MODULE - 02

PROBLEM SOLVING

Thinking is a broad concept that encompasses various activities, making it difficult to define
precisely. Psychologists have described thinking in different ways, such as "going beyond the
information given" (Bruner, 1957), "filling gaps in evidence" (Bartlett, 1958), or "searching
through a problem space" (Newell & Simon, 1972). It can involve processes like
problem-solving, decision-making, and creative thinking. Thinking can be classified into
focused and unfocused types. Focused thinking is goal-oriented and starts with a clear
purpose, while unfocused thinking resembles daydreaming and involves loosely connected
ideas. Much of the research in psychology emphasizes focused thinking, particularly in
problem-solving and evaluating ideas, where people assess their conclusions and guard
against biases.

Psychologists often study thinking using standardized problems or puzzles, as everyday

thinking tends to be quick, automatic, and influenced by personal knowledge and goals,
making it harder to examine scientifically. By controlling the information provided in
experiments, researchers can gain a better understanding of how thinking works. One
valuable method for studying thinking is introspection, where individuals observe and record
their thoughts while solving problems. Though introspection has its limitations, it can help
generate insights and hypotheses. To practice this, people can work on problems in a quiet
space, take notes or record their thoughts without judgment, and compare their observations
to theories of thinking.

TYPES OF PROBLEMS

Problems can generally be categorized into well-defined and ill-defined types, based on how
clear their goals, information, and solution paths are.

Well-Defined Problems

Well-defined problems are structured and have a clear goal, specific starting information,
and sometimes rules or guidelines to follow. These problems are easier to solve because you
can tell when you’ve reached the solution. For example, calculating sales tax is a
well-defined problem. If you know the price of an item, whether it’s taxable, the tax rate, and
basic multiplication, you can easily compute the tax. Similarly, solving a math equation, like
finding the value of “x” in a simple algebraic equation, is another example. These problems
typically have one correct solution, making it easy to identify success. They’re commonly
used in experiments and studies because they’re standardized and allow researchers to
measure thinking processes more effectively.
Ill-Defined Problems

In contrast, ill-defined problems are more ambiguous and don’t provide clear information
about the starting point, the steps to follow, or even the end goal. These problems often
require creativity, judgment, and personal interpretation. For example, writing a “Dear John”
or “Dear Jane” letter to end a relationship in a sensitive and kind way is an ill-defined
problem. It’s unclear what tone to use, how much detail to include, or when the letter is “good
enough.” Another example is preparing a strategy to ask for a promotion at work. Should you
focus on your past achievements? Should you emphasize your long-term goals? There’s no
single “correct” way to handle these problems, and the solutions vary depending on the
situation and the individual.

Real-Life Examples

1.​ Well-Defined: Solving a jigsaw puzzle where you have all the pieces and the picture
as a reference.
2.​ Ill-Defined: Planning a vacation on a budget where you have to decide the
destination, activities, and how to balance cost and enjoyment.

WELL-DEFINED VS ILL-DEFINED

ASPECT WELL - DEFINED ILL - DEFINED

PROBLEM PROBLEM

Goal Clarity Clear and specific. You Vague or ambiguous. The

know exactly what you goal may not be explicitly
want. stated.

Starting Information Clearly provided or easily Often incomplete or unclear.

available. You may need to figure it
out.

Rules or Guidelines Explicit rules or steps to No fixed rules; open to

follow are provided interpretation and
judgement.

Path to solution Direct & structured. A step Unstructured and subjective;

by step approach requires creativity and
flexibility.

Solution Typically one correct or Multiple possible solutions;

optimal solution. no single ‘correct’ answer.

Examples Solving a math equation, Writing a sensitive breakup

calculating sales tax or letter, planning a wedding,
assembling furniture with or solving an ethical
instructions dilemma.
 Measurement of Success Success is clearly defined. Success is subjective and
(e.g,, solving a problem depends of judgement or
correctly.) feedback

Cognitive demand Requires logical thinking & Involves creativity, critical

following steps thinking and decision
making.

Ease to Study Easier to study and measure Harder to study because of

in controlled experiments variability and personal
factors.

Psychologists have often focused on studying well-defined problems for practical reasons.
These problems are straightforward to present, can be solved within a short time frame, and
are easier to measure and analyze. Researchers can also modify well-defined problems easily
to test different aspects of problem-solving. Because of these advantages, well-defined
problems are frequently used in experiments to study thinking processes.

Research by Schraw, Dunkle, and Bendixen (1995) revealed an important finding:

performance on well-defined problems does not necessarily predict performance on
ill-defined problems. This suggests that solving these two types of problems might require
different cognitive skills. While well-defined problems focus on logic and structured
reasoning, ill-defined problems often demand creativity, judgment, and flexibility.

