SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is a radiation from the Sun that is capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions, or
generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy incident on Earth is vastly in excess of the world’s current and
anticipated energy requirements. If suitably harnessed, this highly diffused source has the potential to satisfy all
future energy needs. In the 21st century solar energy has become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source
because of its inexhaustible supply and its non-polluting character, in stark contrast to the finite fossil
fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas

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Reflection and absorption of solar energy. Although some incoming sunlight is reflected by Earth's atmosphere and
surface, most is absorbed by the surface, which is warmed. (More)

The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the largest source of energy received by Earth,
but its intensity at Earth’s surface is actually quite low. This is essentially because of the enormous radial spreading of
radiation from the distant Sun. A relatively minor additional loss is due to Earth’s atmosphere and clouds, which
absorb or scatter as much as 54 percent of the incoming sunlight. The sunlight that reaches the ground consists of
nearly 50 percent visible light, 45 percent infrared radiation, and smaller amounts of ultraviolet and other forms
of electromagnetic radiation.

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Photosynthesis Diagram of photosynthesis showing how water, light, and carbon dioxide are absorbed by a plant to
produce oxygen, sugars, and more carbon dioxide.

Solar energy drives and affects countless natural processes on Earth. For example, photosynthesis by plants, algae,
and cyanobacteria relies on energy from the Sun, and it is nearly impossible to overstate the importance of that
process in the maintenance of life on Earth. If photosynthesis ceased, there would soon be little food or other organic
matter on Earth. Most organisms would disappear, and in time Earth’s atmosphere would become nearly devoid of
gaseous oxygen. Solar energy is also essential for the evaporation of water in the water cycle, land and water
temperatures, and the formation of wind, all of which are major factors in the climate patterns that shape life on
Earth.

The potential for solar energy to be harnessed as solar power is enormous, since about 200,000 times the world’s total
daily electric-generating capacity is received by Earth every day in the form of solar energy. Unfortunately, though
solar energy itself is free, the high cost of its collection, conversion, and storage still limits its exploitation in many
places. Solar radiation can be converted either into thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy, though the former
is easier to accomplish.

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Uses

Solar energy has long been used directly as a source of thermal energy. Beginning in the 20th century, technological
advances have increased the number of uses and applications of the Sun’s thermal energy and opened the doors for
the generation of solar power.

Among the most common devices used to capture solar energy and convert it to thermal energy are flat-plate
collectors, which are used for solar heating applications. Because the intensity of solar radiation at Earth’s surface is
so low, these collectors must be large in area. Even in sunny parts of the world’s temperate regions, for instance, a
collector must have a surface area of about 40 square meters (430 square feet) to gather enough energy to serve the
energy needs of one person. Solar A building roof with flat-plate collectors that capture solar energy to heat air or
water. The most widely used flat-plate collectors consist of a blackened metal plate, covered Solar reflector One of
the reflectors at the Solar Two power plant, Mojave Desert, California. Concentrated solar power plants
employ concentrating, or focusing, collectors to concentrate sunlight received from a wide area onto a small
blackened receiver, thereby considerably increasing the light’s intensity in order to produce high temperatures. The
arrays of carefully aligned mirrors or lenses can focus enough sunlight to heat a target to temperatures of 2,000 °C
(3,600 °F) or more. This heat can then be used to operate a boiler, which in turn generates steam for a steam
turbine electric generator power plant. For producing steam directly, the movable mirrors can be arranged so as to
concentrate large amounts of solar radiation upon blackened pipes through which water is circulated and thereby
heated.

Other applications

Solar energy is also used on a small scale for purposes other than those described above. In some countries, for
instance, solar energy is used to produce salt from seawater by evaporation. Similarly, solar-powered desalination
units transform salt water into drinking water by converting the Sun’s energy to heat, directly or indirectly, to drive
the desalination process.

Solar technology has also emerged for the clean and renewable production of hydrogen as an alternative
energy source. Mimicking the process of photosynthesis, artificial leaves are silicon-based devices that use solar
energy to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, leaving virtually no pollutants. Further work is needed to improve
the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of these devices for industrial use.

Advantage of solar energy

1. Renewable energy source

Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is that solar energy is a truly renewable energy
source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy,
unlike some of the other sources of energy.

Solar energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun, therefore sunlight will be available to us for at least 5
billion years when according to scientists the sun is going to die.

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2. Reduces electricity bills

Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the electricity your solar system has generated, your
energy bill will drop. How much you save on your bill will be dependent on the size of the solar system and your
electricity or heat usage.

For example, if you are a business using commercial solar panels this switch can have huge benefits because the large
system size can cover large chunks of your energy bills.

Moreover, not only will you be saving on the electricity bill, but there is also a possibility to receive payments for the
surplus energy that you export back to the grid through the Smart Export Guarantee (SEG). If you generate more
electricity than you use (considering that your solar panel system is connected to the grid).

3. Diverse applications

Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity (photovoltaic) or heat (solar thermal).
Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in areas without access to the energy grid, to distil water in regions
with limited clean water supplies and to power satellites in space.

Solar energy can also be integrated into the materials used for buildings. Not long ago Sharp introduced transparent
solar energy windows.

4. Low maintenance costs

Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need to keep them relatively clean, so
cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job. If in doubt, you can always rely on specialised cleaning
companies, which offer this service.

Most reliable solar panel manufacturer’s offer 20-25 years warranty.

Also, as there are no moving parts, there is no wear and tear. The inverter is usually the only part that needs to be
changed after 5-10 years because it is continuously working to convert solar energy into electricity and heat (Apart
from the inverter, the cables also need maintenance to ensure your solar power system runs at maximum efficiency.
So, after covering the initial cost of the solar system, you can expect very little spending on maintenance and repair
work.

5. Technology development

Technology is constantly advancing and improvements will intensify in the future. Innovations in quantum physics
and nanotechnology can potentially increase the effectiveness of solar panels and double, or even triple, the electrical
input of the solar power system.

Disadvantage of solar energy

1. High initial cost

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The initial cost of solar panels is fairly high, especially highly efficient systems such as bifacial solar panels. This
includes paying for solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring, and installation. Nevertheless, solar technologies
are constantly developing, so it is safe to assume that prices will go down in the future. While they sport higher
efficiency, you will end up paying more for monocrystalline or black solar panels in the UK.

2. Weather dependence

Some of the most common questions regarding the efficiency of solar panels is if solar panels work in cloudy
weather, for instance. Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of the
solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to effectively gather solar energy. Therefore, a few cloudy,
rainy days can have a noticeable effect on your savings for solar panels in Scotland, Wales or England.

You should also take into account that solar energy cannot be collected during the night. You should also take into
account that solar energy cannot be collected during the night. Not even big system sizes like a 12kW solar
system can collect solar energy at night.

On the other hand, if you also require your water heating solution to work at night or during
wintertime, thermodynamic panels are an alternative to consider.

For a breakdown of how effective solar panels are in the winter, check out our video:

3. Expensive energy storage

Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These batteries, used in off-the-grid solar
systems, can be charged during the day so that the energy is used at night. This is a good solution for using solar
energy all day long but it is also quite expensive.

In most cases, it is smarter to just use solar energy during the day and take energy from the grid during the night (you
can only do this if your system is connected to the grid). Luckily your energy demand is usually higher during the day
so you can meet most of it with solar energy.

4. Space requirements

The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need, as you want to collect as much
sunlight as possible. Solar PV panels require a lot of space and some roofs are not big enough to fit the number of
solar panels that you would like to have. Some roofs also have obstacles like windows that could influence how much
solar panels you can install. This problem occurs less with solar panels for flat roofs in the UK.

An alternative is to install some of the panels in your yard but they need to have access to sunlight. If you don’t have
the space for all the panels that you wanted, you can opt for installing fewer to still satisfy some of your energy needs.

5. Pollution concerns

Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other sources of energy, solar energy can be
associated with pollution. Transportation and installation of solar systems have been associated with the emission of
greenhouse gases.

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There are also some toxic materials and hazardous products used during the manufacturing process of solar
photovoltaic systems, which can indirectly affect the environment.

Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes far less than other alternative energy sources.

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION

Solar energy conversion is the process of harnessing the energy from the sun and converting it into usable forms, such
as electricity or heat. The quest for sustainable and renewable energy sources has become a paramount concern in
today's world. As the global energy demand continues to rise, the need to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and
mitigate climate change has become increasingly pressing. Solar energy, with its abundance and ubiquity, has
emerged as a vital component of the transition to a low-carbon economy. Solar energy conversion, the process of
harnessing sunlight and converting it into usable forms of energy, has made tremendous strides in recent years. This
[paper/presentation] aims to explore the principles, technologies, and applications of solar energy conversion,
highlighting its potential to transform the energy landscape and ensure a sustainable future.

Types of solar energy conversion

There are three ways of solar energy conversion, which are:

Photovoltaic conversion

Solar Thermal conversion

Concentrated solar power conversion

PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION

A device that converts light energy directly to electrical energy; also known as a photovoltaic (PV) cell. PV cells are
made of various semiconductor materials, such as silicon and gallium arsenide. Solar cells may be used individually
to power small applications, such as calculators, or connected in series and parallel as modules or panels to obtain the
required values of current and voltage for electric power generation (Fig. 1). Connecting solar cells in series increases
the voltage; connecting them in parallel increases the current. Modules may be grouped in parallel or strung in series
to form PV arrays. See also: Electricity; Electric power generation; Electric power
transmission; Energy; Light; Semiconductor; Solar energy; Sun

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Fig. 1 Photovoltaic panels utilizing solar cells to turn sunlight into renewable electrical power.

Photovoltaic effect

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Fig.2 show inside of photovoltaic cell

The conversion of sunlight into electrical energy, or the photovoltaic effect, involves three major processes:
absorption of the sunlight in the semiconductor material; generation and separation of free positive and negative
charges to different regions of the solar cell, creating a voltage in the solar cell; and transfer of these separated
charges through electrical terminals to the outside application in the form of electric current. Absorption of
electromagnetic radiation; Electric charge; Electric current; Photovoltaic effect

In the first step, the absorption of sunlight by a PV cell depends on the intensity and quality of the sunlight, the
amount of light reflected from the front surface of the solar cell, the semiconductor band-gap energy [which is the
minimum light (photon) energy the material absorbs], and the layer thickness. Some materials such as silicon require
tens of micrometres of thickness to absorb most of the sunlight, while others such as gallium arsenide, cadmium
telluride, and copper sulphide require only a few micrometres.

