makes the finished
part easier to assemble. Normally, the chamfer angle is 45° with the chamfer
distance between .01 and .25 in. The servo motors move the tools
simultaneously in the X and Z directions at feed rate to cut the chamfer. The
end of a shaft should be chamfered before threading to prevent fouling the
threads with chips.

Grooving
OD and ID grooving requires that the tool be fed into the work in a direction
perpendicular to the work’s centerline along the X axis. In face grooving, the
tool is fed into the work in a direction parallel to the work’s centerline along
the Z axis. The cutting edge of the tool is on its end. Grooving for thread
relief is usually done prior to threading to ensure the resulting threads will be
fully engaged up to the shoulder.
Parting
Parting involves cutting off the part from the main bar stock. Parting is done
with a cutoff tool that is tapered and has a cutting edge at its end. The tool is
fed into the part in a direction perpendicular to its centerline until the part is
completely separated from the main bar stock.

Drilling
The drill is usually mounted in a drill chuck or held in a bushing and fed into
the rotating work along the Z axis. A center drill should be applied before
using a high-speed steel twist drill, but it’s not necessary if a spade drill or
carbide insert drill is selected. Spade and carbide drills, however, need higher
horsepower and a high-pressure coolant system to operate.

Boring
Boring is an internal turning operation. Rough boring is usually done first in
multiple passes along the Z axis. For each X-axis depth value, the tool
removes stock as it travels along the Z axis at feed rate.

In finish turning the servo motors move the tool simultaneously in the X and
Z directions at feed rate in such a way that the finished shape is cut. The
actual path followed by the tool is a series of straight-line approximations
generated by software algorithms. Boring can be used to more accurately size
and true a hole, as well as create internal tapers and contours.

Threading
This operation involves cutting helical grooves on the outside or inside
surface of a cylinder or cone. Grooves or threads have a specific angle.
Unified threads have an angle of 60°. The distance between teeth is called the
thread pitch. The tool usually is fed into the material at a cut angle of 29° in a
direction perpendicular to the part’s centerline along the X axis and at feed
rate equal to the thread pitch.
14.7 Tooling for CNC Lathe
Operations
Modern CNC turning centers utilize tool holders with replaceable/indexable
inserts. Tool holders come in a variety of styles. Each style is suited for a
particular type of cutting operation as illustrated in Figure 14.12.

The advantages of using carbide insert tools, including cutting capabilities at

higher speeds (approximately two to three times faster than high-speed steel
cutters) and reductions in tool inventory and elimination of regrinding time
and cost, were discussed in Chapter 3. Another advantage of single-point
tools is the fact that inserts are made with a precise tool nose radius for
cutting, so the location of the tool nose center for any tool can be accurately
determined. This makes tool offset specifications and CNC programming a
much easier job. See Figure 14.13.
 Figure 14.12
Kennametal tool holder styles.

(Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.)

Figure 14.13
Tool nose radius.

Insert Material
With regard to lathe operation, there are four important types of materials
used for inserts.

Cemented Carbides
Cemented carbides are formed by using tungsten carbide sintered in a cobalt
matrix. Some grades contain titanium carbide, tantalum carbide, or other
materials as additives. Their chief advantage is the ability to cut at higher
speeds and feeds. Carbide tools cut 5–10 times faster than high-speed steel
tools. They offer excellent resistance to consistent high heat, thermal shock,
impact, wear, and abrasion. They also produce lower surface roughness for
finishing cuts.

Coated Carbides
The wear resistance of cemented carbides can be improved by 200–500% by
coating them with wear-resistant materials. Coating materials include
titanium carbide and aluminum oxide (a ceramic). The best resistance to
abrasion wear for speeds below 500 sfpm is achieved when titanium carbide
is used. For higher speeds, resistance to the chemical reaction between the
tool and workpiece is afforded by ceramic-coated inserts. Both coatings offer
excellent performance on steels, cast iron, and nonferrous materials.

Ceramics
A ceramic is a very hard material formed without metallic bonding. It
displays exceptional resistance to wear and heat load. The most popular
material for forming ceramics is aluminum oxide, but an additive such as
titanium oxide or titanium carbide is often used. Hard materials can be
machined at extremely high cutting speeds with relatively little loss in tool
life. In addition, the surface finish is better than with other cutting materials.
The main disadvantage with ceramics is that they have low resistance to
impact and shock. Thus, they can only be used in operations where impact
loading is low.