CLASSICAL PROBLEMS AND GENERAL METHODS OF SOLUTION

The approach to solving a problem depends largely on the nature of the problem itself. For
example, if your goal is to book a flight to Los Angeles, you might contact airlines, visit
travel agents, or browse travel websites like Orbitz or Travelocity. On the other hand, if your
problem is balancing your checkbook, you would likely consult a banker or use personal
finance tools—not a travel agent. These examples highlight domain-specific
problem-solving techniques, which are effective only for particular types of problems
within specific fields or situations.

In contrast, there are domain-independent problem-solving techniques that are general and
can be applied to a wide variety of problems, regardless of the domain. These techniques
focus on overarching strategies and principles rather than being tailored to specific situations.
The review here emphasizes these general methods, as they provide a flexible framework for
solving problems across different contexts and challenges.
 1.​ GENERATE-AND-TEST TECHNIQUE

The generate-and-test technique is a straightforward method used for problem-solving. It

involves two main steps:

1.​ Generating possible solutions: Coming up with ideas or options that might solve the
problem.
2.​ Testing these solutions: Checking each idea to see if it works and meets the criteria
for solving the problem.

Example 1: Listing Words

Imagine a task where you need to list 10 words starting with the letter "C" that refer to things
you can eat or drink. You might generate words like "carrot," "cake," or "coffee." During
testing, you evaluate whether each word fits the criteria. For instance, "canoe" starts with "C"
but isn't edible, so it fails the test. Similarly, "catsup" might pass if you consider it a variant
spelling of "ketchup." This process of trial and error reflects the generate-and-test approach.

Example 2: Sending Money to Switzerland

In another example, the author needed to send Swiss francs to a hotel in Switzerland within a
week. They generated multiple ideas, like contacting American Express, wiring money via
Western Union, or mailing a traveler’s check. After testing each option, they discovered that
most were too expensive or time-consuming. However, the traveler’s check met all the
criteria—affordability, timeliness, and feasibility—so it was chosen as the solution.

Limitations of Generate-and-Test

While this method can be useful, it has significant drawbacks when:

●​ There are too many possibilities: For example, if you forget a locker combination,
testing every possibility could take hours.
●​ There’s no systematic way to track progress: Without a way to organize your
attempts, you might accidentally repeat steps or miss options entirely.
●​ The problem space is large: For tasks like solving a Rubik’s cube, where there are
countless combinations, this method becomes impractical.

Example 3: Searching for Lost Keys

If you lose your keys somewhere between the cafeteria and your room, and you made stops at
a classroom, a snack bar, and a bookstore, you could generate possible locations (cafeteria,
classroom, etc.) and test each by retracing your steps. Because there are only a few
possibilities, this method works efficiently.
 When to Use Generate-and-Test

This technique is most effective when:

1.​ The number of possibilities is small.

2.​ You can easily test each solution without much time or effort.
3.​ There’s no need for a systematic or highly organized approach.

In summary, generate-and-test is a simple trial-and-error method that works well for

straightforward problems with limited options. However, for more complex tasks with many
possibilities or a lack of structure, other problem-solving strategies may be more effective.

2. MEANS-END ANALYSIS

Means-End Analysis is a widely studied and effective problem-solving strategy that

involves breaking a problem into smaller, manageable steps and systematically reducing the
gap between the current state and the desired goal state. This approach helps individuals
focus on achieving subgoals that progressively bring them closer to solving the overall
problem.

How Means-End Analysis Works

The strategy involves the following steps:

1.​ Identify the Current State and Goal State:​

Begin by clearly defining where you are (current state) and where you want to be
(goal state).
2.​ Analyze the Differences:​
Evaluate the differences between the current state and the goal state. This involves
identifying the gaps or obstacles that need to be addressed.
3.​ Set Subgoals:​
Break the problem into smaller, more achievable steps or subgoals. Each subgoal
should help reduce the gap between the current and goal states.
4.​ Select Means (Actions):​
Choose specific actions or tools that will help achieve the subgoals. These actions are
the "means" to reach the "ends."
5.​ Iterate Until the Goal is Reached:​
Repeat the process for each subgoal until the final goal is achieved.
Example 01: Cooking a Three-Course Meal

1.​ Current State: No food prepared.​

Goal State: Three-course meal ready and served.
2.​ Subgoals:
○​ Decide on the menu.
○​ Buy ingredients.
○​ Prep ingredients.
○​ Cook each dish.
○​ Serve the meal.
3.​ By going through these subgoals, the problem is systematically solved.

