REFERENCE page 1

ALGEBRA GEOMETRY

Arithmetic Operations Geometric Formulas

a c _ ad + be
a{b + c) — ah + ac
J'^'d W Formulas for area/4, circumference C, and volume V:.

Triangle Circle Sector of Circle

a + c _ a_ £. X ^ A = \bh A = TTr^ A={r^e
b ~ b c b c be
= jafe sin Q C= 27rr 3 = rd (0 in radians)

Exponents and Radicals

-ffi

X X =X
X

{x")" = x" x'" =

= xy
Sphere Cylinder Cone
.l/n
V^trr^h V=

n\^ —
A = Ttr-Jr'^ +
y

Factoring Special Polynomials

= (a; + >'){a: - y)
x^ + y^ =(x + - xy + /)
1
x^~y^ =(x- y){x^ +xy + y^)

Binomial Theorem Distance and Midpoint Formulas

(jr + yf -X'+ Ixy y'- (a: - y)' = at' - Ixy + y* Distance between Pi(xi. yi) and Pi{xt, yj):
(a: + y)' = at' + 3A:^y + 3xy' + y'
(x - y)' = a:' - 3A:'y + 3xy^ - y' d = VUi --ci)^ + (yj - yi)^

(a: + y)" -x"+ /iA:'''y + ^^a:''"V^ ■ xi + X2 yi •+ y2

Midpoint of P\p2:
. 2
+ -v + x" 'y* + ••• + nA:y""' + y"

n{n - l)---(n — ik + 1) Lines

where
^k/ I • 2• 3 • •
Slope of line through P|(xi, yi) and P2U2. y2):
Quadratic Formula y2 - yi
m
—b ± -Jb- — Aac , X2 - Xi
If ax^ + bx + c = 0, then at =
2a
Point-slope equation of line through Pi(xi, yi) with slope m:
Inequalities and Absolute Value
y - yi = m(x - Xi)
If a < i) and A < c. then a < c.
Ifa < b, then a + c < b + c. Slope-intercept equation of line with slope m and y-intercept b\
Ifa < b and c > 0, then ca < cb.
y — mx + b ,
lfa<b and c < 0,then ca > cb.

If a > 0, then Circles

IXI — a means x = a ot x = —a
Equation of the circle with center {h, k) and radius r:
|x|<fl means -a<x<a
IXI > a means x> a or x < ~a (x - hy + (y - k)^ =
 REFERENCE page2
TRIGONOMETRY

Angle Measurement Fundamental Identities

TT radians = 180® csc 0 = —r— sec 0 =

sin 0 cos 0
r=-^rad 180
lr^d =-^ TT sin 0 cos 0
tan 0 = cot 0 =
cos 0 sin 0
s = r9

{B in radians) cot0 = sin*0 + cos'0 = 1

tan 0

Right Angle Trigonometry 1 + tan^0 = sec*0 I + cot^0 = csc'0

OPP hyp
sin 6 = csc 6 = sin(-0) — -sin 0 cos(—0) = cos 0
hyp opp

adj hyp
sec 0 = tan(-0) = -tan0 COS0
hyp adj
opp adj
tan 0 = cot0 = cos I — — 0 J = sin tan! — - 0 1 = cot 0
adj opp

Trigonometric Functions
The Law of Sines
y
Sin 0 = — csc 0 = —
sin/I sinB sin C
y

cos (7 = — sec 0 = —
r *

y
tan 0 = — cot 0 = — The Law of Cosines
y
— 2bc cos A

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions b^ = — lac cos B

y = lanx + b^ - lab cos C A

y = sin.r y = cos X

Addition and Subtraction Formulas

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

sinU - y) = sinx cosy - cosx siny
cos(x + y) = cos X cos y — sin x sin y

y = cscx y = secx y=»cotx cos(x - y)— cos X cos y + sin x sin y

.U iV tan(x + y) =
tan X + tan y
1 - tan X tan y

tan X - tan y
2ir X 27rx tan(x - y) —
-I- -
1 + tan X tan y
-I--

Double-Angle Formulas
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
Trigonometric Functions of Important Angles
cos 2x = cos^x - sin^x == 2 cos^x - 1 •= 1 — 2 sin^x
a radians sin a cos a tan a
2tanx
0" 0 0 1 0 tan 2x =
1 - tanlr
30' 7r/6 1/2 73/2 Sn
45' 7t/4 72/2 72/2 1 Half-Angle Formulas
60' 7r/3 73/2 1/2 73
., 1 - cos 2x , 1 + cos 2x
sin X cos'x = 1
90' Tr/2 1 0 —
 REFERENCE page3
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Power Functions fix) = x"

(0 fix)= x"y n a positive integer

11
/(l.l)
v = x^ /
x^

{-l.I)
y~y=^'
0 X

0 X M-l.-l)

H even

nodd

1—
(11) fix) — x^'" = n a positive integer II
y y

0 X 0 X

fix)=^
(III) /(^)= x-' =- y
X

1 \

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

arcsin x = sin x = y <=> sin )! = x and —:r ^ ^ T

lim tan 'x = ——
r--® 2

arccos x = cos vc = >> <=> cos y = x and 0 < ^ it

lim tan 'x = —
2

arctanx = tan"*'j; =y <=> tan^-^x and —— <3'< —

y = tan"'x = arctan x
 \
REFERENCEpage4
H
II
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions y
lOgfeAT'®)' <=> b'' = X
/ /y=x
In a: = log,X, where In e = 1
in j: = y <=^> e- = x \.
y/ y=lnA
Cancellation Equations Laws of Logarithms
logf.{Z»0=-t = 1. logiU}') = logiA: + logfc)'
ln{c') = a: e =X 2. logt[ — J = logi,;c - logty lim e'= 0 lim e' = °o
X—
3. logtUO = rlogftJ: lim in a: — —oo lim InAT = M
*-♦0+
y = log,A
V = In.v
V = l0g5A
> = 108,0-^
Exponential functions Logarithmic functions
Hyperbolic Functions
\
y = coshA\ ^
e' — e~' I
sinh X = csch X =
2 sinh A
y = tanhA
e' + e' I
cosh X — sech A =
r~ cosh A
A
sinh A cosh A
tanh X = coth A =
cosh A sinh A
y=sinhA/
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
y = sinh"'A sinh>' = A sinh"'A = ln(A + •Jx'^ + l)
y = cosh~'A cosh>' = A and y ^ 0 cosh"'A = ln{A + ~ l)
y = tanh~'A <=> tanh y = a ta„b . 1 /1 + J
 REFERENCEpageS
DIFFERENTIATION RULES