Diamonds
There are two main types of diamond cutting materials. Single-crystal natural
diamonds offer outstanding wear resistance but low shock resistance. Smaller
synthetic diamond crystals fused together at high temperature and pressure
into a carbide substrate form a material developed by GE under the name of
Compax. It displays good resistance to shock loading. Diamond tools offer
substantial improvements over carbides. Better surface finish and higher
cutting speeds with substantial improvements in tool life can be achieved.

Insert Shape
The seven basic shapes for turning operations in order of decreasing strength
are shown below.
 Figure 14.14
Carbide insert turning tool.

Some important rules to be considered when selecting tooling for the lathe
operations are as follows (Figure 14-14):

1. Select an insert that has the highest strength shape possible.

2. Select the smallest practical insert size (to save on cost).

3. Select the largest tool nose radius (TNR) possible.

A large TNR provides a strong cutting edge for roughing.

A large TNR permits higher feed rates for roughing.

 Select a smaller TNR if the operation tends to produce vibration
during roughing.

For roughing, the most commonly used TNR values are: 364 in. to
116 in.

4. Select the largest boring bar diameter with the smallest possible
overhang to reduce deflection and vibration. A solid steel shank boring
bar can normally have an overhang of up to four times the diameter.
14.8 Cutting Speeds, Feeds, and
Depth of Cut for Lathe Operations
Cutting Speed
For lathe operations, tool speed is defined as the rate at which a point on the
circumference of the work passes the cutting tool. It is expressed in surface
feet per minute. See Figure 14.15.

The approximate recommended cutting speeds for high-speed steel cutting

tools are listed in Table 14.1.
 Figure 14.15
Turning: Spindle rpm, Material Cutting Speed, Cut Diameter,
Depth of Cut, and Tool Feed.

Note, for drilling, reaming, and tapping, the Tool Diameter is used for
calculating the Spindle rpm. The Spindle rpm is input into the CNC program
since the spindle maintains a constant rpm level throughout these machining
operations.

Spindle rpm= 4×Cutting Speed (sfpm)Tool Diameter (in.)

(Drilling, Tapping, Reaming)

The Cut Diameter constantly changes during operations such as turning,

boring, facing, grooving, and parting. For these operations the Cutting Speed
is input into the CNC program. The controller then automatically adjusts the
Spindle rpm up or down as the Cut Diameter changes in order to maintain the
programmed Cutting Speed during machining. A discussion of word address
codes used to input constant Cutting Speed in CNC programs for these cases
is given in Section 15.13.

Tool Feed
Tool feed is the rate at which the tool advances into the work per revolution
of the work. Table 14.2 lists approximate recommended feed rates for cutting
various materials. A more comprehensive listing of turning speeds and feeds
is given in Appendix C.

Table 14.1 Approximate

Turning Speeds for High-Speed
Steel Cutting Tools. Depth of
 Rough Cut is Between .005 and
.01 in.
Tool speed (sfpm)
Material Rough cuts Finish cuts
Aluminum 400 800
Brass 250 500
Cast iron 75 200
Mild steel 100 250
Tool steel 50 100

Table 14.2 Turning Feeds for

High-Speed Steel Cutting Tools
Tool feed (ipr)
Material Rough cuts Finish cuts
Aluminum .015–.025 .005–.010
Brass .015–.025 .003–.010
Cast iron .015–.025 .005–.010
Mild steel .010–.020 .003–.010
Tool steel .010–.020 .003–.010

Depth of Cut (DOC)

The depth of cut is the thickness of the material machined from the work or is
the distance from the uncut work surface to the cut surface in inches. The
diameter of the work remaining after the cut is given as
Cut diameter=Uncut Diameter−2×DOC

In machining a part, rough cuts are taken first. For this operation the DOC is
taken as large as possible with the feed reduced. Factors that influence DOC
in roughing are the horsepower of the CNC, the material and shape of the
insert, the rigidity of the work, and the feed.

For the one or two finishing cuts that follow roughing, a DOC is taken
relatively lightly with the feed adjusted to produce a required surface finish.

Below are listed recommended DOC values for insert tool nose radii when
executing finishing passes.