Example 02: Planning a Trip

Suppose your goal is to travel from New York to Paris.

●​ Current state: You are in New York, without tickets or a plan.

●​ Goal state: You arrive in Paris.
●​ Subgoals:
1.​ Book a flight ticket.
2.​ Arrange transportation to the airport.
3.​ Pack essential items for the trip.
4.​ Board the plane.
●​ Each subgoal is a step toward the overall objective, and you choose actions (means) to
fulfill each subgoal.

Key Characteristics of Means-End Analysis

1.​ Focus on Subgoals:​

The method divides a complex problem into smaller, simpler problems.
2.​ Dynamic Process:​
It adjusts as new obstacles or information arise, allowing flexibility.
3.​ Feedback Loop:​
Progress toward the goal is continuously assessed after each action.
4.​ Problem Reduction:​
By resolving subgoals, the method minimizes the perceived complexity of the overall
problem.
Benefits of Means-End Analysis

●​ Simplifies Complex Problems: Breaking the problem into smaller steps makes it less
overwhelming.
●​ Encourages Systematic Thinking: It provides a structured way of approaching
problems.
●​ Improves Efficiency: By focusing only on steps that reduce the gap, it avoids
unnecessary actions.

Limitations of Means-End Analysis

1.​ Requires Clear Goals: The method works best when both the current state and goal
state are well-defined.
2.​ Can Be Time-Consuming: Breaking down problems and solving each subgoal may
take more time for certain tasks.
3.​ Ineffective for Ill-Defined Problems: For problems without clear steps or goals, this
method can be challenging to apply.
4.​ Cognitive Load: Maintaining a focus on multiple subgoals simultaneously can be
demanding.

Real-Life Application of Means-End Analysis

●​ Healthcare: Doctors use this method to treat patients by identifying symptoms

(current state), diagnosing the illness (subgoals), and prescribing treatment (means to
achieve health).
●​ Education: Students use this method to tackle large projects by breaking them into
smaller tasks, like researching, drafting, and revising.
●​ Software Development: Programmers use this approach to debug software,
identifying errors and systematically resolving each issue to improve the program's
functionality.

In summary, Means-End Analysis is a powerful tool for structured problem-solving,

particularly when goals and obstacles are clear. It enables individuals to systematically reduce
the gap between their current state and their desired outcome by focusing on smaller,
achievable subgoals.
3. WORKING BACKWARD

Working backward is a problem-solving technique where you start from the desired goal or
solution and work in reverse order to reach the starting point. This method is particularly
useful when the goal is clear, but the path to achieving it is uncertain or complicated.

Steps Involved in Working Backward:

1.​ Define the Goal (End State):

○​ Clearly identify what you want to achieve or the solution to the problem.
○​ Example: The goal could be to solve a math equation or to assemble a piece of
furniture.
2.​ Identify the Final Step:
○​ Understand what the very last action is before reaching the goal.
○​ Example: In a math problem, this could be the last operation you need to
perform to get the correct answer.
3.​ Work Backwards:
○​ From the final step, reverse the operations or steps you need to take.
○​ For example, if the last step involves dividing two numbers, you would first
figure out what result needs to be reached before that division can happen.
4.​ Repeat the Process:
○​ Continue reversing each step progressively until you reach the starting point,
or when the problem's conditions are fully understood.
○​ Each previous step will guide you to the next necessary action.
5.​ Execute the Actions:
○​ Once you’ve outlined the steps to take (working backward), execute them in
their natural order from start to finish.

Example 01: Planning a Dinner Party

Suppose your goal is to host a successful dinner party with a group of friends. Here’s how
you could use working backward to make sure everything goes smoothly.

Step-by-step Working Backward:

1.​ Goal: The dinner party is successfully hosted with everyone enjoying the meal.
2.​ Final Step: The guests are seated and enjoying their food.
3.​ Work Backward:
○​ To get to that point, you first need to serve the food. Ensure the dishes are
ready and everything is plated.
○​ Before serving, you need to have cooked the meals. Make sure the dishes are
prepared, cooked, and kept warm.
○​ Before cooking, make sure you’ve bought all the ingredients. Go through the
recipes to ensure you have everything you need.
 ○​ Before shopping, you’ll need to plan the menu: what dishes you’ll cook, how
many servings, and any special requests (dietary restrictions).
4.​ Result: By working backward, you’ll realize that to ensure the food is ready on time,
you need to start the preparation and shopping process in advance, giving you enough
time to execute each step.