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When light is absorbed in the semiconductor, a negatively charged electron and positively charged hole are created.
The heart of the solar cell is the electrical junction which separates these electrons and holes from one another after
they are created by the light. An electrical junction may be formed by the contact of: a metal to a semiconductor (this
junction is called a Schottky barrier); a liquid to a semiconductor to form a photo electrochemical cell; or two
semiconductor regions (called a pn junction). See also: Electron; recombination; Hole

The fundamental principles of the electrical junction can be illustrated with the silicon pn junction. Pure silicon to
which a trace amount of a fifth-column element such as phosphorus has been added is an n-type semiconductor,
where electric current is carried by free electrons. Each phosphorus atom contributes one free electron, leaving
behind the phosphorus atom bound to the crystal structure with a unit positive charge. Similarly, pure silicon to which
a trace amount of a column-three element such as boron has been added is a p-type semiconductor, where the electric
current is carried by free holes. Each boron atom contributes one hole, leaving behind the boron atom with a unit
negative charge. The interface between the p- and n-type silicon is called the pn junction. The fixed charges at the
interface due to the bound boron and phosphorus atoms create a permanent dipole charge layer with a high electric
field. When photons of light energy from the Sun produce electron-hole pairs near the junction, the built-in electric
field forces the holes to the p side and the electrons to the n side (Fig. 3). This displacement of free charges results in
a voltage difference between the two regions of the crystal, the p region being plus and the n region minus. When a
load is connected at the terminals, electron current flows in the direction of the arrow, and electrical power is
available at the load. See also: Boron; Phosphorus; Semiconductor diode

Fig. 3 Cross-sectional view of a silicon pn junction solar cell, illustrating the creation of electron pairs by photons
of light energy from the Sun. 0.0001″ = 2.5 μm; 0.04″ = 1 mm; 1.0″ = 25 mm.

Applications

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Although the photovoltaic effect was discovered by French scientist Antoine César Becquerel in 1839 CE, practical
solar cells made of silicon crystals were not developed until 1955. Beginning with Vanguard 1, launched in 1958,
silicon solar cell arrays have become the almost exclusive power source for satellites. See also: Satellite
(spacecraft); Space power systems

Solar cell arrays were initially used primarily to power small remote electrical loads that would otherwise be
impractical or uneconomical to power by conventional means such as storage batteries or motor-generator sets. As the
costs of solar cells fell dramatically and their efficiencies improved, solar cells were scaled up as large arrays that
power facilities or feed into a utility grid. The first of these so-called solar parks or farms at megawatt-scale were
built in the 1980s in the United States. For residential solar energy systems, PV modules and arrays can be mounted
on a structural surface, such as a rooftop and faced toward the Sun (Fig. 3). When powering loads that require
alternating current (ac) voltage, a power inverter is used to convert the direct current (dc) voltage from the solar cell
array into usable ac power.

Fig. 4 Rooftop solar panel installation.

SOLAR THERMAL CONVERSION

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Solar thermal generates energy indirectly by harnessing radiant energy from the sun to heat fluid, either to generate
heat, or electricity. To produce electricity, steam produced from heating the fluid is used to power generators. This is
different from photovoltaic solar panels, which directly convert the sun’s radiation to electricity.

There are two main types of solar thermal systems for energy production:

Active

Passive.

Active systems require moving parts like fans or pumps to circulate heat-carrying fluids. Passive systems have no
mechanical components and rely on design features only to capture heat (e.g. greenhouses). The technologies are
also grouped by temperature – low, medium or high.

Low-temperature (<100°C) applications typically use solar thermal energy for hot water or space heating (Boyle,
2004). Active systems often consist of a roof-mounted flat plate collector through which liquid circulates. The
collector absorbs heat from the sun and the liquid carries it to the desired destination, for example a swimming pool
or home heating system. Passive heating systems involve intelligent building design practices, which cut back on the
need for heating or cooling systems by better capturing or reflecting solar energy.

Medium-temperature (100-250°C) applications are not common. An example would be a solar oven, which uses a
specially-shaped reflector to focus the sun’s rays on a central cooking pot3. Similar systems could be used for
industrial processes, but are not widely used.

High-temperature (250°C >) solar thermal systems use groups of mirrors to concentrate solar energy onto a central
collector. These concentrated solar power (CSP) systems can reach temperatures high enough to produce steam,
which then turns a turbine, driving a generator to produce electricity.

Solar thermal systems have several advantages. The ‘fuel’ that powers them is free and renewable, so these systems
are cheap to run and can replace some conventional fuel use. Solar thermal is an emission-free source of energy.
Finally, solar thermal systems are relatively low maintenance because they use simpler technologies and passive
systems that have no moving parts. In the case of concentrated solar power (CSP), the technology’s ability to produce
large-scale generation is an advantage for regions that utilize a centralized electricity distribution system.

Although abundant, many aspects of sunlight can cause problems for the use of solar thermal systems. Sunshine is
not a very concentrated energy source, so it can take a large area to make a reasonable amount of energy, evoking
land-use concerns. Sunshine is also intermittent and its availability is dependent on location.

The location of CSP installations causes additional problems for the technology. Many are normally located in
remote, desert areas, and, given that steam turbines produce electricity for CSP, water access and rapid evaporation
are key concerns for the viability of the technology. In addition, transmission of electricity over large distances is
expensive and can lead to distribution losses.

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Solar energy is converted into heat, which then can either be used for commercial or household heating and cooling
(solar heating and cooling, SHC). For example, a very simple solar thermal system might heat water for use in a
shower. This thermal technology can be deployed at industrial scale to boil water into steam to turn a turbine and
generate electricity (concentrating solar power, CSP).

Concentrating solar-thermal power systems are generally used for utility-scale projects. These utility-scale CSP plants
can be configured in different ways. Power tower systems arrange mirrors around a central tower that acts as the
receiver. Linear systems have rows of mirrors that concentrate the sunlight onto parallel tube receivers positioned
above them.

Smaller CSP systems can be located directly where power is needed. For example, single dish/engine systems can
produce 5 to 25 kilowatts of power per dish and be used in distributed applications.

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One challenge facing the widespread use of solar energy is reduced or curtailed energy production when the sun sets
or is blocked by clouds. Thermal energy storage provides a workable solution to this challenge.

In a concentrating solar power (CSP) system, the sun's rays are reflected onto a receiver, which creates heat that is
used to generate electricity that can be used immediately or stored for later use. This enables CSP systems to be
flexible, or dispatch able, options for providing clean, renewable energy.

Several sensible thermal energy storage technologies have been tested and implemented since 1985. These include
the two-tank direct system, two-tank indirect system, and single-tank thermocline system.

Two-Tank Direct System

Solar thermal energy in this system is stored in the same fluid used to collect it. The fluid is stored in two tanks—one
at high temperature and the other at low temperature. Fluid from the low-temperature tank flows through the solar
collector or receiver, where solar energy heats it to a high temperature, and it then flows to the high-temperature tank
for storage. Fluid from the high-temperature tank flows through a heat exchanger, where it generates steam for
electricity production. The fluid exits the heat exchanger at a low temperature and returns to the low-temperature
tank.

Two-tank direct storage was used in early parabolic trough power plants (such as Solar Electric Generating Station I)
and at the Solar Two power tower in California. The trough plants used mineral oil as the heat-transfer and storage
fluid; Solar Two used molten salt.

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Two-Tank Indirect System

Two-tank indirect systems function in the same way as two-tank direct systems, except different fluids are used as the
heat-transfer and storage fluids. This system is used in plants in which the heat-transfer fluid is too expensive or not
suited for use as the storage fluid.

The storage fluid from the low-temperature tank flows through an extra heat exchanger, where it is heated by the
high-temperature heat-transfer fluid. The high-temperature storage fluid then flows back to the high-temperature
storage tank. The fluid exits this heat exchanger at a low temperature and returns to the solar collector or receiver,
where it is heated back to a high temperature. Storage fluid from the high-temperature tank is used to generate steam
in the same manner as the two-tank direct system. The indirect system requires an extra heat exchanger, which adds
cost to the system.

This system will be used in many of the parabolic power plants in Spain and has also been proposed for several U.S.
parabolic plants. The plants will use organic oil as the heat-transfer fluid and molten salt as the storage fluid.

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Single-Tank Thermocline System

Single-tank thermocline systems store thermal energy in a solid medium—most commonly, silica sand—located in a
single tank. At any time during operation, a portion of the medium is at high temperature, and a portion is at low
temperature. The hot- and cold-temperature regions are separated by a temperature gradient or thermocline. High-
temperature heat-transfer fluid flows into the top of the thermocline and exits the bottom at low temperature. This
process moves the thermocline downward and adds thermal energy to the system for storage. Reversing the flow
moves the thermocline upward and removes thermal energy from the system to generate steam and electricity.
Buoyancy effects create thermal stratification of the fluid within the tank, which helps to stabilize and maintain the
thermocline.

Using a solid storage medium and only needing one tank reduces the cost of this system relative to two-tank systems.
This system was demonstrated at the Solar One power tower, where steam was used as the heat-transfer fluid and
mineral oil was used as the storage fluid.

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CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Electricity from solar energy is produced either through photovoltaic (PV) conversion or through concentrating solar
power (CSP). Unlike PV, which directly converts sunlight into electricity, CSP systems use a field of mirrors to focus
sunlight onto a receiver, generating intense heat that can be used to drive a thermodynamic cycle. While today’s CSP
systems are typically integrated with steam-Rankin power blocks, next-generation systems are being designed to
provide thermal energy to advanced supercritical carbon dioxide cycles operating at efficiencies greater than 50%.
The number of worldwide solar energy installations is expected to continue increasing into the foreseeable future.
Over the past five years, worldwide capacity of CSP has tripled to nearly five gig watts (GW). Although the cost of
CSP has not dropped as dramatically as the cost of PV in recent years, there are indications CSP is beginning to
decrease as well. One major benefit of CSP technology is its ability to be coupled with thermal energy storage (TES)
systems to create a dispatch able resource. This ability to control generator output allows CSP with TES (CSP-TES)
to generate energy at more valuable times, provide firm system capacity, and potentially provide operating reserve
services to the grid, all of which can increase the economic prospects of the technology.