Tool Nose Radius of Insert Recommended DOC for Finishing Passes

(in.) (in.)
.015 .0046
.031 .0092
.048 .0139
.063 .0183
.094 .0275
.125 .0370

(Table courtesy of Greenleaf Corp.)

14.9 Feed Directions and Rake
Angles for Lathe Operations
Feed Directions
Right-handed cutting tools have their cutting edge on the right side and are
usually fed from right to left. Left-handed cutting tools have the cutting edge
on the left side and are fed left to right. A neutral cutting tool has cutting
edges on both the right and left sides and can be fed right to left or left to
right. It is used for profiling where clearance on both sides is required. See
Figure 14.16.

Tooling Nomenclature
Single-point turning and facing tools must have specific angles at their
cutting ends to ensure longer tool life and cutting efficiency, as shown in
Figure 14.17. The components of Figure 14.17 are as follows:

TNR: Tool nose radius for producing acceptable surface finish and
longer tool life.

BR: Back rake angle for directing the chips away from the work and
toward the tool holder. This is the angle made between the top face of
the carbide insert and the tool shank in the length direction.
Figure 14.16
The right-hand rule.
 Figure 14.17
Single-point tool angles (angles shown are exaggerated for
emphasis).

SR: Side rake angle for directing chips away from the work and toward
the side. This is the angle made between the top face of the carbide
insert and the tool shank in the width direction.

SC: Side clearance angle for permitting the side of the tool to enter the
work.

EC: End clearance angle for permitting the end of the tool to enter the
work.

SCEA: Side cutting edge angle for improving the shear cut and
producing thinner chips when turning.

ECEA: End cutting edge angle for maintaining clearance between the
tool and the work during boring or facing operations.
Rake Angles and Cutting Force
As was stated previously, a tool’s rake angles help carry away chips. These
angles also help protect the cutting tool from excessive heating and abrasive
action. In general, positive rake angles tend to decrease the force with which
the tool cuts and negative rake angles increase the force. The decision to use
a positive or negative rake tool depends upon many factors; chief among
them is the material to be machined. A summary of the properties and use of
negative versus positive rake tools is given in Table 14.3.

Table 14.3 Characteristics of

Positive and Negative Rake
Tools
Positive rake tools Negative rake tools
Increases the strength
Decreases the strength of the cutting edges
of the cutting edges
Machines with higher
Machines with lower cutting force
cutting force
Rigid, high
Lower horsepower machining
horsepower machining
More economical—
both top and bottom
Only top cutting edges can be used
cutting edges can be
used
Use on aluminum, titanium, copper, most Use on cast iron,
stainless steels, thin or easily deflected carbon steels, and for
parts, nickel alloys, soft alloys, and plastic heavy, interrupted cuts

The rake angles for turning are shown in Figure 14.18

 Figure 14.18
Rake angles for turning (angles shown are exaggerated for
emphasis).

It is also best to select the tool holder style that creates the largest possible
side cutting edge angle with respect to the work in order to produce thinner
chips at lower cutting edge temperatures and thus protect the tool nose from
excessive wear.

Tool manufacturers use variations of a standard coding system to specify the

characteristics of their tool holders and boring bars. A coding system from
Iscar Metals, Inc., is shown in Appendix F.

Refer to Appendix F for a typical identification system used for OD and ID

tools.
14.10 Chapter Summary
The following key concepts were discussed in this chapter:

1. A CNC lathe is a machine designed to remove material from stock that

is clamped and rotated.

2. Most CNC lathes use turrets for holding, changing, and moving tools.

3. The CNC lathe machine axes of motion are: –Z along the spindle axis
and toward the spindle, +Z along the spindle axis away from the spindle,
–X transverse to the spindle axis and toward the spindle, and +X
transverse to the spindle axis and away from the spindle.

4. The seven most important lathe operations are facing, turning, grooving,
parting, drilling, boring, and threading.

5. Modern CNC lathes and turning centers utilize indexable insert cutting
tools.

6. Single-point turning and facing tools have their cutting edges set at
specific cutting angles to ensure longer tool life and greater cutting
efficiency.

7. Tool speed for lathes is the rate at which a point on the revolving
circumference of the work passes the cutting tool. It is expressed in
surface feet per minute (sfpm).