Example 02: Preparing for a Job Interview (Working Backward)

Suppose your goal is to ace a job interview for your dream job. Here's how you can use
working backward to ensure you're fully prepared:

Step-by-step Working Backward:

1.​ Goal: You successfully perform well in the job interview and get the job offer.
2.​ Final Step: You’ve answered all the interview questions confidently and have the
interviewer’s attention.
3.​ Work Backward:
○​ To do that, you first need to be prepared with answers to common interview
questions. Practice your responses.
○​ Before practicing, research the company: understand its culture, mission, and
recent developments to tailor your answers.
○​ Before that, you’ll need to review the job description and match your skills
with the job requirements.
○​ Finally, ensure your resume and portfolio are up-to-date and tailored to the
job, highlighting the relevant experience.
4.​ Result: By working backward, you understand that each of these preparation steps
builds toward performing well in the interview. If you don't do any one of these steps
(like researching the company or preparing your resume), your chances of success
might decrease.

Advantages of Working Backward:

1.​ Clear Goal Orientation: It’s easier to focus on the goal and reverse-engineer the
process.
2.​ Efficient Problem-Solving: It can help simplify problems that seem too complex or
confusing when approached forward.
3.​ Prevents Mistakes: By ensuring you understand the last step and work backward to
the start, you can avoid errors or missed steps.
4.​ Helpful in Complex Situations: Particularly useful in scenarios like puzzles, crime
investigations, and reverse engineering.
When to Use Working Backward:

●​ When the goal is clear: If you know exactly what the end result should be, but the
path is unclear.
●​ When the steps to achieve the goal are ambiguous: When you're not sure how to
proceed but can visualize the final outcome.
●​ When you face problems with multiple possible solutions: Working backward
helps eliminate unnecessary options.

Limitations of Working Backward.

1.​ Complexity: If the goal is unclear or not well-defined, it's difficult to identify the
necessary steps to reach it.
2.​ Inflexibility: Unexpected obstacles or changes can disrupt the method, as it assumes a
fixed path to the goal.
3.​ Not Suitable for Creative Problems: It works best for structured tasks but is less
effective for open-ended or creative problems that lack clear steps.
4.​ Requires Prior Knowledge: You need to understand the process or goal well enough
to work backward effectively; without this, it becomes challenging.

Working backward is an effective and structured way to solve complex problems. By clearly
understanding the goal and systematically reversing the steps, this method guides you to the
solution in a logical, efficient manner.

4. BACKTRACKING

Backtracking is a problem-solving technique used for solving complex problems, particularly

when dealing with decision-making scenarios that involve multiple choices or possibilities.
It's a systematic method of trial and error where you build up a solution incrementally, but if
you reach a point where the current solution is not viable, you backtrack to the last valid
decision point and try another option. This technique is often used in puzzles, optimization
problems, and constraint satisfaction problems like Sudoku, mazes, or the 8-Queens problem.
How Backtracking Works:

1.​ Initial Step:

○​ Start from the beginning and explore all possible solutions step by step.
○​ You choose a path (make a decision) and move forward with it, checking if it
leads to a viable solution.
2.​ Exploration:
○​ You keep expanding the solution by trying new decisions or steps at each
stage.
○​ Each decision could either lead to a valid solution or fail to meet the problem's
constraints.
3.​ Constraint Check:
○​ After making a decision, you check if it satisfies the constraints of the
problem.
○​ If the decision violates the constraints (e.g., putting two queens in the same
row in the 8-Queens puzzle), you discard this path and go back to the previous
decision point.
4.​ Backtrack:
○​ When a solution path leads to a dead end (where no valid choices remain), you
"backtrack" to the most recent decision point and try an alternative choice
there.
○​ This process continues until a valid solution is found or all possible paths have
been exhausted.
5.​ Terminate:
○​ If a valid solution is found, the algorithm stops.
○​ If all options are explored and no solution is found, the process terminates.

Key Characteristics of Backtracking:

●​ Systematic Exploration: Backtracking explores all potential solutions in a depth-first

manner, ensuring that every possibility is tried before dismissing it.
●​ Decision Tree: It can be visualized as a tree where each branch represents a possible
decision at a particular stage.
●​ Efficiency: Backtracking can be inefficient for large problems, as it explores many
possibilities. However, smart pruning (removing branches that are unlikely to lead to
a solution) can enhance performance.
●​ Complete Search: Unlike other methods like greedy algorithms, backtracking doesn't
give up on a solution too soon—it explores all potential avenues until a solution is
found or all paths are exhausted.
ACTIVITY

The Women, Dogs, Children, and Jobs Problem

From the following information, determine how many children the owner of the Shetland
sheepdog has. There are five women: Cathy, Debbie, Judy, Linda, and Sonya. There are five
occupations: clerk, executive, lawyer, teacher, and surgeon. Everyone has a different number
of children: 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.