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 Figure.1 Generalized method for incorporating CSP-TES in a PCM

There are several types of CSP-TES plants, typically characterized by the solar field, receiver type, and heat-transfer
medium. Figure.2 illustrates an indirect molten salt CSP-TES plant including four basic components:

• A collector field that focuses solar energy onto a receiver

• A solar receiver that absorbs incident solar energy and transfers that energy to a heat-transfer fluid (HTF) flowing
through the receiver

• TES that stores energy from the HTF

• A power block that converts the thermal energy into electrical energy.

The solar multiple (SM) is an important consideration in CSP-TES design. It is the ratio of the thermal power
available from the collector field and receiver under reference conditions (commonly solar noon on the summer
solstice) to the thermal input required to operate the power block at full load. Increasing the SM increases the size of
the solar field relative to the power block and thus increases the amount of solar energy available to the power block.
Generally, plants with larger SMs have larger capacity factors owing to their increased solar energy, which leads to a
more-constant plant output. The small power block associated with a higher SM forces a plant to store energy even
during periods of high energy value. However, plants with lower SMs can have more flexibility in when to dispatch
their solar energy.

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 Figure 3. Four components of an indirect molten salt CSP-TES plant

Energy reflects off of solar collectors onto the receiver, which uses an HTF to transfer thermal energy to the molten
salt in the thermal storage tank. The Solar molten salt then powers a steam turbine and generator.

SAM estimates CSP-TES plant productivity using hourly or sub hourly historical weather data and a set of
component sub models for the collector field, solar receiver, TES, and power block that are evaluated in a time series
of hourly or sub hourly intervals. At each interval, the solver evaluates all component models, determines operational
states, and balances mass flows, energy flows, and inlet/outlet temperatures. For the purposes of interfacing with a
PCM such as PLEXOS, the component models can be conceptually segregated into those associated with the
generation of thermal energy from incident solar energy in any period (collector and receiver) and those associated
with storing and/or dispatching thermal energy to generate electricity (TES and power block). The collector and
receiver sub models in SAM account for hourly insolation, weather conditions, collector field performance, receiver
start up requirements, HTF mass flow rates to achieve design-point inlet and outlet temperatures, and receiver/piping
thermal losses. Evaluation of these sub models provides an hourly profile of thermal energy available from the solar
receiver (Thermal) given a specified collector field sizing, location, and collector/receiver design and operational
characteristics. This thermal energy is converted to design-point electrical-equivalent energy via multiplication by a
design-point power block efficiency (ηdes) and provides a time-varying electrical-equivalent inflow to the PLEXOS
storage reservoir.

SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE

Solar energy storage refers to the process of storing excess solar energy generated during sunny periods for later use
when sunlight is not available, such as during the night or on cloudy days. There are several methods for storing solar
energy, including batteries, pumped hydro storage, compressed air energy storage, molten salt storage, and hydrogen
production through electrolysis. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, efficiency, and
scalability. The choice of storage method often depends on factors such as location, energy demand, and available
resources.

Types Solar Energy Storage

 Thermal (Heat) Types of Solar Energy Storage

Heat-based solar energy storage involves capturing and storing thermal energy from the sun for later use. There are
several types of heat-based solar energy storage methods:

1. Thermal Energy Storage (TES) using Sensible Heat: Sensible heat storage systems store thermal energy by
raising the temperature of a material, typically a solid or liquid. During periods of sunlight, solar collectors absorb
heat from the sun and transfer it to a heat transfer fluid, such as water or molten salt. The hot fluid is then stored in
insulated tanks or reservoirs. When energy is needed, the stored hot fluid is circulated through a heat exchanger to

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produce steam or hot water for various applications, such as space heating, hot water supply, or electricity generation
using steam turbines.

2. Thermal Energy Storage using Latent Heat: Latent heat storage systems store thermal energy by exploiting the
heat absorbed or released during a phase change of a material, such as melting or solidification. Phase change
materials (PCMs) are commonly used for latent heat storage due to their ability to store large amounts of energy with
minimal temperature change. During periods of sunlight, solar collectors heat a PCM, causing it to melt and absorb
thermal energy. When energy is needed, the PCM solidifies, releasing stored heat. PCMs can be encapsulated in
containers or integrated into building materials for passive solar heating applications.

Figure 1. District heating schematic (source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory 2022)

3. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) with Thermal Energy Storage: CSP systems use mirrors or lenses to
concentrate sunlight onto a receiver, where the concentrated solar energy is converted into heat. This heat can be used
directly for industrial processes or to generate electricity using steam turbines. CSP plants with integrated thermal
energy storage utilize insulated tanks or molten salt as the storage medium to store excess heat generated during
periods of sunlight. The stored heat can then be used to generate electricity during periods of low solar irradiance or
at night, extending the operating hours of the CSP plant and improving its dispatchability.

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 4. Solar Thermal Power Towers with Thermal Energy Storage: Solar thermal power towers are a type of CSP
technology where a field of sun-tracking mirrors, called heliostats, focus sunlight onto a central receiver located at the
top of a tower. The concentrated solar energy heats a heat transfer fluid, such as molten salt or pressurized steam,
which is then stored in insulated tanks for later use. This stored thermal energy can be used to produce steam and
generate electricity using steam turbines, providing dispatchable power that can be adjusted based on demand.

Heat-based solar energy storage systems play a crucial role in enhancing the reliability and flexibility of solar energy
systems by enabling the provision of energy on-demand, even when sunlight is unavailable. These storage
technologies are essential for supporting the integration of solar energy into the grid and reducing reliance on fossil
fuels for heat and power generation.

Figure 2. Power tower system concentrating solar.

 Electricity Types of Solar Energy Storage

Electricity-based solar energy storage involves converting solar energy into electrical energy and storing it for later
use. There are several types of electricity-based solar energy storage methods:

1. Supercapacitors: Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are energy storage
devices that store electrical energy through the electrostatic charge accumulation at the interface between electrolyte
and electrodes. While they typically have lower energy density compared to batteries, supercapacitors offer high
power density, fast charging and discharging rates, and long cycle life. They can be used for short-term energy
storage and in applications requiring high power delivery, such as smoothing out fluctuations in solar power output.

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Supercapacitors are mainly classified into three types, which are electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs),
pseudocapacitors and hybrid capacitors. EDLCs operate by storing the charge at the surface electrode through
reversible ion absorption/desorption to form an electrical double-layer capacitance. It was noted that an EDLC can be
used as a substitute for rechargeable batteries owing to its capability of fast charging/discharging, especially for a
device that necessitates rapid energy harvesting. A pseudocapacitor, on the other hand, operates using fast and
reversible redox reactions on or near the electrode surface. The charge passes across the double layer and results in a
faradaic current passing through the supercapacitor cell, which is termed pseudocapacitance. Meanwhile, a hybrid
capacitor is a combination of a porous carbon electrode and another material, such as a conducting polymer, metal
oxides or metal-doped carbons, which are used to enhance the performance of EDLCs and pseudocapacitors

The usage of supercapacitors is increasing rapidly in the area of energy-efficient services and these are being
introduced in automotive vehicles to provide stored energy in a few seconds. Memory devices in laptops,
smartphones, tablets etc., are developed using supercapacitors. These are also used in LED Flash units.
Supercapacitors are even used in the field of renewable energy such as in wind energy to supply power to the pitch
control of blades. Supercapacitors are consistently being used in other fields such as industry, military, medical,
transpiration, music etc.

FIGURE 3. Applications of supercapacitors integrated devices.

2. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES): is an advanced energy storage technology that, at the
highest level, stores energy similarly to a battery. External power charges the SMES system where it will be
stored; when needed, that same power can be discharged and used externally. However, SMES systems store

22
 electrical energy in the form of a magnetic field via the flow of DC in a coil. This coil is comprised of a
superconducting material with zero electrical resistance, making the creation of the magnetic field perfectly
efficient. Once the superconducting coil is charged, the DC in the coil will continuously run without any
energy loss, allowing the energy to be perfectly stored indefinitely until the SMES system is intentionally
discharged. This high efficiency allows SMES systems to boast end-to-end efficiencies of over 95%.

FIGURE 4. A schematic diagram of SMES.

 Mechanical Types of Solar Energy Storage

Solar energy storage is crucial for ensuring continuous power availability, especially during periods of low sunlight or
at night when solar panels cannot generate electricity. While there are various types of solar energy storage systems,
mechanical storage methods offer some unique advantages. Here are a few mechanical types of solar energy storage:

1. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES): CAES systems store energy in the form of compressed air, which is
generated using excess solar energy. During times of high demand, the compressed air is released and expanded
through turbines to generate electricity. CAES systems typically require underground caverns or specially constructed
storage tanks to store the compressed air.

2. Flywheel Energy Storage Systems: Flywheel energy storage systems store electrical energy in the form of
rotational kinetic energy. Excess solar electricity is used to accelerate a flywheel to high speeds, and when electricity
is needed, the kinetic energy of the spinning flywheel is converted back into electricity using a generator. Flywheel
systems offer rapid response times, high efficiency, and long cycle life, making them suitable for applications
requiring frequency regulation and grid stabilization.

23
 3. Pumped Hydroelectric Storage: This is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of energy storage. It
involves pumping water to an elevated reservoir during times of excess solar energy production and then releasing it
through turbines to generate electricity when energy demand is high. Pumped hydroelectric storage systems can be
built at various scales, from small installations to large-scale utility projects.

FIGURE 5. A schematic image of pumped hydropower.

4. Hydraulic Accumulators: Hydraulic accumulators store energy in form of pressurized fluid by compressing gas
(usually nitrogen) within a chamber using excess solar energy. When electricity is needed, the compressed gas
expands, driving a hydraulic piston or turbine to generate electricity. Hydraulic accumulators are often used in
conjunction with hydraulic systems for energy storage and power generation.

Each of these mechanical storage methods has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of system depends on
factors such as site characteristics, energy storage capacity requirements, and cost considerations. Additionally,
hybrid storage systems combining multiple storage technologies are also being explored to optimize performance and
reliability.

 Electrochemical (Battery) types of solar energy storage

Electrochemical (Battery) Energy Storage Systems (BESS): Battery storage is one of the most common and
versatile methods of storing electricity generated (DC power) from solar panels as chemical energy. It involves
storing excess solar electricity in rechargeable batteries during periods of high solar generation by triggering chemical
24
reactions inside it. When electricity demand exceeds solar generation, the stored energy is discharged from the
batteries to meet the load through a reverse reactions.