General Formulas

1. —(c)= 0
ax
2. -^[cfix)]= cf'ix)

3. —[f{x)+gix)]=f'{x)+g'{x) 4. —[/W-9(^)]=/'(^)-3'W

fix) gix)f'ix) -f{x)g'ix)

5. —[fix)g(x)]=f{x)g'ix) + g(x)f'(x) (Product Rule) (Quotient Rule)
gix) [sWl*

7. -^figix)) =f'{gix))g'{x} (Chain Rule) 8. — (j:") = nx" ' (Power Rule)

ax dx

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

9. —(eO=e^ 10. —{b')= b''\r\b

ax dx

11. -^ln[j:i =-
dx X
12. ^(logij:)= -^-r
dx x\nb

Trigonometric Functions

13. —(sin a:) = cos a: 14. —(cos a:) = -sin;c 15. — (tan a:) = scc^a:
dx dx dx

16. —(csca:) = —cscATCCtx 17. — (sec a:) = sec a: tan ;c 18. — (coIa:) = -csc^a:
dx dx dx

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

19. — (sin-'-f) =
dx
1
20. dx (cos 'a:) = — ^ 21. ^(tan 'a:) = ^ ^
dx I + x^

22. dx (csc 'ac) = \

Xyjx^ - 1
23. ~(sec"'A:) = —7==
dx Xyjx^ ~ 1
24. -^(cor'A:) = I 2
dx 1 + a:'^

Hyperbolic Functions

25. — (sinh x) = cosh x 26. — (cosh a:) — sinh x 27. — (tanhx) = sech^A:
dx dx dx

28. — (csch a:) = —csch x coth x 29. —(sech at) = — sechA: tanhA: 3D. — (coth.r) = -csch^AT
dx dx dx

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

31. (sinh 'a:) = 32. — (cosh 'a:) = , ■ ^ 33. dx (tanh 'a:) = \ -^ x^^
dx yrr dx

34. -^(csch 'a:) = —;—. }. 35. -^(sech"'A:)

dx
= —XyJ\ - 36.^(coth"'A:) = ^ 3
dx 1 - a:
 REFERENCE page 6
TABLE OF INTEGRALS

Basic Forms

1. ^ udv = uv ~ ^ vdu 11. j* csc u cot udu = —csc u + C

■I""
2. I u" du~
n + 1
+ C, n7^-l 12. J tan u rfw = In I sec i( I + C
■jf =
du
+ C 13. J cot w rfu = In 1 sin u I + C
.\e-du = 6" + C 14. I sec udu = \n\ sec u + tan u | + C
•1
5. \ fdu
b"
+ C
In b
15. J csc u (/« = In I csc u - cot HI + C
6.. Jjsisin udu = —cos u + C 16. Jf yja'^
. - u-
^=sin-'-+
a
C, a>0
C du 1 ^
7. [ cos udu = sinu + C
■1 17.
} a' u
= — tan
a
— + C
a

. J sec^H du = = tan « + C
r
18. J^==
u^u^ —
du
= -1
a
sec
1
' —H C
a

C du 1 .
9. J csc^H du = —cot u + C "■ J ~ 2a "
u + a

■I u — a
+ C

•I
10. sec u tan u du = see u + C 20. J u -a
=f
2a
,n u — a

u •¥ a
+ C

Forms Involving s/a- + . a >0

21. j* •Ja'^ + u'^ du = y +C

22. Jj* o
+ 2u^) " ■^in(u
8
+ x/a^~+^) + C
r J(i + « , a + ^a2 + u2
23. J du = In + C

r Ja^ + u^ Ja^ + ^^
24. ; du = + Infw + + w^) + c
J u

25. f , - = ln{u + + w^) + C

26. f .—.f!!!. - = — .Va^ + — — ln(u + + uA + C

y/a- + m2 + a
27. Jf u^a''-
^+ u- lln
a
+ C

r Va2 + ^
* J uVa^ + a^u
( du ^ ^
' J {a' + uY' "
 REFERENCEpage7
TABLE OF INTEGRALS

Forms Involving -Ja- - a>0

30. jf yja'^ — u^du = 2 + —sin""'

l
—a + C

31. Jf u^y/a^~~u^du = ~(2u^

8
- + —sin"'
8
—+C
(7

32. jI* Ja^ - «2 du — yja^

^
— ir — a In a + yja'^ -
+C

j* Ja^ - 11^ 1 , ,«
; du = y/a^—^ - sin — + C
J u u a

du u f— u
34
■I -====
yja^ - u^
-—yja^ - m2 + —sin-'-+ C
2 2 a

a + yja'^ - u'
35 + C
J - 1/2 a

36. Jf u^yja^
/" - m2 a^u
- „2 + c
37. Jf (a^ - = ~~{2u'^
o
- 5a'^)'Ja^ ~ + -^sin"'
8
—a + C
38 f " + C
* J (a* - u^y^^ a^-Ja'^ - «2

Forms Involving yjir - a-, a > 0

39. j* Vw'^ ~ 0^ Y ~ In I" + ~ I+C

40. f uV"^ ~
J
= ■^(2«^ - a'^)y/u^ - a2 - -^in |h +
o 8
- a'^ \ + C
41. — du = y/u^ — — a cos^^-r~ + C
J u |«|

...
42.
r V"^ ~ ,
du —
v/"^ ~ I
1- In H + Ju- —
/ , + C
J «■ 1/ ' '

43. Jf v'", 5"- a2, = In 1' u + ~ II + C

C u^du u /—. r a^ , r,
44. =—yju^ - +—\n\u -Ju^ - a^ \ + C
J yju^ - a^ 2 2 ' '

. f //« V"^ - a2
'• ■— = — i- c
J u^yju'^ — o^u
r du u
' J (m^ - a^^u^ -
(continued)
 REFERENCE pages
TABLE OF INTEGRALS

Forms Involving a + bu

47. Jf a"— — —7(a + bu — aln '\ a + bu\)+ C

+ bu b^^

48. J{* a"+ bu = —|-r

2b
[(a + buy - 4o(a + 6u) + 2a^ ln|0 + |1•' + C

49
■I u{a + bu) = — In
a a + bu
+ C

du 1 b .In a + bu
50 = H + C
•\a + bu) au a' u

udu a
1 (a + buy b\a + bu) + -jb ]n\a + bu \ + C
du 1 1 a + bu
52
J* u{a + bu)^ a(a + bu) + C