1.​ Cathy owns the Irish setter.

2.​ The teacher has no children.
3.​ The owner of the Labrador retriever is a surgeon.
4.​ Linda does not own the Shetland sheepdog.
5.​ Sonya is a lawyer.
6.​ The owner of the Shetland sheepdog does not have three children.
7.​ The owner of the golden retriever has four children.
8.​ Judy has one child.
9.​ The executive owns a golden retriever.
10.​Debbie owns the Bernese mountain dog.
11.​Cathy is a clerk

Women Debbie Sonya Cathy Judy Linda

Dog

No. Of
Children

Occupation

Step-by-Step Deduction:

1. Who is the teacher?

●​ The teacher has no children. We know:

○​ Cathy is the clerk and has children (since she owns a dog).
○​ Judy has 1 child.
○​ Sonya is the lawyer and must have some number of children, not zero.
○​ Debbie is the executive and has 4 children.
○​ Linda must be the teacher because she is the only person left, and the teacher
must have 0 children.
2. Who owns the Shetland sheepdog?

●​ Linda does not own the Shetland sheepdog (Clue 4).

●​ Cathy owns the Irish setter (Clue 1), so Cathy doesn't own the Shetland sheepdog.
●​ Judy has 1 child and cannot be the owner of the Shetland sheepdog because the
Shetland sheepdog owner doesn't have 3 children (Clue 6), and Judy’s number of
children fits this restriction.
●​ Sonya, as a lawyer, must be the owner of the Shetland sheepdog because the only
person left with an unknown number of children is Sonya, and she fits all the criteria.
Additionally, the owner of the Shetland sheepdog cannot have 3 children, so Sonya
must have 2 children (the only number left).

3. Who owns the golden retriever?

●​ The executive owns the golden retriever, and this person must have 4 children (Clue
7). Debbie is the only one left who could be the executive, so Debbie owns the
golden retriever and has 4 children.

4. Who owns the Labrador retriever?

●​ The owner of the Labrador retriever is a surgeon (Clue 3), and the only person left
who has an occupation of surgeon is Judy. Therefore, Judy owns the Labrador
retriever and has 1 child.

5. Who owns the Bernese mountain dog?

●​ Debbie owns the Bernese mountain dog (Clue 10), so there’s no conflict here.

6. Final Ownership and Children Breakdown:

●​ Cathy is the clerk and owns the Irish setter. The number of children Cathy has is 3
(since she is the only one left with a number of children not yet assigned).
●​ Linda is the teacher and has 0 children.
●​ Sonya is the lawyer and owns the Shetland sheepdog and has 2 children.
●​ Judy is the surgeon and owns the Labrador retriever and has 1 child.
●​ Debbie is the executive and owns the golden retriever and has 4 children.

Advantages of Backtracking:

●​ Complete Solution: It ensures that you explore all possible solutions, guaranteeing
that if a solution exists, it will be found.
●​ Flexible: Backtracking can be applied to a wide variety of problems where decisions
are made step by step.
Disadvantages of Backtracking:

●​ Time Complexity: Backtracking can be computationally expensive, especially in

large problem spaces, because it explores every possible option.
●​ Space Complexity: It requires storing the decision tree, which can grow large
depending on the complexity of the problem.

EXAMPLES

01. Maze Solving

Problem: You need to find the path through a maze starting from a point (e.g., the entrance)
to another point (e.g., the exit). You can move in any of the four directions (up, down, left,
right).

●​ Backtracking Solution:
○​ Start at the entrance.
○​ Try moving in one direction (e.g., up).
○​ If that move leads to a dead end (i.e., you can't proceed further), backtrack to
the previous point and try a different direction (e.g., down, left, or right).
○​ Repeat this process until you either find the exit or reach a situation where no
valid moves remain.

Example: You start at the entrance (0,0) and move right (0,1). If that leads to a dead end, you
backtrack to (0,0) and try moving down (1,0). This process continues until the exit is found or
you backtrack all the way to the starting point.

02. Word Search Puzzle

Problem: You have a grid of letters, and your goal is to find all the words in a given list
within the grid. Words can be formed by connecting letters in adjacent cells, either
horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.

●​ Backtracking Solution:
○​ Start with the first letter of the word list and search for it in the grid.
○​ When you find the first letter, begin exploring all possible directions (up,
down, left, right, diagonals).
○​ Continue exploring each direction to find the next letter of the word.
○​ If you successfully find all letters of the word, mark it as found. If you reach a
point where you cannot continue the word, backtrack to the previous letter and
try a different direction.