8. Tool feed is the rate at which the tool advances into the work per
revolution of the spindle. It is expressed in inches per revolution (ipr).

9. Depth of cut is the thickness of the material removed by the tool or the
radial distance in inches (in.) from the uncut surface of the stock to the
cut surface.

10. Right-handed cutting tools have their cutting edges on the right side and
 are fed into the work from right to left. Left-handed tools have their
cutting edges on the left side and are fed into the work from left to right.

11. Negative rake angles are used for most turning operations involving
carbide insert cutting tools. Positive rake angles tend to decrease tool
force and are used with high-speed steel cutters on softer materials.
Review Exercises
1. 14.1. Identify and define the components of the CNC turning center.

Component Description/Function
A
B
C
D
E
 F
G
H
I
J

2. 14.2.

1. What type of tool changer mechanisms are used on CNC lathes and
turning centers?

2. Describe a typical tool changing operation.

3. 14.3. What is the difference between a front turret and a rear turret?

4. 14.4. Describe the CNC lathe machine axis of motion.

5. 14.5. What are OD versus ID operations?

6. 14.6. Describe the following machining operations and state whether

each is OD, ID, or both:

a. Facing d. Parting
b. Turning e. Boring
c. Grooving f. Threading

7. 14.7. List four advantages of using indexable/insert tooling for lathe

operations.

8. 14.8. State the advantages and disadvantages of using the following

insert materials:

1. Cemented carbides

2. Coated carbides

3. Ceramics
 4. Diamonds

9. 14.9. List four important rules that should be followed when selecting
insert tooling.

10. 14.10. Explain the following terms as applied to lathe operations:

1. Tool speed

2. Tool feed

3. Depth of cut

11. 14.11. Explain the difference between right- and left-hand cutting tools
and how they are used in OD turning operations.

12. 14.12. Match the terms on the left with the definitions on the right:

Side rake angle Permits side of tool to enter work

Tool nose radius Clearance for boring/facing
Side clearance angle Directs chips toward the side
Side cutting edge angle Produces surface finish
Back rake angle Controls chip thickness
End cutting edge angle Directs chips away from work

13. 14.13.

1. What is the effect of using negative rake angle tooling?

2. What is the effect of using positive rake angle tooling?

14. 14.14. What recommendations can be made regarding the rake angle
when selecting a tool holder for the following machining situations?

1. Rough turning cast-iron blank

2. Rough turning an aluminum steel shaft

3. Rough turning a part made of carbon steel

4. Taking heavy interrupted cuts on stainless steel

Chapter Fifteen Fundamental
Concepts of CNC Lathe
Programming
15.1 Chapter Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to

1. Explain the different types of positioning modes for CNC lathe

operations.

2. Know the important locations for programming and setup of CNC

lathes. These include the reference point, machining origin, and program
origin.

3. Understand methodizing of operations for CNC lathes.

4. State the basic setup operations performed on the CNC lathe prior to
running a job.

5. Know the important preparatory (G) codes and miscellaneous (M) codes
used in programming lathe operations.

6. State the codes for specifying values of the spindle speed, tool feed, and
changing tools.

7. Explain tool nose radius (TNR) compensation.

8. Apply TNR in programming lathe operations.

15.2 Introduction
This chapter deals with the basic parameters and concepts involved in
programming CNC lathe operations. See Figure 15.1. Modes for positioning
the tool are considered first. Important setup information concerning the
reference point, part origin, tool change point, and tool offsets are explored in
detail. The planning of machining operations for CNC lathes is discussed. A
sample of a setup sheet and a sample of a tool and operations sheet for a lathe
job are presented. Important preparatory (G) codes and miscellaneous (M)
codes for executing basic lathe operations are listed and explained.
Additionally, feed rate (F) codes, speed (S) codes, and tool change (T) codes
are also studied.

Because the tool nose radius (TNR) is so small, tool movements are not
normally programmed from the center of the tool nose. Instead, programmers
use TNR compensation, which allows tool movements to be programmed
directly from the part geometry. Important concepts of TNR, as well as
detailed TNR programming examples, are featured.

The reader is encouraged to use the machining simulation software described

in Appendix I and contained on the CD at the back of this text.
 Figure 15.1
CNC lathe operations: (a) boring, (b) turning, and (c) grooving.