'•J (a "+ buy, = -^(a

b' \
+ bu ——
a + bu
2a In I' a + /ju I"I + C
. J1* uyfa~\^^du = ■ I5b,T (3&0 — 2a){a + bu)^'^ + C

55. (ijH — 2a) y/a + bu + C

J v/a
Ja + bi u 3/)^
2
(8a^ + 3b^u^ - 4abu)-Ja + bu + C
"•Ji
y/a + bu 15/>"

y/a + bu — -Ja
57. _L In + C, if a > 0
J wvfl + bu y/a y/a + bu + yfa
, ,a + bu . _
tan ' - ' + C if a < 0
-a

C y/a + bu , ^ ,——— . f du
58. I du = 2y/a + bu + a \ —
J u J u y/a +
+ bu

59.1 = - ■s/a + bu ^ £b2 Jr uy/ad + bu du

60. = |^u''(a + buy'^ ~ j* ' Vfl + bu rf«j

r u"du_ 2u"'Ja + bu 2na f »""'du
J y/a + bu b{2n + 1) bi2n + 1) J y/a + bu
bu b{2n — 3) j* du
J «Va + bu ain - ^u""' 2a(n - 1) J u''~^y/a + bu
 REFERENCEpage9
TABLE OF INTEGRALS

Trigonometric Forms

63. j* sin'H rfu = — I sin 2u + C 76. cot"!/ du =

n- I
— cot" 'u -
J
cot" hidu

64. j cos-u du = 5" + 4 sin 2u + C 77. sec udu =

i
n- 1
tan u sec "n +
-2 r
|
n- I J
sec 'u du

65. J tan-u i^u = tanu-u + C 78. csc u du =

-1
n- \
cot 1/ csc 'u H
n -2 f
1 csc
n- I J
u du

66. J cot'H du = —col u — u + C 79.

. , ,
sm au sin bu du = —;
sin (« — b)u
2{a - b)
—
sin {a + b)u
;
2(fl + b)
: 1- C

67. J* sin^i du = -5(2 + sin^n) cos 11 + C 80.

, ,
cos au cos bu du = —;
sin {a - b)u
2(rt - b)
:— + —
sin (a + b)u
2{a + b)
—+C

68. J cos'u du = j(2 + cos'u) sin u + C 81. sin au cos bu du —

cos {a — h)u
r:
2(a - b)
cos(a + b)u
—
2{a + b)
—+C

69. J tan^( du = k tan^n + In|cos u \ + C 82. u sin u du = sin « — w cos u + C

70. I coi'm du = cot^M - In I sin u I + C 83. u cos udu = cos u + u sin u + C

sec^/ du = \ sec u tan u + I In I sec u + tan 1/1 + C 84. u" sin u du = —u" cos u + cos u du

72. J csc^n du = csc u cot« + 5 In|csc n - cot m|+ C 85. u" cos u du = u" sin « — n j m" M ju"-'si sin u du

73. Jf sin"t< du = —-
n
sin""'M cos u + n
[
J
sin"""« du 86. sin"n cos"'« du = —
sin""'M cos"''^'u . /I — I
n+m
+
n + m
I sin""^u cos'"« du

74. Jf cos"« du = ~n cos""'n sin u + n

f cos""-m du
J
sin""*"'// cos""'!/
n -t- m
+
m — 1
n + m
J sin"« cos"""*
75. f tan"ui/u = —^—tan"~'M - f tan"~htdu
J n-] J

Inverse Trigonometric Forms

87. j* sin"'urfn = u sin"'H + y/\ - u^ + C J u tan _lM du = —I—

M "T" I tan u — —+C
^
88. J* cos"'h du = u cos"'n ~ — u^ C . Jf M"sin 'udu = —- h"^' sin 'u - Jf Vl
,- f L « 7^ -I
n+I L
89. j* tan"'M du = u tan"'H — jln(I + u^) + C
r u" cos u du
I r
r «"
1
cos u +
f .
1, n 7^ — 1
C _i 2«" — I M\/l ~ J n + 1 |_ J Vi -
90. Hsm ^udu = : sin '» + +C
J 4 4

C Iw - I mVI ~ w r 1 r C u"*'du~\
91. I u cos H du = : cos u +C . u" tan 'udu = tan 'u - I r . n 7^ -1
J 4 4 J «+ 1 L J 1 + «' J
(continued)
 REFERENCEpage 10
|<.
TABLE OF INTEGRALS
s
a

Exponential and Logarithmic Forms

1
1

96. j* ue""(/u =^(au - 1)e"" + C |

100. In Hrfu = u In u-u + C
97. I u"e''"du = — uV"" |
101. (/"inurfw = [(/i + l)ln« - 1] + C
c e"" r 1
98. \ e"" sin bu du =—z -(asinbu - bcosbu) + C 102. —-—rf« = lnllnul + C
J + b- J II \nu

r
99. I e"" cos bu du = —; -7(« cos bu + b sin bu) + C
J + b-

Hyperboiic Forms

103. J sinh n dii = cosh u + C 108. j* csch 1/ du = In|tanh 5|

u +C
104. I cosh udu = sinh u + C J ~ u+C
105. j* tanhurfu = Incoshu + C 110. j* csch"Ui/« = —cothu + C
106. J coth udu = In \ sinh u \ + C J ^ u+C
107. J sech u Ju = tan"'|sinh u \ + C 112. j* csch u coth u du = —csch u + C
Forms Involving y/2au — ,a >0

113. J y/2au - u^du ="^ ^ -Jlau — u- + -^cos"'^-——^ + C

1

3
r - au — 3a^ e-
u\]2au -- u^ y/2au — «-7 + ~^cos_,{a
I - u \1 + C_

,15. I u
M'
du = 72^17^ + acos-'(^)+ C
1,6. I y/2au
--- — - U'
u-
= _2^2au-u^ _ J ^^
du