Example: In a 5x5 grid, if you are searching for the word "CAT," you might start at (0,0),
find 'C', then move right to find 'A', and then move down to find 'T'. If any step leads to a
dead end, backtrack and try a different direction or starting point.
5. REASONING BY ANALOGY

Reasoning by analogy is a cognitive process in which one draws on similarities between two
or more concepts, systems, or situations to solve problems, make decisions, or generate new
ideas. By recognizing the parallels between a familiar context (the source) and an unfamiliar
or complex one (the target), reasoning by analogy simplifies the problem and facilitates
insight. This technique is widely used in various fields, including science, engineering,
business, education, and everyday problem-solving.

Key Characteristics of Reasoning by Analogy

1.​ Mapping Correspondences: Identifying similarities between the source and the
target situation.
2.​ Transferring Knowledge: Applying lessons or solutions from the source to address
challenges in the target.
3.​ Abstract Thinking: Focusing on underlying principles or relationships rather than
superficial details.
4.​ Adaptability: Adjusting the solution from the source to fit the specifics of the target
problem.

Steps in Reasoning by Analogy

1.​ Recognize the Problem: Understand the target problem that needs solving.
2.​ Identify Potential Analogues: Look for familiar situations, systems, or examples that
might have similar structures or principles.
3.​ Analyze the Source: Break down the analogous situation to understand its
components and relationships.
4.​ Map Similarities: Align the relevant aspects of the source and target to identify
parallel patterns.
5.​ Transfer the Solution: Adapt the solution or approach used in the source to resolve
the target problem.
6.​ Test and Refine: Evaluate the proposed solution in the target context and make
adjustments as needed.

Applications of Reasoning by Analogy

1.​ Scientific Discovery:

○​ Example: Johannes Kepler’s understanding of planetary motion was inspired
by an analogy to clockwork mechanisms, where the planets were seen as parts
of a mechanical system.
2.​ Engineering and Design:
○​ Example: Velcro was invented after George de Mestral observed how burrs
clung to his dog's fur, inspiring a similar hook-and-loop fastening system.
 3.​ Everyday Problem-Solving:
○​ People use analogies regularly, such as comparing a car's engine to a heart to
explain its function to a non-expert.

Benefits of Reasoning by Analogy

1.​ Simplifies Complexity: Analogies help break down complicated problems into more
manageable components by connecting them to familiar scenarios.
2.​ Promotes Creativity: By linking unrelated domains, reasoning by analogy can
inspire innovative solutions.
3.​ Encourages Learning Transfer: It helps people apply knowledge from one domain
to another, promoting interdisciplinary thinking.
4.​ Improves Communication: Analogies make abstract ideas more relatable and easier
to explain.

Challenges and Limitations

1.​ Superficial Comparisons: Focusing on surface similarities rather than deeper

structural relationships can lead to misleading conclusions.
2.​ Overgeneralization: Assuming that all aspects of the source apply to the target may
result in ineffective or inappropriate solutions.
3.​ Cognitive Bias: People may choose familiar analogies that align with their
preconceptions, ignoring better but less obvious analogies.
4.​ Domain Dependence: Effectiveness depends on the individual's knowledge of the
source domain and their ability to draw accurate parallels.

EXAMPLES

The Heart as a Pump:

●​ Analogy: The heart is compared to a mechanical pump that circulates blood

throughout the body, just as a pump moves water through pipes.
●​ Purpose: This analogy helps patients and students understand how the heart functions
in maintaining blood flow.

Immune System as a Military Defense:

●​ Analogy: The immune system is often described as a military force where white
blood cells are the soldiers, antibodies are the weapons, and pathogens are the
enemies.
●​ Purpose: This analogy simplifies the complexity of immune responses for
non-experts.
Airplane Wings and Bird Flight:

●​ Analogy: The Wright brothers observed how birds manipulated their wing shape to
control flight. This inspired their design of airplane wings, including the use of flaps
for lift and control.
●​ Purpose: By understanding bird flight, they applied those principles to human
aviation.

Electricity and Water Flow:

●​ Analogy: Electric current flowing through a wire is likened to water flowing through
a pipe. Voltage represents water pressure, current represents the flow rate, and
resistance represents obstacles in the pipe.
●​ Purpose: This analogy is widely used to teach electrical concepts to beginners.

Reasoning by analogy is a powerful cognitive tool for solving problems by transferring

solutions from one context to another. It allows individuals to apply previously learned
knowledge to new situations, speeding up the problem-solving process and encouraging
creative solutions.