(Photos courtesy (a) Paul Rapson/Alamy; (b) and (c)

metalpix/Alamy.)

Safety Rules for Job Setup on a

CNC Turning Center
Hold the workpiece securely. For bar work, make sure the bar does not
extend beyond safe limits.

Use safety goggles, wear protective clothing, and put long hair up.

Set the jaw pressure to conform to proper holding conditions.

Set cutting speeds and feeds for each tool within the limits
recommended for the process. Adjust speeds and feeds during an
operation to obtain optimum machining conditions.

When moving an axis in manual mode, make sure there is sufficient

clearance between the cutting tool and all surrounding objects (part,
fixture, etc.).

Test the program by making a dry run.

When loading, make sure the workpiece is free of burrs and foreign
particles.

Maintain a backup copy of setup and the program file.

15.3 Establishing Locations via
Cartesian Coordinates (CNC
Lathes)
The machine axes of motion for CNC lathes were introduced in Section 14.4.
It was pointed out that for turning centers, the X axis (cross-slide movement)
and the Z axis (longitudinal travel) are used to specify tool locations. See
Figure 15.2.

Figure 15.2
The Cartesian coordinate system for rear turret CNC lathes.
15.4 Types of Tool Positioning
Modes (CNC Lathes)
CNC lathe programs can be written to move the tool in the following modes:
absolute, incremental, or mixed (incremental and absolute).

Absolute Positioning
When operating in this mode the new position of the tool is given by its X and
Z distances from a fixed home or origin (0, 0).

Diameter programming: With absolute diameter programming, the X

position of the tool is specified in terms of diameter or twice the distance
from the spindle centerline. Refer to Figure 15.3.
 Figure 15.3
Programming by diameter (absolute positioning).

Incremental Positioning
When operating in this mode of programming, the new position of the tool is
specified by inputting its direction and distance from the last position
achieved. The address U is used to indicate incremental X-axis motion and
the address W is used to indicate incremental Z-axis movement.

Motion toward the spindle centerline on the X axis is indicated by –U and

motion away by +U. Motion toward the spindle center on the Z axis is
indicated by –W and motion away by +W.

Diameter programming: With incremental diameter programming, U is

entered as the directed change in diameter from the last position achieved.
Refer to Figure 15.4.
Figure 15.4
Programming by diameter (incremental positioning).
15.5 Reference Point, Machine
Origin, and Program Origin (Fanuc
Controllers)
There are three important feature locations to consider for Fanuc-controlled
CNC lathes. See Figure 15.5.

Figure 15.5
Important locations for CNC lathes.

Reference Point (Machine Zero)

The reference point or machine zero is the position of the turret when the
machine’s axes are zeroed out. It is set once by the manufacture. It should be
noted that this location is also referred to as the machine home position.

Machining Origin (Tool Change

Position)
The machining origin is determined at setup. This location is input at the
beginning of the word address program before the first tool change block by
means of the “zero-offset” command (see Section 15.9). The machine indexes
the tools at this position.

The machining origin is determined in such a way that when the turret is at
this location the longest tool is at least 1 in. from the face of the part in the Z
direction and 1 in. from the diameter of the stock. The control is zeroed out at
this location. The turret is then jogged to the reference point. The X and Z
locations of the machine origin from the reference point are recorded, and
these numbers are used in the “zero-offset” command.

The tool change position is a safe location the machine returns to when
indexing an old tool with a new tool. It is usually set at the machining origin.

The operator can manually home the turret by pressing the “return to
reference” button on the machine panel. This can be done, for example, if the
turret is not homed when the CNC lathe is turned on.

Program Zero
Program zero is a point from which all dimensions are defined in the part
program. The setup person uses tool offsets as a means of locating the
program zero with respect to the machining origin. Refer to Section 15.6 for
a discussion of tool offsets.

Upon receiving a programmed X and Z move with respect to the program

zero, the controller will compute the corresponding X and Z move relative to
the machining origin. It will then execute the move relative to the machining
origin.
15.6 Methodizing of Operations for
CNC Lathes
Methodizing for lathes and turning centers carries the same meaning as
described for machining centers. It is a plan that specifies the sequence and
methods in which operations are to be carried out in order to produce a part.
In a small shop, methodizing is done by the programmer, but in larger shops
manufacturing engineers take on this job.