Various types of batteries are used for solar energy storage, it includes;

Lithium-ion batteries
lead-acid batteries
Flow batteries
Sodium-ion batteries

BESS can be deployed at various scales, from residential to utility-scale installations, and they provide fast response
times and high efficiency.

25
 So
Advantages Disadvantages
Electrochemical Battery Storage

26
27
 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

The sun is the main source of life on earth, and it’s useful in many amazing ways. Two major forms of energy are
created from the sun, namely; heat and light. These forms of energy can be harnessed for several applications ranging
from plant photosynthesis to electricity generation. Let’s discuss in detail several and most common uses and benefits
that are derivable from the sun.

. Solar Pond:

Principle: In ordinary pond, when water is heated up by the sun rays, the heated water rises to the top of the pond.
The hot water loses heat to the atmosphere, and so the net temperature at the top of the pond remains nearly at
atmospheric temperature. The solar pond technology ensures that heated brine water remains at the bottom of the
pond due to more brine concentration and density in it.

The solar pond serves the dual purpose of a large flat collector and a thermal storage system. It consists of a large
size brine pond (depth of about 1 m) which has salt concentration gradient in such a way that the most concentrated
and dense part of the brine solution is at the bottom of the pond and brine concentration gradually reduce from
bottom to top of the pond based on the variation of brine solution density. A solar pond has three zones, the top zone
is surface zone which has the least salt content and its temperature is the atmospheric temperature. The bottom zone
collects and stores the solar energy as heat energy. In between these two zones there is the gradient non- convective
zone.

The hot brine solution from the bottom of solar pond is taken out without disturbing the brine gradient existing in
the solar pond. This solution is taken to heat exchanger to remove used to run a turbine which is coupled to a
generator to generate power. The refrigerant vapours existing from the outlet of the turbine are condensed to liquid
state in a condenser and pumped to heat exchanger.

28
 FIGURE 1. Layout of a solar pond electric power plant.
. Solar water heater:

Principle: A small capacity water heating system with natural circulation is as shown in figure 1. It is suitable to
supply hot water for domestic purposes. It has two main component which include (i) flat plate collector to convert
solar radiation in to heat energy and (ii) water storage tank to store hot water.

The tank is located above the level of collector. The natural circulation of water is established from the collector to
water tank and then from water tank to the collector. The hot water for use is withdrawn from the top of tank, which
is replaced by cold water entering at the bottom of the tank. Water heating system is also provided with an auxiliary
heating system so that the system can also work during cloudy and rainy days when sufficient solar radiation is
unavailable.

FIGURE 2. Small capacity water heating system with natural circulation

. Solar thermal pump:

29
 Principle: Solar pumping utilizes the mechanical power generated by the solar radiation to run the water pump. Solar
energy offers several beneficial features which make its utilization in irrigation pumping quite attractive. The features
are as follows:

The need for pumping arises most during the summer months when solar radiation is intense.
Pumping can be carried out intermittently without any problem.
Surplus pumped water can be stored in a reservoir or tank.
The requirement of water decreases during period of low radiation when solar pumping decrease. Evaporation losses
reduce during cloudy days. Rainwater is also available during rainy days.
There is relatively inexpensive running and maintenance cost.

The solar pump is similar to solar heat engine working in low- temperature range. The source of heat engine works
in low- temperature range. The source of heat is a solar collector. The heat is transported to a heat exchanger where
heat is transferred to a refrigerant of low boiling point. The refrigerant evaporates and high- pressure vapour is taken
to a turbine to do useful mechanical work by running the solar pump as shown in the figure 2. The outlet refrigerant
vapour from turbine is condensed and takes to heat exchanger using feed for reuse.

FIGURE 3. Solar water pump

. Solar furnace:

Principle: Solar furnace is used to study the properties of the materials, such as physical, mechanical, chemical and
electrical properties at high temperatures. The focusing type solar collectors can concentrate solar radiation over a

30
 small area in a furnace for heating of materials being tested. It is possible to obtain high temperatures which can be
about 3500̊C. The solar furnace has basically two main components; (i) a concentrator with arrangement to position
testing materials at its focus and (ii) a system of a large number of small heliostats. The large number of heliostats are
located and positioned in such a manner that they direct solar radiation onto a paraboloidal collector figure 4.

The solar radiation after reflection from the heliostats moves parallel to the optical axis of the concentrator. The
heliostats are provided with the system of sun tracking. The concentrator focuses the incoming solar rays on the test
material to heat up.

It can be used during sunshine hours.

The cost of equipment is high.
Material with small area can be only heated and tested.

Passive Solar technology integrates building design with environmental factors that improves the harnessing of solar
energy.

FIGURE 4. Solar furnance

. Solar passive heating:

Solar energy can be used for passive heating of buildings to maintain comfortable temperature inside the buildings.
Passive heating of buildings does not require any mechanical device.

Principle: This heating consists of natural processes such as convection, radiation and conduction design to ensure
natural flow of heat in the space inside building. Such specially designed building is called solar house.
31
 In the northern hemisphere, the sun rays come from south direction. Hence in order to achieve solar passive
heating in cold regions, south facing wall is made thick using concrete or stone to store the maximum heat energy
from the incident solar radiation. The entire south wall is further provided with a plastic or glass sheet covering with
an air gap in between the wall and the sheet covering. The incident solar radiation after passing through the sheet
covering is absorbed by the thermal storage wall. The warm air in air gap rises and enters into the space from the
upper inlet vents and cold air is removed from the space from the lower outlet vents (Fig 5).

FIGURE 5. Solar passive space heating.

There is another method to provide solar passive space heating, which is shown in figure 6. In this method, a flat
plate collector is provided to face south. The collector is provided with rock bed type storage system. During sunshine
hours, the collector transfers and stores heat energy from incident solar radiation into the rock bed storage system.
The available stored energy in the rock bed is used later at night when air is passed through the rock bed, and so
warm air enters into the space to be heated.

32
 FIGURE 6. Passive solar heating

. Solar passive space cooling:

Principle: The heat tends to enter a building in the following ways;

Direct sunlight heat which can be reduced by using shading and providing venetian blinds to glass windows and
doors.
Conduction of heat through walls, roof and floor. It can be reduced by providing insulation. Maximum heat is
conducted through the exposed roof which has to be provided a false ceiling with a good insulating material to reduce
the conduction of heat from it.
Infiltration of outside hot air. It can be reduced by proper sealing of the space and reducing the openings of doors and
windows.

The methods to reduce or prevent heating of the space are as follows.

Shading of glass area and the walls

Providing air circulation or ventilation so that warm air is driven out cool air from outside is sucked into the space
using chimney effect as shown in a figure (9).
Providing a pond on the roof to reduce radiation heating and achieve cooling below the pond.
Providing black plastic bags on a metallic roof which helps in radiating out the heat from the space during night-time
Providing ground coupling or basement construction to maintain temperature of the space close to ground
temperature.

The ground temperature is always lower than surrounding atmospheric temperature.

33
 FIGURE 7. Solar passive cooling through ventilation

. Solar refrigeration and cooling system:

Principle: A simple solar operated absorption refrigeration system to cool a space is as shown in figure (8). The hot
water transported from a flat plate collector is passed through a generator which is a heat exchanger.

The heat is transferred to a refrigerant and absorber solution. The refrigerant can be ammonia or water while absorber
is water or lithium bromide which generates refrigerant vapours at high-pressure vapours are condensed into high-
pressure liquid in the condenser. The high- pressure refrigerant liquid is throttled to low pressure and temperature by
an expansion valve. The low pressure refrigerant takes heat from the evaporator and vaporises, thereby cooling air or
water which can be used for cooling the space inside the building.

34
 FIGURE 8. Solar absorption refrigeration system

. Solar Cooker

A solar cooker consists of an

Insulated box of blackened aluminium in which utensils with food materials are kept and
Reflector mirror hinged to one side of the box so that angle of reflector is adjusted
A glass layer consisting of two layers of clear window glass sheets

Principle: The box is kept in such a way that solar radiation falls directly on glass cover. The reflector mirror is
adjusted in that way additional solar radiation after mirror reflection is also incident on glass cover. The glass cover
traps heat owing to green house effect providing more heating effect. The air temperature inside the box ranges from
140-160oC which is enough for boiling and heating purposes

There are other types of solar cookers uses the solar collectors

community solar cooker with arge reflectors concentrating solar radiation onto a black metal surface
Dish type solar cookers with parabolic reflectors

35
 FIGURE 9. Solar cooker (Box type)

. Solar Distillation

Principle: It is the process to convert saline water into pure water using solar radiation. This is done with the help of
the solar device known as solar still. A solar still consists of a shallow blackened basin filled with saline water that is
to be distilled. It is covered with sloping transparent roof. The solar rays pass through transparent roof and are
absorbed by the blackened surface of basin increasing temperature of the water. The water in the basin gets
evaporated due to heat and rises to roof. The water drops or condensed water slip down along the sloping roof. This
water is collected by the condensate channel and drained out from solar still.

FIGURE 10. Working principle of solar still

0. Solar Dryer

36
 This is used to dry the food items with the use of solar radiation. The drying can be achieved directly or by indirectly.

FIGURE 11. A solar dryer

1. Solar lighting:

The use of natural light to provide illumination that in turn reduce lighting load on HVAC. The architectural designs
of building orientation, window orientation, skylights, etc. can control the entry of sunlight to the building passively.
The lighting can also be through photovoltaic technology.

FIGURE 12. Sample of a good building orientation

2. Solar Electric Technology

This technology converts the solar radiation directly to electricity with the help of photovoltaic cells.

37
The applications of photovoltaics include;

Solar powered calculator

Solar powered camping equipment
Solar powered satellites
Solar powered cars

FIGURE 13. Working principle of PV cell

38
 STAND ALONE SOLAR ENERGY

. INTRODUCTION

A Stand-alone Power System (SPS) is a system which supplies electric power to a user and is not connected to the

power distribution system of an electricity supply authority. SPSs are supplied with power from one or more of a

number of sources including but not limited to a photovoltaic (PV) array, a wind turbine generator, a micro-hydro

generator or engine generator set.