\/2au — u-

u du
u-

119. I u^du
U'
+ ^=os-(^ I + C
du
120. 1 --
iV2a« — au
 CHAPTER 1 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) What is a function? What are its domain and range? (b) Power function: fix)= a^,/(a) = a"
A function /is a rule that assigns to each element x in (c) Exponential function:fix)= 2\fix) = b^
a set D exactly one element, called /(.v), in a set E. The
(d) Quadratic function: fix) = a* + a + 1,
domain is the set D and the range is the set of all possible
values of/(^) as .v varies throughout the domain. fix) = ax^ + bx + c
(b) What is the graph of a function?
(e) Polynomial of degree 5:fix)= a'+ 2a'' - 3a^ + 7
X P(a)
The graph of a function /consists of all points (.v, y) such (f) Rational function:fix) ,fix) =
that y =fix) and .r is in the domain of /. A-f 2'-'^' Qix)
(c) How can you tell whether a given curve is the graph of a where Fix) and Qix) are polynomials
function?
Sketch by hand, on the satne axes, the graphs
Use the Vertical Line Test: a curve in the jy-plane is the functions.
graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical line
(a) fix) =x (b) gix) = x^
intersects the curve more than once.
(c) ;t(A) = A^ (d) jix) = a"
2. Discuss four ways of representing a function. Illustrate your
discussion with examples. h

A function can be represented verbally, numerically, visually, g(A)= A-M

or algebraically. An example of each is given below.
Verbally: An assignment of students to chairs in a classroom
(a description in words)
Numerically: A tax table that assigns an amount of tax to an
/S X

income (a table of values)

Visually: A graphical history of the Dow Jones average
(a graph)
Algebraically: A relationship between the area A and side lh(x)=x^
length s of a square; A = s'(an explicit formula)
8. Draw, by hand, a rough sketch of the graph of each function,
3. (a) What is an even function? How can you tell if a function
(a) y = sin A
is even by looking at its graph? Give three examples of an
even function.
y
A function / is even if it satisfies f{-x) =fix) for
every number x in its domain. If the graph of a function liry
is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, then / is even. .V

Examples are fix) = x',fix) = cos .v, fix) —|.v |. -1

(b) What is an odd function? How can you tell if a function

is odd by looking at its graph? Give three examples of an (b) y = cos A
odd function.

A function / is odd if it satisfies fi-x) = -fix) for every

number x in its domain. If the graph of a function is sym
metric with respect to the origin, then / is odd. Examples
are fix) = a"', fix) = sin a,fix) — 1 /a.
4. What is an increasing function?
A function / is increasing on an interval / if /{ai) </(a2)
(c) y = tan A
whenever A] < at in /.

5. What is a mathematical model?

A mathematical model is a mathematical description (often by

means of a function or an equation) of a real-world phenom
enon.(See the discussion on pages 23-24.)
6. Give an example of each type of function.
(a) Linear function: f(x) = 2x + 1,/(a) = ax b

(continued)
 CHAPTER 1 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (contimed)
(d) = Mx (e) y = Ul 12. Explain what each of the following means and illustrate with
a sketch.
y
(a) lim f{x) = L means that the values of f{x) approach L as
x—*a

the values of .v approach a (but x ^ a).

(f) >"=

(b) lim f{x) — L means that the values of f{x) approach L as

s—a'*

the values of x approach a through values greater than a.

1 V

9. Suppose that f has domain A and g has domain B.

(a) What is the domain of/+ g? (c) lim fix) — L means that the values of f{x) approach L as
x^a
The domain of/+ g is the intersection of the domain of the values of x approach a through values less than a.
/and the domain of g\ that is, A (1 5.
(b) What is the domain offgl
The domain of/g is also A 0 B.
(c) What is the domain of //g?
The domain of ffg must exclude values of.r that make g
equal to 0; that is, {.t E A Pi B|g(j:) # 0}.
(d) lim fix) = «: means that the values of fix) can be made
10. How is the composite function /o g defined? What is its X^Q

domain? arbitrarily large by taking x sufficiently close to a (but not

equal to a).
The composition of/and g is defined by (/■= g)U) = f{g{x)).
The domain is the set of all .v in the domain of g such that gix)
is in the domain of /.

11. Suppose the graph of / is given. Write an equation for each of

the graphs that are obtained from the graph of / as follows.
(a) Shift 2 units upward: y =f{x) + 2
(b) Shift 2 units downward: y = f{x) — 2 (e) lim fix) = means that the values of fix) can be
c—'fl

(c) Shift 2 units to the right: y =f{x — 2) made arbitrarily large negative by taking x sufficiently
(d) Shift 2 units to the left: y =f{x + 2) close to a (but not equal to «)•
(e) Reflect about the A:-axis: y = ~f(x) V

(f) Reflect about the y-axis: y=f{-x) .r = a

(g) Stretch vertically by a factor of 2: y = 2f{x)

(h) Shrink vertically by a factor of 2: y = \fix) ^ 0 \
(I) Stretch horizontally by a factor of 2: y= /^y = /U)
(j) Shrink horizontally by a factor of 2 y =/(2a:) 1
(continued)
 CHAPTER 1 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
13. Describe several ways in which a limit can fail to exist. 15. State the following Limit Laws.
Illustrate with sketches.
(a) Sum Law
In general, the limit of a function fails to exist when the func
The limit of a sura is the sum of the limits:
tion values do not approach a fixed number. For each of the lim [/(.r) + 9(x)] = lim /(x) + lim g{x)
following functions, the limit fails to exist at a: = 2. x—'ti x—'a x—fa

(b) Difference Law

The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits:
lim [fix) - g(x)] = lim /(x)- lim gix)
x—'a x—'a x—'a

(c) Constant Miiiliple Law

The limit of a constant times a function is the constant
times the limit of the function: lim [c/(x)] = c lim /(x)
(d) Product Law
The limit of a product is the product of the limits:
lim [/(x)3(x)] = lim f(x) ■ lim g(x)
j—*u x—»<j
The left and right There is an
limits are not equal. infinite discontinuity. (e) Quotient Law
The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits, pro
vided that the limit of the denominator is not 0:
lim fix)
fix)
if lim g(x) 0
g(x) lim g(x)

(f) Power Law

The limit of a power is the power of the limit:
lim [/(x)]" = ^ lim /(x)j'' (for n a positive integer)
The function values oscillate (g) Root Law
between 1 and -1 infinitely often. The limit of a root is the root of the limit:

lim = V lim fix) (for n a positive integer)

x—»a * x—*<i
14. What does it mean to say that the line x = a is a vertical
asymptote of the curve y =/(x)? Draw curves to illustrate
16. What does the Squeeze Theorem say?
the various possibilities.
It means that the limit of/(x) as x approaches a from one or If fix) « gix) « /i(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a)
both sides is positive or negative infinity.
and lim fix) — lim hix) = L, then lim ^(x) = L. In other
r— x—^a ,t—

words, if y(x) is squeezed between fix) and /j(x) near o, and

y.
if/and h have the same limit L at a, then g is forced to have
the same limit L at a.
y = /(x)

a X
17. (a) What does it mean for /to be continuous at al
/ ^ A function / is continuous at a number a if the value
of the function at x = a is the same as the limit when x
approaches a\ that is, lim fix) =fid).
*—•<1

y y (b) What does it mean for / to be continuous on the interval

/ (-QC. cc)? What can you say about the graph of such a
function?