Deciding on a CNC Lathe

The programmer selects a CNC lathe based on its ability to optimize the
cutting operations required to produce the part. The machine must have
adequate travel, horsepower, turret size, accuracy, and number of machine
axis movements.
Methods of Holding the Part During
Machining
The method of holding the part during machining is determined by the
programmer. The setup person acts on a sketch provided by the programmer.
For simple bar shapes a hydraulic chuck or collet is used; for more complex
shapes a faceplate and fixture is used. All necessary arresting and support
devices such as clamps, counterweights, angle plates and their locations must
be carefully documented. Later, the programmer must avoid these obstacles
when programming tool movements. Refer to Figure 15.7.

Machining Determination
After making a thorough study of the part print, the programmer plans the
machining sequence and the corresponding tooling required. See Figure
15.6A.
Figure 15.6A
A part production drawing for manufacturing the part SHAFT.
Figure 15.6B
 The CNC tool and operations sheet for machining the part SHAFT.

In general, machining on CNC lathes should proceed in the following order:

The cutting sequence together with the required cutting tools is documented
on the CNC tool and operations sheet. See Figure 15.6B.
15.7 Setup Procedures for CNC
Lathes
The setup operation normally begins with the setup person securing the
required OD and ID tools in the turret as specified in CNC tool and
operations sheet. The part blank is loaded into the work-holding device (lathe
chuck or lathe collet). It is very important that the proper length of stock
extends beyond the work-holding device. If the overhand length is tools long,
excessive wobbling will occur when the part is machined, and if the length is
too short, the tool may collide with the work-holding device, or insufficient
room may be left for the cutoff tool to operate. The length of stock permitted
to extend beyond the work-holding device is specified by the programmer in
the setup sheet. Refer to Figure 15.7.
 Figure 15.7
The CNC setup sheet for setting up the part SHAFT.

Tool Length Offsets

The setup person must measure and enter the value of the tool length offsets
or geometry offset of each tool. The different tools used for machining
operations in a program may vary in length and orientation in the turret. The
system must be directed to compensate for these variations when executing
programmed tool movement in the X and Z directions. It can only do so if it
knows the initial distance between the tip of the tool and the program zero
(Z0, X0). Tool length offsets are measured in relation to a reference tool. Each
offset value is assigned a memory address number. Later, the controller will
know the proper offset value for a tool when its memory address number is
read during program execution.

Tool offset
Point on tool programmed
measurements(s)

From part blank to tool

edge(s)

From part blank to center

of tool nose

Manual Touch Off Method

The manual touch off method is the most common method of entering tool
offset. The setup person switches the CNC controllers screen to POSITION-
ABSOLUTE and sets the mode switch to JOG. A tool is selected as the
reference tool, normally an OD finishing tool. It is indexed into position and
then manually moved to the work. The tool is jogged in the X axis until its tip
touches a specified diameter of the work. The setup person then zeroes out
the X position (offset value) appearing on the screen. The tool is then jogged
in the Z axis until its tip touches a specified face of the work. Again, the Z
position (offset value) appearing on the screen is zeroed out. Every tool is
then indexed and manually touched off the diameter and face of the work.
The corresponding X and Z position (offset) values are written down. After
all values are recorded, the controller screen is switched to OFFSET. The
reference tool is assigned zero offset values for the proper offset number. The
offset values for each tool are also keyed in for the corresponding offset
number of that tool. It should be noted through this text that the X-offset
values are given in terms of diameter.

This method is time consuming and requires an experienced person to

complete properly. See Figure 15.8.
Figure 15.8
Inputting tool offsets via the manual touch off method.
Wear Offsets
The cutting surfaces of tools wear with use. As the tool wears, it leaves more
material after machining a surface. For turning tools wear causes external
dimension to grow. For boring bars, internal dimensions will get smaller. The
operator opens the wear offset page at the CNC control panel and enters tool
wear offsets for each tool to compensate for tool wear (Figure 15.9). This is
done during production machining to meet tolerances.

“Q-Setter” or Tool Setter Method

The “Q-setter” is an option available on newer CNC lathes and turning
centers. The mechanism’s arm swings out in front of the work-holding
device. A touch sense probe is attached to the end of the arm. See Figure
15.10.