SPSs are also known as Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS), but since they are used in places which are not

necessarily remote, the term SPS is preferred. A typical stand-alone PV power system is illustrated in Fig. 1. The

operation of the system is as follows:

Fig. 1: A typical stand-alone PV power system

 Power is supplied from the renewable energy source, through the regulator, to the d.c. control board.

Some power is used by the d.c. loads and the inverter and the remainder then flows to the battery.

When there is insufficient power from the renewable energy source to meet the loads (e.g., a PV

System at night), the battery supplies power to make up the difference.

When the backup generator is operating, power flows through the battery charger to the d.c. bus, in effect adding to

the power from the renewable energy source.

The power flow between the battery and the d.c. control board can be in either direction, depending on the balance

between supply and demand for power.

The optimum design of an electricity supply system depends primarily on the following five factors:

Required connection power

Energy consumption

Type of power consumers

Period of use

Meteorological constraints.

COMPONENTS OF STAND ALONE SOLAR SYSTEM

) SOLAR PANEL (PV module)

A solar panel is a device that is made up of many individual. Inter-connected photovoltaic cells which converts

energy from sunlight into electrical energy. PV cells are made of semiconductors such as Silicon that when exposed

to sunlight, they absorb photons (light's energy) from sunlight and then transfer the photons to negatively charged

particles (electrons) which allows the electrons to flow as electrical currents through the material. This current is then
extracted through conductive metal contacts to produce direct current (DC) electricity which can then be used to

power various devices or stored in storage batteries.

There are three types, which are; Mono crystalline panel, Polycrystalline panel, Thin film panel.

Mono crystalline panel: Mono-crystalline is the oldest type of solar panel and the most developed, it captures

sunlight and convert it into electricity and it also have a cell made from silicon which is a semi-conductor material.

They are black because of how the sunlight reflects on the pure silicon. The cells are black, but the back sheets and

frames come in various designs and colours. The name "mono-crystalline" indicates that the wafer is made from

single-crystal silicon. In mono wafers the electrons that generate a current have more room to move making mono-

crystalline solar panels more efficient.

Figure 2. Mono crystalline solar panel.

Polycrystalline panel: Polycrystalline or multi crystalline solar panels are solar that consists of several crystals of

silicon in a single PV cell. These solar are made of multiple photovoltaic cells. Each cell contains silicon crystals

which makes it function as a semiconductor device. When the photons from the sunlight on the PN junction (junction

between N-type and P-type materials), it imparts energy to the electrons so that they can flow as electric current They

have a square shape and a shining blue hue as they are made up of several polycrystalline silicon. As there are
 multiple silicon crystals in each cell, polycrystalline panels allow little movement of electrons inside the cells. These

solar panels absorb energy from the sun and convert it into electricity.

Figure 3. Poly crystalline solar panel.

Thin film panel: Thin film solar panels are panels made from a photovoltaic (light-absorbing) material such as

amorphous silicon, Cadmium telluride; that is applied on to a substrate like glass, metal, plastic etc.

Figure 4. Flexible thin film solar panel.

) CHARGE CONTROLLER

This is a device that regulates the charging and discharging of battery. Solar charge controller is an essential

component or device in solar power systems that manage the flow of electricity from solar panels to batteries,

ensuring safe and efficient charging. A charge controller senses the voltage (or state of change) of the battery and

decides either to disconnect it from the source (PV array) to prevent it from overcharging or to disconnect the load
 (from the battery output) to prevent deep discharging and to monitor battery temperature to prevent battery from

overheating. Na

There are two main types of solar charge controllers, which are;

. PWM charge controller.

. MPPT charge controller.

PWM charge controller: PWM stands for pulse-width modulation. PWM charge controller regulates the voltage and

current from the solar panels by rapidly switching the connection on and off.

Figure 5. PWM charge controller.

MPPT charge controller: MPPT stands for Maximum Power Point Tracking. It works by constantly monitoring the

voltage and current output of the solar panel, they then adjust the electrical operating point of the solar panels to

ensure they are operating at the point where they generate the maximum power. This optimal point is known as the

Maximum Power Point (MPP). To achieve this, MPPT controllers use a control algorithm that iteratively adjusts the

electrical load (resistance) seen by the solar panels. By dynamically changing this load, the controller ensures that the

solar panels are always operating at or near their maximum power output, regardless of factors like changes in

sunlight intensity, temperature, or shading.

 Figure 6. MPPT charge controller.

) SOLAR BATTERY:

A solar battery is a battery that is designed to store electricity produced by solar panels, battery can be recharged

using solar energy or regular inverter to store excess electrical energy for later use every battery is made up of four

main components, which are Two Electrode (Anode - and cathode +), a porous membrane that separate the electrodes

and an electrolytes.)

The electrodes are the conductive materials within the battery where electrochemical reactions occur during charging

and discharging.

The porous membrane separates the two electrodes within the battery while allowing the flow of ions between them.

It acts as a barrier to prevent physical contact between the electrodes, which could cause short circuits while still

enabling the movement of ions necessary for the battery's operation.

The electrolyte is the conductive solution or medium that allows ions to move between the electrodes inside the

battery. It also plays a role in maintaining the stability and safety of the battery, helping to prevent issues such as

overheating.

The following are types of solar system battery which are:

Lead-Acid Batteries: Lead-acid batteries are one of the most commonly used types of batteries in solar energy

systems due to their reliability, affordability, and availability. Lead-acid batteries are suitable for off-grid and backup
power applications where regular maintenance is feasible. AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) and gel batteries are

maintenance-free and are ideal for remote or inaccessible locations, off-grid cabins, RVs, and marine applications.

Figure 7. Lead-acid battery.

Lithium-Ion Battery: Lithium-ion batteries offer higher energy density, longer cycle life, and faster charging

compared to lead-acid batteries, making them suitable for a wide range of solar energy applications. Lithium iron

phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries are commonly used in residential and commercial solar systems for-grid-tied and off-

grid applications. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries offer higher energy density and are

suitable for larger-scale residential and commercial .installations. Lithium titanate (LTO) batteries are known for their

fast charging capabilities and are used in high power applications such as electric vehicles (EVs) and grid

stabilization

Figure 8. Lithium-ion battery.

Flow Batteries (Vanadium Redox.): Flow batteries are suitable for long duration energy storage applications where

high energy density is not critical but long cycle life and deep discharge capabilities are required. They are commonly

used in large-scale grid connected solar installations, micro-grids, and utility-scale energy storage projects to provide

grid stability, peak shaving, and renewable energy integration.

Figure 9. Flow battery.

Nickel-Iron Batteries (NiFe): Nickel-iron batteries are known for their durability, long cycle life, and tolerance to

deep discharges, making them suitable for off-grid and remote solar applications where maintenance-free operation

and longevity are important. They are commonly used in off-grid cabins, telecommunications sites, and rural

electrification projects.

Figure 10. Nickel iron battery.

Saltwater Batteries (Sodium-ion): Saltwater batteries are coefficient environmentally friendly and non-toxic,

making them suitable for residential and commercial solar systems where safety and sustainability are priorities. They

offer long cycle life, high energy efficiency, and fast charging capabilities, making them ideal for grid-tied and off

grid application.
 Figure 11. Salt water battery.

) SOLAR INVERTER

An inverter is one of the most important pieces of equipment in a solar energy system. It's a device that converts

Direct current (DC) electricity, which is what a solar panel generate to alternating current (AC) electricity, which the

electrical grid uses. It's a crucial component of a solar power system, responsible for maximizing energy harvest and

ensuring capability with standard electrical system.

There are three types of solar inverter, which are;

string inverter

micro inverter

power optimisers

String Inverter: The string inverter has been the most common type for residential, commercial, and other solar

energy installations, it is a device for converting DC AC power and which is designed for high voltage DC inputs.

They are usually installed in a string formation where multiple solar panels are connected in series to form a single

circuit.
Figure 12. Working principle of a string inverter.

FUNCTIONALITY

Stand-alone power inverters are connected to a battery bank and form the AC grid of the SPS. At the same time, they

control the voltage and frequency on the AC side. Generators as well as power consumers are connected directly to

the AC grid. Whenever there is a surplus of energy (e.g., when solar irradiation is high and consumption low), the

stand-alone power inverter draws energy from the AC grid and uses it to charge the batteries. When there is an energy

shortage (little or no solar irradiation and high consumption), the batteries are used to supply the grid (Fig. 7). Various

power generators can be connected to the stand-alone power grid: PV plants with inverters, wind turbines with wind

inverters, hydroelectric power stations and diesel generators. The latter can step in when the battery charge is low and

there is not enough solar irradiation available for recharging.

GROWTH AND CONNECTING OF STAND-ALONE POWER SYSTEMS

Stand-alone power grids with Sunny Island can be gradually expanded into large-scale systems as a result of the

parallel connectibility of all energy

Fig. 7: PV energy yield and load demand

suppliers and consumers. They are particularly well suited for the supply of grid-isolated areas such as remote

villages. Fig. 8 shows the layout and the expansion possibilities for an AC coupled village power supply.
8: Expansion options of an AC coupled hybrid system for a village electricity supply 1: PV generator, 2: PV inverter, 3:

Battery inverter Sunny Island, 4: Storage battery, 5: Generator and 6: Wind turbine.

The autonomous energy system can easily be expanded by further power generators when the power demand rises.

One further advantage of the SPS is that the energy not needed during the day will be available at night in storage

battery, e.g., for street lighting.

In order to ensure a maximum level of system stability in larger systems, inverters are installed in so-called

clusters. Here, up to three devices (as a three-phase system) or even four devices (single-phase, operated in parallel)

together with the battery comprise a unit. In order to achieve the desired output, several units can be connected in

parallel (thus forming a cluster). If one battery fails, it does not affect the entire system (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: AC coupled hybrid system with four clusters connected to a multi cluster box.
DESIGNING A STAND-ALONE POWER SYSTEM

A professional system design, including dimensioning of PV generator and battery, is of prime importance for the

efficiency and operational reliability of SPSs. It must take into account not only the energy consumption profile, but

in particular the fluctuations in availability when using renewable power sources. The following examples of

simulation software are available for the support of the plant designer: HOMER, HYBRID2, PV SOL, PVS and

Anesys.