0 a X 0 a
A function / is continuous on the interval (—0=, oo) if it Is
X
continuous at every real number o.
The graph of such a function has no hole or break in it.

(continued)
 CHAPTER 1 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
18. (a) Give examples of functions that are continuous 19. What does the Intermediate Value Theorem say?
on[—1,1]. If/is continuous on [a, b] and N is any number between f(a)
f(x)= ~ X, g(;r) = y/x + 2,y = sin a:, >> = tan x, and f{b)[f{a)#f{b)]^ Then there exists a number c in (a, b)
y = \/ix - 3), and hix) =
| are all continuous on such that /(c) = N. In other words, a continuous function
[-1.1]. takes on every intermediate value between the function values
(b) Give an example of a function that is not continuous f{a) and f{b).
on [0, 1].
1
nx)= [/(a:) is not defined at a: == 2]
 CHAPTER 2 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS

1. Write an expression for the slope of the tangent line to the (c) Sketch the graph of a function that is continuous but not
curve y =f(x) at the point ia,f{a)). differentiable at a = 2.

The slope of the tangent line is given by

fix) -fia) fia + h)-fia)

lim or lim
h—0

2. Suppose an object moves along a straight line with posi

tion /(f) at time t. Write an expression for the instantaneous
velocity of the object at time / = a. How can you interpret
this velocity in terms of the graph of/?
The graph of/changes direction abruptly at a = 2, so/
The instantaneous velocity at time / = a is has no tangent line there.
fja + h) -fia)
v{a) = lim 6. Describe several ways in which a function can fail to be
A-»0 h
differentiable. Illustrate with sketches.
It is equal to the slope of the tangent line to the graph of/at
A function is not differentiable at any value where the graph
the point Pia,fia)).
has a "corner," where the graph has a discontinuity, or where
3. If y =fix) and x changes from X[ to xi, write expressions for it has a vertical tangent line.
the following.
(a) The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the
interval [xi, jtj];
fiX2) -fiXj)
X2 ~ Xt

(b) The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x

at a: = All

Ax—0 Aa ci A2 — Ai A comer A discontinuity

4. Define the derivative fia). Discuss two ways of interpreting
this number.
fia + h)- fia)
fia)= lim

or, equivalently,

fix)-fia)
fia)= lim

The derivative fia) is the instantaneous rate of change of A vertical tangent

y =fix)(with respect to a) when a = n and also represents
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of/ at the point 7, What are the second and third derivatives of a function /?
PiaJia)). If/ is the position function of an object, how can you inter
pret /" and /"'?
5. (a) What does it mean for/ to be differentiable at a?
The second derivative f" is the derivative of/', and the third
/ is differentiable at a if the derivative fia)exists, derivative /"' is the derivative of /".
(b) What is the relation between the differentiability and If/ is the postilion function of an object, then /' is the veloc
continuity of a function? ity function of the object,/" is the acceleration function, and
If/is differentiable at a, then / is continuous at a. /"' is the jerk function (the rate of change of acceleration).

(continued)
 CHAPTER 2 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
8. State each differentiation rule both in symbols and in words. differentiable at x and F' is given by the product
(a) The Power Rule F'ix) =/'(9(a))9'(a)
If n is any real number, then —(j:")= nx"~\
ax The derivative of a composite function is the derivative of
To find the derivative of a variable raised to a constant the outer function evaluated at the inner function times the
power, we multiply the expression by the exponent and derivative of the inner function.
then subtract one from the exponent.
9. State the derivative of each function.
(b) The Constant Multiple Rule (a) y = j:": y' = na:""'
If c is a constant and /is a differentiable function, then (b) y = sin x: y' = cos x

■^[cfix)] = c-^f{x)
dx dx
(c) y = cos a: y' = -sin a
(d) y = tan a: y' = sec'A
The derivative of a constant times a function is the (e) y = csc a: y' = —csc a cot a
constant times the derivative of the function.
(f)y = secA: y'=secAtanA
(c) The Sum Rule
(g) y = cot a: y' — -csc-A
If / and g are both differentiable, then
10. Explain how implicit differentiation works.
-^[f{x) + g(x)] = -^/(a) + ^g(.v)
dx dx dx
Implicit differentiation consists of differentiating both sides
of an equation with respect to a, treating y as a function of a.
The derivative of a sum of functions is the sum of the Then we solve the resulting equation for y'.
derivatives.
11. Give several examples of how the derivative can be inter
(d) The Difference Rule preted as a rate of change in physics, chemistry, biology,
economics, or other sciences.
If / and g are both differentiable, then
In physics, interpretations of the derivative include velocity,
^[/W-.U)] = f/W-^9(.v) linear density, electrical current, power (the rate of change
of work), and the rate of radioactive decay. Chemists can use
derivatives to measure reaction rates and the compressibility
The derivative of a difference of functions is the differ
ence of the derivatives.
of a substance under pressure. In biology the derivative mea
sures rates of population growth and blood fl ow. In econom
(e) The Product Rule ics. the derivative measures marginal cost (the rate of change
If / and g are both differentiable, then of cost as more items are produced) and marginal profit. Other
examples include the rate of heat flow in geology, the rate
-f
dx
[/(,r)g(.v)] =/(.v) -f
dx
[!,(a-)] + g(.v) dx [/(.v)] of performance improvement in psychology, and the rate at
which a rumor spreads in sociology.
The derivative of a product of two functions is the first 12. (a) Write an expression for the linearization of / at a.
function times the derivative of the second function plus
L(a) =f{a) +f'{d){x - a)
the second function times the derivative of the fi rst
function. (b) If y = fix), write an expression for the differential dy.
(f) The Quotient Rule dy'=fix)dx
If / and g are both differentiable, then
(c) If dx = Ax, draw a picture showing the geometric mean
ings of Ay and dy.
9(a) [/(a)] - fix) [g(j:)]
j/_
dx l9ix)}
The derivative of a quotient of functions is the denomina tangent
tor times the derivative of the numerator minus the numer line
atP P
ator times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by
the square of the denominator. dx = A.v