Figure 15.9
Inputting tool wear offsets.
Figure 15.10
Inputting tool offsets via the Q-setter.
It offers several advantages over the manual method and makes the job of
entering tool length offsets fast and accurate.

The control screen will automatically change to the GEOMETRY OFFSETS

page when the setup person swings the “Q-setter” out into position. The
number of the tool currently in position in the turret for probe touch off will
be automatically highlighted. The control is set to JOG, and the tool is jogged
in the X axis, and then manually moved by the handwheel. When its tip
touches the center of X-axis sensor a beep will be emitted. The X-offset value
will be automatically entered. The tool is then jogged in the Z axis and
touching the center of the Z-axis sensor a beep is emitted. The corresponding
Z-offset value for the tool will be automatically entered.

Setting the Program Origin

Case 1: Tool Offsets Have Been
Input by the Manual Touch Off
Method
When the manual touch off method has been used to input the tool offsets for
a job, proceed as follows to set the program origin. Jog then handwheel for
the reference tool to the position considered as the Z0 of the part. Open the
MENU OFFSET screen to the WORK SHIFT page. Set the controller to MD
mode. Key in G50Z0 and press ENTER. The POSITION-ABSOLUTE screen
will display the Z position of tool as Z0. Now measure theoutside diameter of
the stock . Jog then handwheel for the reference tool to the outside
diameter
 Figure 15.11
Establishing the program zero with tool offsets input by manual
touch off.

and touch off the surface. Set the controller to MD1 mode again, key in
G50Xd, and press ENTER. The POSITION-ABSOLUTE screen will now
display XdZ . See Figure 15.11.

Case 2: Tool Offsets Have Been

Input by the “Q-Setter”
To set the program origin for a job that has the tool offsets inputted by the
“Q-setter,” proceed as follows. Jog the handwheel of the reference tool to
the position considered the Z0 of the part. Open the MENU OFFSET screen
to the WORK SHIFT page. Set the controller to MD1 mode. Key in MZ0 and
press ENTER. The POSITION-ABSOLUTE screen will display the Z
position of the tool as Z0, X is set by default since the center of rotation is
considered X0 regardless of the part diameter. See Figure 15.12.

Figure 15.12
Establishing the program zero with tool offsets input from the Q-
setter.
15.8 Important Preparatory
Functions (G Codes) for Lathes
The following modal and nonmodal G codes are important when
programming lathe operations.

G
Mode Specification
code
Rapid positioning mode. The tool is moved to the
G0 Modal
programmed XZ position at maximum feed rate.
Linear interpolation mode. The tool is moved in a straight-
G1 Modal
line path at programmed feed rate.
G2 Modal Circular interpolation clockwise (CW).
G3 Modal Circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW).
G4 Nonmodal Programmed dwell.
Inch mode for all units. This code is entered at the start of
G20 Modal the CNC program in a separate block. It must appear before
a G50 block.
Metric mode for all units. This code is entered at the start of
G21 Modal the CNC program in a separate block. It must appear before
a G50 block.
G28 Nonmodal Return to tool reference point.
G50 Modal Maximum spindle speed setting for G96 mode.
or
Set machining origin at the current tool position.
G75 Nonmodal Grooving in the X axis.
G96 Modal Constant surface speed control (direct rpm).
G97 Modal Cancel G96.
G98 Modal Feed rate programmed in inches per revolution (ipr).
G99 Modal Feed rate programmed in inches per minute (ipm).
15.9 Important Miscellaneous
Functions (M Codes) for Lathes
The following miscellaneous functions are often used to initiate machine
functions not related to dimensional or axis movements.

M
Type Specification
code
M0 B Causes a program stop.
M3 A Turns spindle on clockwise (CW).
M4 A Turns spindle on counterclockwise (CCW).
M5 B Turns spindle off.
M8 A Turns external coolant on.
M9 B Turns coolant off.
Directs the system to end program processing, and reset the
M30 B
memory unit. This code must be the last statement in a program.
M41 A Shifts spindle into low-gear range.
M42 A Shifts spindle into intermediate-gear range.
M43 A Shifts spindle into high-gear range.
M68 A Clamps the chuck.
M69 B Opens the chuck.