Designing the layout of a system is comparable to the work of an architect who must first draw up a plan of the

house on paper before having it built. The design basically involves adapting a system to specific energetic and

geographical conditions, as well as to the energy behaviour of the system user. These conditions are influenced by:

Solar fraction

Autonomy time

Energetic behaviour

Component manufacturer

Geographical location

A PV system as shown in Fig. 10 consists of three main components, the panel or array of panels, the regulator and

the batteries. The panels are responsible for collecting the energy of the sun and generate electricity, the battery for

storing it and the regulator for ensuring that panel and battery are working together in an optimal fashion. The panels

and the batteries of a PV system work in DC. When the range of operational voltage of your equipment does not fit

the voltage supplied by our battery, it will be necessary to include some type of “converter”. If the equipment that we
want to feed uses a different DC voltage than the one supplied by the battery we will need to use a DC/DC converter

and if some of our equipment (loads) requires AC we will need to use a DC/AC converter, also known as inverter.

Fig. 10: General diagram of a solar installation with DC and AC loads.

Other important elements in PV system are the thermomagnetic circuit breakers that need to be included to

protect different electrical circuits, surge protectors, fuses, proper size wiring, ground rods, lighting arrestors, etc.

THE PV GENERATOR OR SOLAR PANELS ARRAY

The electrical current supplied by an array of solar panels varies proportionally to the solar radiation. As the solar

energy changes in time due to the climatological conditions, the hour of the day, etc., we must count with an energy

storage to supply energy when the sunlight is lacking: the batteries.

Several technologies exist to build solar cells. The most used actually is crystalline silicon, either monocrystaline

or polycrystaline. A less efficient is the amorphous silicon. With a reduced life expectancy and a 6 to 8%

transformation efficiency amorphous silicon is only used for low power equipments as portable calculators. New

technologies such as silicon ribbon or thin films are developed but are actually marginal.

THE BATTERY OR ACCUMULATOR

The battery or batteries are in charge of storing the energy produced by the panels that is not consumed immediately

to use it during the periods of low or null solar irradiation. The storage is in form of chemical energy and the most

common type in solar applications are the maintenance-free leadacid batteries also called recombinant or VRLA

(valve regulated lead acid).

 For small power installation and where space constraints are important, other types of batteries like NiCd, or NiMh

(used in cellular phone) can be used. Such type of batteries needs a specialized charger/regulator and cannot directly

replace lead-acid batteries.

THE REGULATOR

The mechanism to ensure a correct charging and discharging of the battery requires the knowledge of the state of

charge (SoC) of the battery. The SoC is obtained based on the voltage of the battery. Using the battery voltage as an

indicator and knowing the type of technology of the battery, allows the regulators to know the exact voltage points

where the battery is getting overcharged or excessively discharged.

The regulator can include other elements that, although are not essential, add valuable information and security

control to the equipment: ammeters, voltmeters, measurement of ampere-hour, timers, alarms, etc. ( Fig. 11).

Fig. 11: Solar charge controller or regulator of 30 A

THE CONVERTER

The electricity that provides the panel array-battery is DC and forces the loads to work to a certain voltage level,

which might not be the same level that loads need (Fig. 12).
 THE EQUIPMENT OR THE CONSUMPTION LOADS

Although it is not possible to have an absolute certainty of what is going to be the exact total consumption of the

equipment, it is vital to make a good estimate. In this type of systems it is absolutely necessary to take into

Fig. 12: The DC/AC Converter or power inverter. Maximum power 800 W

Consideration the need of efficient and low power equipment to avoid wasting energy. For example, if we are going

to use communication equipment that is going to operate 24/7 we must consider those that are based on computer

architectures specially designed for low power consumption.

Solar Panel Parameters

The main parameters that characterize a photovoltaic panel are:

. Short circuit current ISC: It is the maximum current that the panel provides and corresponds to the current produced

when connectors are short circuited.

. Open circuit voltage VOC: It is the maximum voltage that provides the panel, it corresponds to the case where the

terminals are not connected to any load or the circuit is open. This value is normally 22 V for panels that are going to

work in 12 V systems and is directly proportional to the number of series connected cells.

. Maximum power point: There is an operation point where the power supplied by the panel is maximum (IPmax,

VPmax) as Pmax = IPmax . VPmax. The maximum power point of a panel is measured in Watts (W) or peak Watts

(Wp) . In normal conditions the panel will not work at peak conditions as the voltage of operation is fixed by the

“loads” or the regulator. The typical values of VPmax and IPmax should be a bit smaller than the ISC and VOC.

. Fill Factor FF: The fill factor is the relation between the maximum power that the panel can give and the product

ISC.VOC. It gives an idea of the quality of the panel because it is an indication of the type of I-V characteristic curve.

The closer the FF is to 1, the greater the power a panel can provide. The common values usually are between 0.7 and

0.8.

. Efficiency µ: It is the ratio between the maximum electrical power that the panel can give to the load and the power

of the solar radiation (PL) incident on the panel, normally around 10–12%, but depending on the type of cells

(monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin film). Considering the definitions of point of maximum power

and the fill factor we have that:

Pm V OC

  FF.ISC.

Batteries in PV Systems

In stand-alone PV systems, the electrical energy produced by the PV array cannot always be used when it is

produced. Because the demand for energy does not always coincide with its production, electrical storage batteries

are commonly used in PV systems. The primary functions of a storage battery in a PV system are as follow:

. Energy storage capacity and autonomy: To store electrical energy when it is produced by the PV array and to supply

energy to electrical loads as needed or on demand.

. Voltage and current stabilization: To supply power to electrical loads at stable voltages and currents, by suppressing

or ‘smoothing out’ transients that may occur in PV systems.

. Supply surge currents: To supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical loads or appliances.

The battery “hosts” a certain reversible chemical reaction that make possible that electrical energy can be stored

and later retrieved when needed. Electrical energy is transformed into chemical energy and vice versa.

Converters

DC/DC converters transform a continuous voltage to another continuous voltage with a different value. The

efficiency of a linear regulator decreases when the difference between the input voltage and the output voltage

increase. For example, if we want to convert from 12 V to 6 V, the linear regulator will have an efficiency of only

50%. A standard switching regulator has an efficiency of at least 80%.

DC/AC Converter or Inverter

They are used when the equipment needs AC power. The inverters chop and invert the DC current to generate a

square wave that is later filtered to eliminate the undesired harmonics. In fact, there are very few inverters that supply

a pure sine wave as output. Most of the models available in the market are known as “modified sine wave” as their

voltage output is not a pure sinusoid. When it comes to efficiency, modified sine wave inverters perform better than

pure sinusoidal inverters.

that work in DC although their consumption is high (around 1000 Wh/day).

SYSTEM SIZING

System sizing is the process of evaluating the adequate voltage and current ratings for each component of the PV

system to meet the electric demand at the facility and at the same time calculating the total price of the entire system

from the design phase to the fully functional system including, shipment and labour.
Factors Affecting System Sizing

The average power demand in Watt-hour per day that can be obtained by itemizing all appliances and their hours of

use each day which is referred to as the load profile.

Geographical location that dictates the tilt angel, panel orientation and the average sun hours per day.

Home design, which plays a major role in maximizing the amount of the generated power by considering the

following points: keeping the southern area free from any barrier that prevents the sun-ray from reaching the panels,

windows should be designed to face the south to keep the house as warm as possible and insulation can be used to

minimize the amount of heat losses.

Using energy-efficient equipments such as compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) for illumination to reduce energy

requirements. Moreover, hot water and cooking should not be parts of the residence PV system. Natural gas for

instance can be used for cooking and a separate thermal solar energy system can be employed to obtain the hot water

directly to avoid the need for changing a part of the solar energy into electricity via the PV system and then using it to

obtain hot water.

The use of low-voltage DC powered electrical appliances, nowadays available in the market, is also an important

factor in minimizing the PV system cost. This will reduce significantly the power rating of the inverter that is used to

change the DC power of the batteries into AC power adequate for the ordinary appliances.

Frequency of switching which determines how often major rotationary loads are switched on and off such as

refrigerators and water pumps. Such loads draw high currents every time they start and these loads must be accounted

for.

Sizing of the Solar Array

Before sizing the array, the total daily energy in Watt-hours (E) , the average sun hour per day Tmin and the dc-voltage

of the system (VDC) must be determined. Once these factors are made available we move to the sizing process. To
avoid under sizing, losses must be considered by dividing the total power demand in Wh/day by the product of

efficiencies of all components in the system to get the required energy Er.

Sizing of the Battery Bank

According to the number obtained for the capacity of the battery bank, another decision has to be made regarding the

capacity Cb of each of the batteries of that bank. The battery bank is composed of batteries that are connected in series

and in parallel according to the selected battery voltage rating and the system requirements. The total number of

batteries is obtained by dividing the capacity C of the battery bank in ampere-hours by the capacity of one of the

battery Cb selected in ampere-hours.

Sizing of the Voltage Regulator

According to its function it controls the flow of current. A good voltage regulator must be able to withstand the

maximum current produced by the array as well as the maximum load current.

Sizing of the voltage regulator can be obtained by multiplying the short circuit current of the modules connected in

parallel by a safety factor Fsafe. The result gives the rated current of the voltage regulator I:

I = parallel modules short circuit current × safety factor = Np × ISC × Fsafe

The factor of safety is employed to make sure that the regulator handles maximum current produced by the array

that could exceed the tabulated value and to handle a load current more than that planned due to addition of

equipment, for instance. In other words, this safety factor allows the system to expand slightly.

Sizing of the Inverter

When sizing the inverter, the actual power drawn from the appliances that will run at the same time must be
determined as a first step. Secondly, we must consider the starting current of large motors by multiplying their power
by a factor of 3. Also to allow the system to expand, we multiply the sum of the two pr
 DESIGN OF A SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM

Photovoltaic (PV) systems (or PV systems) convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductor materials. A
photovoltaic system does not need bright sunlight in order to operate. It can also generate electricity on cloudy and
rainy days from reflected sunlight. PV systems can be designed as Stand-alone or grid-connected systems.