(g) The Chain Rule

A- + Aa
\f g is differentiable at x and / is differentiable at gix),
then the composite function defined by F(x) = figix)) is y=/(A)
 CHAPTERS CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. Explain the difference between an absolute maximum and Geometrically, the theorem says that there is a point
a local maximum. Illustrate with a sketch. F(c,/(c)), where a < c < /;, on the graph of/ where
The function value /(c) is the absolute maximum value of/ the tangent line is parallel to the secant line that connects
if/(c) is the largest function value on the entire domain of {a,fia)) and ibjib)).
/, whereas /(c) is a local maximum value if it is the largest
y
function value when .v is near c.
P{cJic))
abs
max

max

(fl. fia])
ibJib))
0 a c b ^
abs and
loc min
6. (a) State the Increasing/Decreasing Test.
2. What does the Extreme Value Theorem say? Iffix)> 0 on an interval, then / is increasing on that
If/ is a continuous function on a closed interval {a, b], then interval.
it always attains an absolute maximum and an absolute mini Iffix) < 0 on an interval, then / is decreasing on that
mum value on that interval. interval.
3. (a) State Format's Theorem. (b) What does it mean to say that/is concave upward on an
If/ has a local maximum or minimum at c, and if /'(c) interval /?
exists, then /'(c) = 0. / is concave upward on an interval if the graph of/lies
(b) Define a critical number of /. above all of its tangents on that interval.
A critical number of a function / is a number c in the (c) State the Concavity Test.
domain of/ such that either /'(c) — 0 or/'(c) does not Iffix)> 0 on an interval, then the graph of/ is concave
exist. upward on that interval.
4. Explain how the Closed Interval Method works. Iffix) < 0 on an interval, then the graph of/ is concave
To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a con downward on that interval.
tinuous function / on a closed interval [«, b\ we follow these (d) What are inflection points? How do you find them?
three steps;
Inflection points on the graph of a continuous function /
■ Find the critical numbers of/ in the interval (n, b) and are points where the curve changes from concave upward
compute the values of/at these numbers. to concave downward or from concave downward to
■ Find the values of/ at the endpoints of the interval. concave upward. They can be found by determining the
values at which the second derivative changes sign.
■ The largest of the values from the previous two steps is the
absolute maximum value; the smallest of these values is the
7. (a) State the First Derivative Test.
absolute minimum value.
Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous func
5. (a) State Rolle's Theorem.
tion /.
Let/ be a function that satisfies the following three
■ If/' changes from positive to negative at c, then / has a
hypotheses:
local maximum at c.
■ / is continuous on the closed interval[a, b]. ■ If/' changes from negative to positive at c, then / has a
■ / is differentiable on the open interval {a, b). local minimum at c.

■ fia) =f(b) ■ If/' is positive to the left and right of c, or negative to

Then there is a number c in {a, b) such that /'(c) = 0. the left and right of c\ then / has no local maximum or
minimum at c.
(b) State the Mean Value Theorem and give a geometric
interpretation. (b) State the Second Derivative Test.

If/ is continuous on the interval [o, b]and differentiable Suppose /" is continuous near c.
on (fl, b), then there exists a number c between a and b ■ If /'(c) = 0 and /"(c) > 0, then / has a local minimum
such that at c.

m -fia) ■ If /'(c) = 0 and /"(c) < 0, then / has a local maxi

f'ic) =
b — a mum at c.

(continued)
 CHAPTERS CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
(c) What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of We find the tangent line L to the graph of y =fix) at the
these tests? point (a:i,/(xi)). Then Xz is the x-intercept of L.
The Second Derivative Test is sometimes easier to use,
but it is inconclusive when /"(c) = 0 and fails if/"(c)
does not exist. In either case the First Derivative Test must
(•Xl./Ul))
be used.

8. Explain the meaning of each of the following statements.

(a) lim fix) = L means that the values of fix)can be made y=fix)
arbitrarily close to L by requiring x to be sufficiently
large.
(b) lim fix) = L means that the values of fix)can be
made arbitrarily close to L by requiring x to be suffi
ciently large negative.
(b) Write an expression for xz in terms of Xi, /(xi),
and/'(xi).
(c) Um fix) — means that the values of fix)can be made
f{x\)
arbitrarily large by requiring x to be sufficiently large. Xi — Xi
f'ixi)
(d) The curve y ~fix) has the horizontal asymptote >• = L
(c) Write an expression for x„+i in terms of x„,/(x„),
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the
and /'(x„).
curve y =fix) if either lim fix) = Lot lim fix) = L.
X—*-»
fix„)
Xn + i = X„ -
9. If you have a graphing calculator or computer, why do you f'ix„)
need calculus to graph a function?
(d) Under what circumstances is Newton's method likely to
Calculus reveals all the important aspects of a graph, such as fail or to work very slowly?
local extreme values and inflection points, that can be missed
Newton's method is likely to fail or to work very slowly
when relying solely on technology. In many cases we can find
when /'(xi) is close to 0. It also fails when /'(x/) is
exact locations of these key points rather than approximations.
undefined.
Using derivatives to identify the behavior of the graph also
helps us choose an appropriate viewing window and alerts us 11. (a) What is an antiderivative of a function /?
to where we may wish to zoom in on a graph. A function F is an antiderivative of/ if F'(x) =fix).
10. (a) Given an initial approximation xi to a root of the equation (b) Suppose Fi and Fz are both antiderivatives of/on an
fix) = 0, explain geometrically, with a diagram, how the interval l. How are Fi and Fz related?

second approximation Xz in Newton's method is obtained. They are identical or they differ by a constant.
 CHAPTER 4 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) Write an expression for a Riemann sum of a function / (b) What is the geometric interpretation of /(a) dx if
on an interval [a, b]. Explain the meaning of the notation fix) ^ 0?
that you use.
If/is positive, then /(a)dx can be interpreted as the
If/is defined for a ^ x ^ /j and we divide the inter area under the graph of y =/(a) and above the A-axis for
val [a,6]into n subintervals of equal width A.v, then a fl A « Z>.
Riemann sum of/ is
(c) What is the geometric interpretation of /(a) dx if /(a)
takes on both positive and negative values? Illustrate with
1=1 a diagram.
where xf is a point in the ith subinterval. In this case J,^/(a) dx can be interpreted as a "net area,"
(b) If f{x) 5= 0, what is the geometric interpretation of a that is, the area of the region above the A-axis and below
Riemann sum? Illustrate with a diagram. the graph of/(labeled "+" in the figure) minus the area
If/is positive, then a Riemann sum can be interpreted as of the region below the A-axis and above the graph of/
the sum of areas of approximating rectangles, as shown in (labeled "-").
the figure.
y-
y =fW y = /(.v)
^ Aa