BLOCKS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

A problem is something that can't be solved in a single, obvious step, unlike simple tasks
such as combing hair, which require no real effort or thought. Problem-solving, on the other
hand, involves a goal with obstacles or constraints that make finding a solution more
challenging. Sometimes, these barriers slow us down, while in other cases, they can
completely block progress. Various factors can interfere with problem-solving, making some
problems much harder to solve than others.

1.​ Mental Set

The figure below presents a number of problems on the same theme: obtaining an exact
amount of water, given three different-size measuring jugs. Before reading on, work on each
problem in the order given, and write down the time it takes you to complete each one. Also,
record any thoughts about the relative difficulty of the problems.
If you actually worked on the problems, you probably found the following: The first one took
a relatively long time, but you were faster and faster at solving the subsequent problems,
given the number of problems that you had previously worked on. You also probably noticed
a common pattern to the problems: All could be solved by the formula B – A – 2C. Did you
use this formula to solve the second-to-last problem? If you did, that is interesting because an
apparently more direct solution would be A + C. The very last problem is also interesting in
that it does not fit the first formula at all but is quickly solved with a very easy formula, A –
C. Did it take you some time to realize this? If so, your performance might be characterized
as being constrained by mental set.

Mental set is the tendency to adopt a certain framework, strategy, or procedure or, more
generally, to see things in a certain way instead of in other, equally plausible ways. Mental
set is analogous to perceptual set, the tendency to perceive an object or pattern in a certain
way on the basis of your immediate perceptual experience. Like the perceptual set, the
mental set seems to be induced by even short amounts of practice. Working on several water
jug problems in a row that follow a common pattern makes it easy to apply the formula but
harder to see new relationships among the three terms.

Luchins (1942) reported on experiments in which problems such as those in Figure were
given to university students. After solving the first four problems using the formula B – A –
2C, all the students solved the fifth problem using this method, instead of the more direct A +
C method available. Even more striking, when the B – A – 2C solution wouldn’t work,
students suffering from mental set were unable to even see the more obvious A + C solution,
which would have worked! Mental set often causes people to make certain unwarranted
assumptions without being aware of making them.
Another example of a mental set is illustrated in Figure below, which depicts another famous
problem in the literature, known as the two-string problem (Maier, 1930, 1931). A person is
shown to a room that has two strings attached to the ceiling. The strings are spaced so far
apart that the person can’t hold onto both at the same time. His task is to tie these strings
together somehow. All he has in the room with him are a table, a book of matches, a
screwdriver, and a few pieces of cotton. What can he do?

The solution, which many people have difficulty discovering, is to use the screwdriver as a
weight to make one of the strings into a pendulum. Swing this string, walk to the other string
and grab it, wait for the pendulum to swing toward you, grab it, and tie the two strings
together. Fewer than 40% of the participants in Maier’s experiment solved this without a
hint. One source of difficulty seemed to be their unwillingness to think of other functions for
a screwdriver; they failed to notice that the screwdriver could be used as a weight as well as
for its intended function. This phenomenon is called functional fixedness. It appears to be an
instance of mental set, in that a person subject to functional fixedness has apparently adopted
a rigid mental set toward an object.
 2.​ Using Incomplete or Incorrect Representation

A related difficulty in problem solving has to do with the initial interpretation of the
problem. If the problem is misunderstood, or if the wrong information is focused on, the
solver is at a disadvantage. The choice of representation can often make a great difference.
Schwartz (1971), studying problems such as the women-dogs-children-jobs problem of Box
found that people who constructed charts like the one in were much more successful in
solving the problems than people who merely wrote down names, dogs, jobs, and so forth,
with arrows or lines connecting them (for example, Cathy—Irish setter; Golden
retriever—four children).

1.​ Failure to Identify Key Elements

○​ When people don't fully grasp the important details of a problem, they may
omit crucial information or misinterpret the situation.
○​ Example: A novice might look at a physics problem and only focus on the
visible objects, ignoring the laws of motion that govern the system.
2.​ Misleading Representations
○​ Even when individuals attempt to represent a problem, they may do so in a
way that doesn't accurately reflect the problem’s structure, leading to poor
solutions.
○​ Example: In medical diagnosis, an incorrect representation of symptoms or a
failure to account for certain variables can lead to misdiagnosis.
3.​ Simplifying Complex Problems
○​ In an attempt to make a problem more solvable, people may oversimplify
complex situations and lose essential nuances.
○​ Example: A chess player may not consider the long-term consequences of a
move because they focus only on immediate threats or opportunities.
4.​ Cognitive Biases
○​ Using incomplete representations often stems from cognitive biases like
anchoring, where individuals base their solutions on an incomplete set of
information or previous knowledge that doesn’t fully apply to the current
situation.
○​ Example: A judge might be influenced by an initial impression of a case,
leading to an incorrect interpretation of subsequent evidence.
5.​ Over-reliance on Familiar Patterns
○​ Experts and novices alike may rely on familiar patterns or previous
experiences to represent problems, but this can result in overgeneralization.
○​ Example: A chess player might try to apply a strategy from one game to
another even though the board setup is different and requires a new approach.
Effects of Incomplete or Incorrect Representations