A stand-alone or off-grid system

Standalone PV Systems Off-grid PV systems have no connection to an electricity grid. A simple standalone PV
system is an automatic solar system that produces electrical power to charge banks of batteries during the day for use
at night when the suns energy is unavailable. Deep cycle lead acid batteries are generally used to store the solar
power generated by the PV panels, and then discharge the power when energy is required. Deep cycle batteries are
not only rechargeable, but they are designed to be repeatedly discharged almost all the way down to a very low
charge. A charge controller is connected in between the solar panels and the batteries. The charge controller operates
automatically and ensures that the maximum output of the solar panels is directed to charge the batteries without over
charging or damaging them. An inverter is needed to convert the DC power generated into AC power for use in
appliances.

FIGURE 1. Off-grid PV system

Benefits of Off-Grid Systems

System meets all electrical need for building

No connection to conventional power grid
Works in remote locations
Protection against power failures

Drawbacks of Off-Grid Systems

Requires much more powerful system. It must produce more power than average consumption.
Significantly more expensive
Could run out of power

Grid Connected PV Systems

In a grid-connected PV system, the PV array is directly connected to the grid-connected inverter without a storage
battery. If there is enough electricity flowing in from your PV system, no electricity will flow in from the utility
company. If your system is generating more power than you are using, the excess will be exported into the energy
utility grid, turning your meter backwards. During the times when the PV system isn’t producing electricity, such as
at night, the power grid will supply all the building’s demand. The energy utility company in lieu will provide energy
credit to providers based on the solar production. This is called “Net Metering”. In this process, energy goes in and
out through a single meter.

Grid- FIGURE 2. Grid connected system Connected System is the simplest

and most cost-effective way to connect PV modules to regular utility power. If utility power is reliable and well
maintained in your area, and energy storage is not a priority, you don't necessarily need a battery. But if the utility
 power goes down, even if there is solar, the PV system will be off for the safety of the utility workers. The main
application of grid connected PV system is in cities, which are well covered by the national power grid. The PV
systems are generally installed on buildings on the roof or integrated into the building. The latter is also known as
Building Integrated Photovoltaics (“BIPV”). With BIPV, the PV module usually displaces another building
component, e.g. window glass or roof/wall cladding, thereby serving a dual purpose and offsetting some costs. The
PV systems can be mounted on the ground if land is not a constraint.

Benefits of Grid Connected System

A grid-connected system can be an effective way to reduce your dependence on utility power, increase renewable
energy production, and improve the environment.
System doesn’t always require covering all electrical needs
Requires less surface area for panels and no batteries
Less expensive

Drawbacks of Grid Connected System

Does not prevent grid power failures

Can be dealt with by small battery bank

Challenges in designing a PV system

The main challenges or constraints to approach PV project are:

Budget constraints: Build a system within your target budget.

Space constraints: Build a system that is as space efficient as possible.
Energy offset: Build a system that offsets a certain percentage of your energy usage.
Design Constraints: Design constraints are the key to the system's successful outcome. They provide clear direction
and reduce the scope of economic and system analyses and should be continually referenced throughout the design
process. Typical design constraints apply to any system and are modified, expanded, and "personalized" for a specific
application.

.0 DESIGN OF OFF GRID SOLAR SYSTEMS

Solar cell

The solar cell is the basic unit of a PV system. A typical silicon solar cell produces only about 0.5 volt, so multiple
cells are connected in series to form larger units called PV modules. Thin sheets of EVA (Ethyl Vinyl Acetate) or
PVB (Polyvinyl Butyral) are used to bind cells together and to provide weather protection. The modules are normally
enclosed between a transparent cover (usually glass) and a weatherproof backing sheet (typically made from a thin
polymer or glass). Modules can be framed for extra mechanical strength and durability.

Usually 36 solar cells are connected to give a voltage of about 18V. However, the voltage is reduced to say 17V as
these cells get hot in the sun. This is enough to charge 12V battery. Similarly, a 72 cells module produces about 34V
(36V - 2V for losses), which can be used to charge a 24V battery.

FIGURE 3. Cells connected in series.

A 12-volt battery typically needs about 14 volts for a charge, so the 36-cell module has become the standard of the
solar battery charger industry. The most common cells are 12.7 x 12.7 cm (5 x 5 inches) or 15 x 15 cm (6 x 6 inches)
and produce 3 to 4.5 W – a very small amount of power. The typical module size is 1.4 to 1.7 m² although larger
modules are also manufactured (up to 2.5 m²).

The power output of a photovoltaic solar cell is given in watts and is equal to the product of voltage times the current
(V x I). The optimum operating voltage of a PV cell under load is about 0.46 volts at the normal operating
temperatures, generating a current in full sunlight of about 3 amperes. Then the power output of a typical photovoltaic
solar cell can be calculated as:

P = V x I = 0.46 x 3 = 1.38 watts.

Now this may be okay to power a calculator, small solar charger or garden light, but this 1.38 watts is not enough
power to do any usable work. However, when the PV cells are connected in series (daisy chained), the voltage is
added and when connected in parallel (side-by-side) the current is added. Suitable combination PV modules in series
and parallel give you the desired voltage, current and power output.

PV String

Individual modules can be connected in series, parallel, or both to increase either output voltage or current. This also
increases the output power. When number of modules is connected in series, it is called a PV string. In series
connection, the negative terminal of one module is connected to the positive terminal of the next module. In series
connections, voltage adds up and the current remain constant.

V Total = V1 + V2+ ... + Vn

I Total = I1 = I2 = … = In

In parallel connection, current is added up and voltage remains constant.

V Total = V1 = V2 = ... = Vn

I Total = I1 + I2 + … +In

FIGURE 3. Four panels wired in series

PV Array

Multiple PV strings are connected in parallel to form a Solar Array. Parallel connection increases the current, while
voltage remains the same. The power that one module can produce is seldom enough to meet requirements of a home
or a business, so the modules are linked together to form an array. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC
power produced by the modules into alternating current that can plug into the existing infrastructure to power lights,
motors, and other loads. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired voltage;
the individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current. Solar arrays are
typically measured by the electrical power they produce, in watts, kilowatts, or even megawatts.
FIGURE 4. An image showing a cell, Module and Array of a PV system ()

PV Module (solar panel) Rating

In the solar industry, the peak power rating of a panel is frequently abbreviated as kWp. kWp is the peak power of a
PV module or system that describes the energy output of a system achieved under full solar radiation under set
Standard Test Conditions (STC). Solar radiation of 1,000 W/m2, module temperature of 25°C and solar spectrum air
mass of 1.5 is used to define standard conditions. This is generally referred to as a “full sun” condition. That is full
irradiance. Less than full sun will reduce the current output of the cell by a proportional amount. For example, if only
one-half of the sun’s energy (500 W/m2) is available, the amount of output current is roughly cut in half because the
solar cell only has half the brightness to generate electricity.

A manufacturer may rate a particular solar module output at 100 Watts of power under STC and call the product a
“100-watt solar module.” This module will often have a production tolerance of +/-5% of the rating, which means
that the module can produce 95 Watts and still be called a “100-watt module. The efficiency of each PV product is
specified by the manufacturer. Efficiencies range from as low as 5% to as high as 15%–19%. A technology's
conversion efficiency rate determines the amount of electricity that a commercial PV product can produce.

Sun Angle and PV Orientation

The direction that a solar panel faces is referred to as its orientation. The orientation of the solar array is very
important as it affects the amount of sunlight hitting the array and hence the amount of power the array will produce.
The orientation generally includes the direction the solar module is facing (i.e. due south) and the tilt angle which is
the angle between the base of the solar panel and the horizontal. The amount of sunlight hitting the array also varies
with the time of day because of the sun’s movement across the sky. Solar modules should be installed so that as much
radiation as possible is collected. Ideally, the PV installations on the North of the equator perform optimally when
 oriented to the South and tilted at an angle 15 degrees higher than the site latitude. If the PV array is mounted on a
building where it is difficult for the panels to face the South, then it can be oriented to the East or West but under no
circumstances to the North as its efficiency will be then very limited. The highest efficiency of a PV module or peak
power occurs when its surface is perpendicular to the sun’s rays. As the rays deviate from perpendicular, more and
more of the energy is reflected rather than absorbed by the modules.

Panel sizing

Estimating the Electric Load: The first task for any PV system design is to determine the system load. The load
determination is straightforward. Make a list of the electrical appliances and/or loads to be powered by the PV
system. The power required by an appliance can be measured or obtained from the label on the back of appliance
which lists the wattage. The power requirements are calculated by multiplying the number of hours per day that
specific appliances will operate each day. For existing buildings, other alternative is to get consumption figures from
your utility invoice; it shows actual usage over a 12-month period.

Once the total load to be energized using the PV system is calculated we must find out what area of solar panels
would be required to generate that much amount of power. It is an inherent property of any panel to have internal
losses. This factor should be kept in mind.

As in the energy calculation we have already found the total watt-hours, for finding the wattage of panels that would
be required we need to divide the total watt-hours with peak sun hours.

.0 INVERTER INSTALLATION

Invertors used for solar PV systems are usually based upon the total wattage of the solar panels, as the invertor will be
continuously converting the power generated. The second consideration one must investigate, is the voltage level of
the system. For example, if the system is designed to generate 2000 Watts at a voltage level of 12 V then the invertor
selected should be rated 12V, 2000 Watts.

An inverter should be installed in a controlled environment because high temperatures and excessive dust will reduce
lifetime and may cause failure. The inverter should not be installed in the same enclosure with the batteries because
the corrosive gassing of the batteries can damage the electronics and the switching in the inverter might cause an
explosion. However, the inverter should be installed near the batteries to keep resistive losses in the wires to a
minimum. After conversion to AC power, the wire size can be reduced because the AC voltage is usually higher than
the DC voltage. This means the AC current is lower than the DC current for an equivalent power load.
.0 CHARGE CONTROLLER

The function of a charge controller is to regulate the charge going into your batteries bank from your solar panel array
and prevent overcharging and reverse current flow at the night. Most used charge controllers are Pulse width
modulation (PWM) or Maximum power point tracking (MPPT). When a MPPT solar charge controller notices
variations in current-voltage characteristics of solar cell, it will automatically and efficiently correct the voltage. It
forces PV module to operate at voltage close to maximum power point to draw maximum available power. MPPT
solar charge controller allows users to use PV module with a higher voltage output than operating voltage of battery
system. For example, if PV module has to be placed far away from charge controller and battery, its wire size must be
very large to reduce voltage drop. With a MPPT solar charge controller, users can wire PV module for 24 or 48 V
(depending on charge controller and PV modules) and bring power into 12 or 24 V battery system. This means it
reduces the wire size needed while retaining full output of PV module. Charge controller current (A) is given by;

Solar panel power (W)

A = –––––––––––––––––
Battery voltage (V)

To select the size of charge controller one must know the voltage level of the system and the maximum operating
current. It is a usual practice to oversize the controller for safety reasons.