\ h A

3. State the Midpoint Rule.

If/is a continuous function on the interval [a, b]and
we divide [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width
(c) If /(a) takes on both positive and negative values, what is Aa = (i) — a)/n, then
the geometric interpretation of a Riemann sum? Illustrate
with a diagram.
If/ takes on both positive and negative values then the
f fix}dx = 2/(Ai)AA
Ja i—l

Riemann sum is the sum of the areas of the rectangles that

lie above the A-axis and the negatives of the areas of the where Xi = midpoint of[a,-i,.vJ = j(a/-i + Ai).
rectangles that lie below the A-axis (the areas of the blue
rectangles minus the areas of the gray rectangles). 4. State both parts of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Suppose / is continuous on [a, b].
y= m Part 1. If g(A) = |^/(/) dl, then ^'(a) =/(a).
Part 2. ?^f(x)dx = F{b) — F{a), where F is any antideriva-
tive of /, that is, F'=f.

5. (a) State the Net Change Theorem.

2. (a) Write the definition of the definite integral of a contin
The integral of a rate of change is the net change:
uous function from a to b.

If/ is a continuous function on the interval [ti, b],

then we divide [a, b]into n subintervals of equal width
£F'ix)dx = F{b) - F{a)
Aa = (6 — a)/n. We let Ao( = a), ai, A2,....
(b) If r(r) is the rate at which water flows into a reservoir,
x„i = h) be the endpoints of these subintervals. Then what does r(t) dt represent?
r/(-v)^A= lim i;/(Af}AA
Jfl n —*
r{t) dt represents the change in the amount of water in
the reservoir between time t\ and time fi.
where xf is any sample point in the /th subinterval
[a,-i,a,].

(continued)
 CHAPTER 4 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
6. Suppose a particle moves back and forth along a straight line 8. Explain exactly what is meant by the statement that "differen
with velocity u(/), measured in feet per second, and accelera tiation and integration are inverse processes."
tion ait). Fart 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus can be rewrit
(a) What is the meaning of f(r) rff? ten as

v(t) di represents the net change in position (the dis =/(x)

placement) of the particle from f = 60 s to / = 120 s, in
other words, in the second minute. which says that if/ is integrated and then the result is differ
(b) What is the meaning of 1,^" ] vii)|dll entiated, we arrive back at the original function /.
Since F'(.v) =/(.v), Part 2 of the theorem (or, equivalently, the
1 1 represents the total distance traveled by the Net Change Theorem) stales that
particle in the second minute.
(c) What is the meaning of a(0 dil j"V'{.v) dx = Fib) - Fia)
Jw"^'(0 df represents the change in velocity of the particle This says that if we take a function F, first differentiate it, and
in the second minute.
then integrate the result, we arrive back at the original func
tion, but in the form Fib) — Fia).
7. (a) Explain the meaning of the indefinite integral ffix)dx. Also, the indefinite integral J/(.r) dx represents an antideriva
The indefinite integral J fix)dx is another name for tive of/,so
an antiderivative of/, so J fix) dx = Fix) means that jfix)dx =fix)
F'(.v) =/(.v).
(b) What is the connection between the definite integral 9. State the Substitution Rule. In practice, how do you use it?
/(x)dx and the indefinite integral (/(x)dx'l If II = £)(x) is a differentiable function and / is continuous on
The connection is given by Part 2 of the Fundamental the range of g. then
Theorem:
j/(3U))9'U)'^-V = ifiu)dii
jVC-r) = J M dxj^ In practice, we make the substitutions u = g(.r) and
du = g'ix) dx in the integrand in order to make the integral
if/ is continuous on [a, b]. simpler to evaluate.
 CHAPTER 5 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) Draw two typical curves v =f{x) and y = where Riemann sum. Then write an expression for the exact
fix) 3= gix) for a X ^ h. Show how to approximate the volume.
area between these curves by a Riemann sum and sketch We slice S into n "slabs" of equal width Aa". The volume
the corresponding approximating rectangles. Then write of the fth slab is approximately A{xf) Ax, where x* is
an expression for the exact area. a sample point in the /'th slab and A(xf) is the cross-
v = /(.v) sectional area of S at x*. Then the volume of S is

approximately 2 Mxf)Ax and the exact volume is

t=i

f(xr)-g{xr) V= lim 2'4(.Tf)AA'=

y=g{x) 1— Ja

(b) irS is a solid of revolution, how do you find the cross-

sectional areas?

If the cross-section is a disk, find the radius in terms of

A Riemann sum that approximates the area between these A or y and use A = 7r(radius)l If the cross-section is a
/I

curves is 2[/(-rf) - g{xf)]^x. A sketch of the corre- washer, find the inner radius nn and outer radius row and
1=1
use A = 7r(r,7u,) - Trid).
spending approximating rectangles:
4. (a) What is the volume of a cylindrical shell?
n1 Tt V = l-rrrh Ar = {circumference)(heighl)(thickness)
(b) Explain how to use cylindrical shells to find the volume
of a solid of revolution.

We approximate the region to be revolved by rectangles,

oriented so that revolution forms cylindrical shells rather
than disks or washers. For a typical shell, find the circum
ference and height in terms of a or y and calculate
An expression for the exact area is
V = J (circumference)(height)((/A or dy)
lim i)[fix*) - gUf)]^x = f[/(j;) - gfU)]dx
1—^ jii
(c) Why might you want to use the shell method instead of
(b) Explain how the situation changes if the curves have slicing?
equations x =f{y) and .r = r/(y), where fiy) ^ giy) Sometimes slicing produces washers or disks whose radii
for c ^ y ^ d.
are difficult (or impossible) to find explicitly. On other
Instead of using "lop minus bottom" and integrating from occasions, the cylindrical shell method leads to an easier
left to right, we use "right minus left" and integrate from integral than slicing does.
bottom to top: A = j'''[/(y) - yiy)]dy 5. Suppose that you push a book across a 6-metcr-long table by
exerting a force fix) at each point from a = 0 to a = 6. What
y does I'; /(a) dx represent? If /(a) is measured in newtons,
y= d what are the units for the integral?
d
/o/(-0 dx represents the amount of work done. Its units are
newton-meters, or joules.
x = g(y)/ A =/(y| 6. (a) What is the average value of a function / on an
interval [u, b]'!
c