●​ Reduced Problem-Solving Efficiency: When the problem is represented incorrectly,

the individual may waste time focusing on irrelevant aspects, resulting in a longer
and less effective solution process.
●​ Increased Likelihood of Errors: An inaccurate representation of the problem
increases the chances of reaching incorrect conclusions or making bad decisions.
○​ Example: In diagnosing a disease, if the doctor misrepresents the symptoms or
misses critical details, it could lead to a wrong diagnosis.
●​ Difficulty in Strategy Selection: Problem-solving strategies are often based on how
the problem is represented. If the representation is incomplete, it may prevent the
problem-solver from selecting an appropriate strategy.
○​ Example: A student solving a math problem may struggle to choose between
algebraic manipulation and geometric reasoning if they do not represent the
problem in terms of the right mathematical concept.

How to Improve Representations for Better Problem-Solving

1.​ Clarify and Expand the Representation

○​ Ensuring that all relevant information is included and properly understood can
improve the accuracy of the representation.
○​ Example: Before solving a complex problem, break it down into smaller
components and carefully identify all the variables involved.
2.​ Seek Feedback and External Input
○​ Collaborating with others, especially experts, can help identify and correct
faulty representations.
○​ Example: A team working on a project might benefit from feedback to ensure
the problem is fully understood and represented accurately.
3.​ Reframe the Problem
○​ Sometimes, changing the way the problem is framed or represented can open
up new avenues for problem-solving.
○​ Example: If a chess player is stuck, they might benefit from seeing the game
from a different angle (e.g., considering defensive moves rather than just
attacking).
4.​ Use External Tools
○​ Visual aids, diagrams, or models can help to make the problem representation
more concrete and less prone to errors.
○​ Example: A diagram of a circuit in electronics can help avoid misrepresenting
the flow of electricity or the relationship between components.
5.​ Practice Mental Flexibility
○​ Being open to adjusting your representation of a problem as new information
comes in can help you avoid getting stuck in an inaccurate view.
○​ Example: In diagnostic tasks, doctors may update their mental representation
of a patient's condition as new test results or symptoms appear.
 3.​ Lack of Problem-Specific Knowledge or Expertise

1.​ Novices Process Information Differently Than Experts

○​ Novices rely on trial and error and often attempt random solutions rather
than applying structured strategies.
○​ Experts, on the other hand, use their knowledge base to recognize patterns
and apply relevant principles.
2.​ Lack of Meaningful Chunking
○​ Experts can organize information into meaningful "chunks", which helps
them process and retrieve information efficiently.
○​ Novices struggle with chunking because they lack prior knowledge, leading to
cognitive overload and slower problem-solving.
3.​ Superficial vs. Deep Processing
○​ Novices tend to focus on surface-level features rather than deeper principles.
○​ Experts categorize problems based on underlying principles, such as physics
laws or medical symptoms, making their problem-solving more efficient.
4.​ Difficulty in Recognizing Relevant vs. Irrelevant Information
○​ Without expertise, problem-solvers struggle to filter critical information from
distractions.
○​ Example: A psychology student designing an experiment might focus too
much on sample size but overlook confounding variables, while an
experienced researcher prioritizes both.
5.​ Slower and Inefficient Problem-Solving
○​ Novices take longer to solve problems because they lack mental shortcuts
(heuristics).
○​ Experts, through experience, develop quick decision-making rules that speed
up their thinking process.
6.​ Higher Probability of Errors
○​ Since novices lack experience, they are more prone to misjudgments and
mistakes.
○​ Experts cross-check their solutions and use error detection strategies,
leading to fewer mistakes.

How to Overcome the Lack of Expertise

●​ Practice and Experience: Repeated exposure to problems helps develop expertise.

●​ Learning from Experts: Observing how experts solve problems can help novices
adopt better strategies.
●​ Developing Conceptual Understanding: Instead of memorizing facts, focusing on
core principles helps in long-term learning.
●​ Using Problem-Solving Frameworks: Structured approaches, like means-end
analysis, help break problems into manageable steps.
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