5.0 BATTERY

Interaction with Solar Modules

The solar array must have a higher voltage than the battery bank in order to fully charge the batteries. For systems
with battery back-up, pay attention to the rated voltage of the module, also called the maximum power point (VMP)
in the electrical specifications. It is important that the voltage is high enough relative to the voltage of a fully charged
battery. For example, rated voltages between 16.5V and 17.5V are typical for a 12V system using liquid lead-acid
batteries. Higher voltages may be required for long wiring distances between the modules and the charge controller
and battery bank.

Selection of Battery for PV Systems

Some of the considerations made when sizing the battery are:

First, the amount of back-up energy to be stored is calculated. This is usually expressed as a number of cloudy days
the system will operate using energy stored in batteries. This depends on the type of service, the type of battery, and
the system availability desired. Areas with extended periods of cloudiness would need more storage capacity to keep
the load going during these periods of inclement weather. Also, if it is critical that loads always have power, it is
advisable to have a more storage or large battery capacity.
The difference between rated battery capacity and usable capacity should be understood. Many Battery manufacturers
publish the “rated battery capacity” (the amount of energy that their battery will provide, if discharged once under
favourable conditions of temperature and discharge rate). This is usually much higher than the amount of energy that
can be taken out of the battery repeatedly in a PV application. For most PV applications the bigger and heavier the
battery, the better it is.
Also, there are many types of batteries with a large variance in quality and cost. It is important to buy quality batteries
that can be discharged and recharged many times before failure. Automobile batteries should not be used as these are
designed to produce a high current for a short time. The battery is then quickly recharged. PV batteries may be
discharged slowly over many hours and may not be recharged fully for several days or weeks.
Finally, it is important to understand the close interrelation between the battery and the charge controller. When a
battery is bought a compatible charge controller should be purchased

Battery Rating and Sizing

The battery has to store energy for many days and used without going over the DODmax. The following equation
can be used:

Q = (Minimum Battery Capacity Required - Ah)

This is the amount of charge the battery needs to store to meet the system's energy demand.
Measured in Ampere-hours (Ah).
A higher Q means a larger battery bank is needed.
E = (Daily Energy Requirement - Wh)

The total energy consumed by the system per day.

Measured in Watt-hours (Wh) or kilowatt-hours (kWh).
It depends on the power rating and usage time of electrical appliances.
A = (Number of Days of Storage Required)

The number of days the battery should provide power without solar charging.
Used to ensure energy availability during cloudy days or power outages.
V = (System DC Voltage - V)
The operating voltage of the battery system.
Common values: 12V, 24V, or 48V in solar PV systems.
Higher voltage systems reduce current and improve efficiency.
T = (Maximum Depth of Discharge - DOD)

The percentage of battery capacity that can be safely discharged without damaging the battery.
Typical values range from 0.3 (30%) to 0.9 (90%), depending on battery type.

ηinv = (Inverter Efficiency - % or decimal)

The efficiency of the inverter, which converts DC power from the battery to AC power for appliances.
Expressed as a decimal (e.g., 0.9 for 90% efficiency).
A lower efficiency means higher energy loss in the conversion process.

ηcable = (Cable Efficiency - % or decimal)

The efficiency of the cables that transfer power from the battery to the load.
Accounts for power loss due to resistance in wires.
Typically ranges from 0.9 to 0.98, meaning 2% to 10% power loss.
Example Calculation: Battery Sizing for a PV System
Let’s assume you want to design a battery bank for a solar PV system with the following specifications:
Given Data:
Daily Energy Requirement (E) = 5000 Wh (5 kWh)
Number of Days of Storage (A) = 2 days (to account for cloudy days)
System Voltage (V) = 24V DC
Maximum Depth of Discharge (DOD) = 0.5 (50%)

Inverter Efficiency (ηinv) = 0.9 (90%)

Cable Efficiency (ηcable) = 0.95 (95%)

Step-by-Step Calculation

Substituting the values:

Q= 5000 × 2
24 × 0.5 × 0.9× 0.95

Q = 10000
10.26

Q = 974.6 Ah
To meet the system's energy needs for 2 days of backup, you would need a battery bank of approximately 975 Ah at
24V.
Battery Selection:
If using 200Ah batteries, you would need:
975
200 = 5 batteries (each 12V, 200Ah)

Two batteries in series to make 24V

Three parallel strings to reach ~975Ah

Battery Installation

Batteries should be installed in an enclosed space, separated from controls or other PV system components which
may have cooling/heating mechanisms in order to protect them from excessive temperatures. When temperature
swings are reduced, battery will have a better performance, longer life, and lower maintenance

Battery Maintenance

Batteries require periodic maintenance. For flooded batteries, the electrolyte level should be maintained well above
the plates and the voltage and specific gravity of the cells should be checked for consistent values. The specific
gravity of the cells should be checked with a hydrometer particularly before the onset of winter. In cold
environments, the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries may freeze. The freezing temperature is a function of a battery
state of charge. When a battery is completely discharged, the electrolyte becomes water and the battery may freeze.
Even the sealed battery should be checked to make sure connections are tight and there is no indication of
overcharging.

6.0 METERS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Essentially two types of meters are used in PV systems:

Utility Kilowatt-Hour Meter

A meter that measures electricity exported to the grid (when the energy generation is exceeding the needs) or
imported from the grid (when the energy generation does not meet the energy demands). Switch from import to
export and vise verse takes place automatically without any human intervention.

System Meter

System meters measure and display the charge of the battery bank, production of electricity from solar panels and
amount of electricity in use. It is possible to operate a system without a system meter, though meters are strongly
recommended. Modern charge controllers incorporate system monitoring functions and so a separate system meter
may not be necessary.

Combiner Box

Wires from individual PV modules or strings are run to the combiner box. These wires may be single conductor
pigtails with connectors that are pre-wired onto the PV modules. The output of the combiner box is one larger two-
wire conductor in conduit. A combiner box typically includes a safety fuse or breaker for each string and may include
a surge protector.

Surge Protection

Surge protectors help to protect your system from power surges that may occur if the PV system or nearby power
lines are struck by lightning. A power surge is an increase in voltage significantly above the design voltage.

Grounding Equipment

Grounding equipment provides a well-defined, low-resistance path from your system to the ground to protect your
system from current surges from lightning strikes or equipment malfunctions. Grounding also stabilizes voltages and
provides a common reference point. The grounding harness is usually located on the roof.

Equipment grounding provides protection from shock caused by a ground fault. A ground fault occurs when a
current-carrying conductor comes into contact with the frame or chassis of an appliance or electrical box. All system
components and any exposed metal, including equipment boxes, receptacles, appliance frames and PV mounting
equipment, should be grounded.

System grounding requires taking one conductor from a two-wire system and connecting it to ground. In a DC
system, this means bonding the negative conductor to ground at one single point in the system. This must be
accomplished inside the inverter, not at the PV array.
Cables & Wiring

Important considerations on cables & wiring:

Array cables should be suitable for DC application, water resistant and UV-resistant.
Reinforced or double-insulated cables should be used when laid in metallic tray or conduit.
Total voltage drop in all AC and DC cables shall be less than 4%.
Cables are to be laid/ installed in such a way that all connections and wiring should be protected from inadvertent
contact and mechanical damage.
Cable shall have ability to carry current safely without overheating in specified conditions that cable will be laid/
installed.
String fuses can be used to protect cables from overloading and are usually used for systems with more than four
strings. The permitted current rating of the cable should be at least equal or greater than the trigger current of the
string fuse.

Three crucial parameters must be considered when sizing the cables:

• Cable voltage ratings

• Current rating of the cable

• Minimizing of cable losses

Cable Sizing

The purpose of this step is to estimate the size and the type of wire in the following loops:

A. Cable between PV modules and Batteries

B. Cable between the Battery Bank and the Inverter

C. Cable between the Inverter and Load

The equation below can be used to determine the cross section of copper wire.

• p=resistivity of wire [For copper p=1.724 x 10-8 Ω ⋅m]

• L = length of wire (in m)

• A = cross sectional area of cable in mm square

 • I =the rated current of regulator, amps

• Vd =Voltage drop

Volts In both AC and DC wiring, the voltage drop is taken not to exceed 4 % value.

The voltage V is typically,

Cable between PV modules and Batteries = 12V, 24 V or 48V

. Cable between the Battery Bank and the Inverter = 12V, 24V or 48V
Cable between the Inverter and Load = 110 V

7.0 case study

A homeowner in Lagos, Nigeria, faced frequent power outages and sought a solar power system to supply essential
appliances.

Appliction: residential solar power installation

Location: Lagos, Latitude: 6.52440N, 5.4 daily peak sunlight hours.

System requirements

5 lights (30w each), combined rated wattage 150, and used 2 hours/day.
Refrigerator, rated wattage 500, used 2 hours/day.
2 ceiling fans (45w each), combined rated wattage 90, and used 4 hours/day.
Television, rated wattage 200, used 2.05 hours/day.

Energy demand calculation:

Etotal = (P1×t1) + (P2×t2) +……..+ (Pn×tn)

Etotal = (150w × 2h) + (500w × 2h) + (90w × 4h) + (200w × 2.05h)

= 2160wh/day.

Solar panel selection:

2160
5.4 = 400W
Since the solar panel requirement is 400W, multiple (two 200W of 18V) solar panels were used. It is connected in
parallel so that the current increases while keeping the voltage the same.

I = P/V

= 400/18 = 11A. therefore, total current will be 22A (since no. of panel is 2)

Battery sizing

For a 12V, 50% DOD battery:

Battery required is = 2160

12 × 0.5 = 360Ah

Charge controller:

Since the panels are in parallel, the rating is calculated as;

I = solar panel power (W) / battery voltage (V)

I = 400W / 12V = 33.3A

Inverter selection:

The inverter should handle the total wattage of connected appliances. For a total load of 400W, adding a safety
margin, 500W inverter is suitable.

Installation and performance

Solar panel mounted at a 300 tilt.

Battery and inverter housed indoors.
System provided uninterrupted power for essential loads