/
<ix
0 A
b - a Jo

(b) What does the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals say?
2. Suppose that Sue runs faster than Kathy throughout a What is its geometric interpretation?
1500-raeter race. What is the physical meaning of the area
between their velocity curves for the first minute of the race? If/ is continuous on [a, /?], then there is a number c in
[«, bl at which the value of/ is exactly equal to the aver
It represents the number of meters by which Sue is ahead of age value of the function, that is, /(c) = /.vc. This means
Kathy after 1 minute. that for positive functions /, there is a number c such that
3. (a) Suppose S is a solid with known cross-sectional areas. the rectangle with base [«, I)] and height /(c) has the same
Explain how to approximate the volume of S by a area as the region under the graph of/from a to h.
 CHAPTER 6 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) What is a one-to-one function? How can you tell if a 3. (a) How is the inverse sine function f{x) ~ defined?
function is one-to-one by looking at its graph? What are its domain and range?
A function / is one-to-one if it never takes on the same The inverse sine function f{x) = sin"';c is defined as
value twice; that is, f{x\) 5^ fixz) whenever a'i ^ X2.
When looking at a graph, use the Horizontal Line Test: sin~'jc = y siny = A:
a function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.
and —jr/2 tt/2

(b) If/is a one-to-one function, how is its inverse function Its domain is — 1 « t 1 and its range is
/"' defined? How do you obtain the graph of/"' from -tt/I ^ y tt/2.
the graph of/?
(b) How is the inverse cosine function f{x) = cos"'x
If/is a one-to-one function with domain A and range B, defined? What are its domain and range?
then its inverse function /"' has domain B and range A The inverse cosine function fix) = cos"'j: is defined as
and is defined by
cos x=y cos y = x
r\y)'^x f{x)=y
for any y in B. and 0 « y ^ TT
The graph of/"' is obtained by reflecting the graph of/ Its domain is —1 ^ x ^ 1 and its range is 0 ^ y « tt.
about the line y ~ x.
(c) How is the inverse tangent function f{x) = tan"'x
(c) If/ is a one-to-one function and /'(/"'(a)) 0, write a defined? What are its domain and range? Sketch its
formula for
graph.
1 The inverse tangent function fix) = tan"'a: is defined as
(/-')'{a) =
nr\a))
lan"'A: = y <^=> tany = j:
2. (a) What are the domain and range of the natural exponential
function f{x)= and —7r/2 < y < 7r/2
Domain: R Range:(0, Its domain is R and its range is ~tt/2 < y < '7t/2.
(b) What are the domain and range of the natural logarithmic y
function ^(j:) = In x1
Domain: (0,=»} Range: U
(c) How are the functions f{x) = e' and ^(j:) = In j: related?
They are inverses of each other.
(d) How are the graphs of these functions related? Sketch
these graphs by hand, using the same axes.
The graphs are reflections of one another about the
line V = -v.
4. Write the definitions of the hyperbolic functions sinh x,
cosh X, and tanh x.
y.
/ / e' + e-'
y =e' / sinh X =
e -e
cosh X =

sinh X -e

L
// / ^.-'''''y=lnjr
tanh X =
cosh X

5. State the derivative of each function.

+ e'

A ^ (a) y = e^: y' —

(b) y = b': y' = yinb

(c) y = Inx y' = \/x

(e) If ft is a positive number, b 9^ \, write an equation that
(d) y = logijc: y' = l/(a:ln b)
expresses logt. x in terms of In x.
(e) y = sin 'jc: y' — l/^JT-x^
In j:
lOgfr x =
In b (f) y = cos""a:: y' = -1/Vl - x^
(continued)
 CHAPTER 6 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
(g) >' = tan~'x: y' « 1/(1 + x") (b) How can you use rHospiial's Rule if you have a product
fix)gix), where f{x) —* 0 and g(.r) -^^asx —* a'l
(h) y = sinh x y' = cosh x f Q
Write fg as or -^jj so that the limit becomes an
(i) y = cosh x: y' — sinh x
indeterminate form of type 0/0 or sc/m.
(j) y^tanhx y = sech^j: (c) How can you use THospital's Rule if you have a dif
(k) y = sinh"'x y' = I/Vl + x- ference fix) - g(.v), where fix) —* » and g(.t) —> * as
.V ^ fl?
(I) y = cosh"'x y' = 1/Vj:^ - 1
Convert the difference into a quotient by using a common
(m) y = tanh-'x .v' = 1/(1 - x') denominator, rationalizing, factoring, or by some other
method.
6. (a) How is the number e defined?
(d) How can you use THospital's Rule if you have a power
y- 1
e is the number such that lim
A—0
= 1. [/(.t)]""' where fix) —* 0 and gix)^0 as a —» u?
By taking the natural logarithm of both sides of
(b) Express e as a limit.
y = [/(a)]"'", we can convert the power to a product by
e= limd +xy'' writing Iny = gix) infix). Alternatively, we can write the
.t—0
function as an exponential:[/(a)]'^'' =
(c) Why is the natural exponential function y = e' used
more often in calculus than the other exponential func 9. Slate whether each of the following limit forms is indetermi
tions y = b''l nate. Where possible, state the limit.
The differentiation formula for y = 6' \dyjdx = b'In b]
(a) indeterminate. L'Hospital's Rule can be applied to this
is simplest when b = e because in e = 1.
(d) Why is the natural logarithmic function y = In a: used form. Note that every derivative is a limit of this form.
CO
more often in calculus than the other logarithmic func (b) —: indeterminate. L'Hospital's Rule can be applied to
tions y = logfeA?
this form.
The differentiation formula for y = logb.r
[dyldx = 1 /(.T In b)] is simplest when b = e because (c) —: not indeterminate. A limit of this form has value 0.
X

In e = 1. oo

7. (a) Write a differential equation that expresses the law of (d) —: not indeterminate. A limit of this form could equal
natural growth. «>, — or may not exist (but it cannot equal a finite
If .v(/) is the value of a quantity y at time /, then value).

dy . (e) 00 -I- X: not indeterminate. A limit of this form is equal

where A* > 0 is a constant to o=.

(f) 00 — indeterminate
(b) Under what circumstances is this an appropriate mode!
for population growth? (g) 00. x; not indeterminate. A limit of this form is equal
to oc.
The equation in part (a) is an appropriate model when
there is enough room and nutrition to support growth. (h) M • 0; indeterminate
(c) What are the solutions of this equation? (i) 0": indeterminate
If y(0) = yo, then the solutions are y(/) = yoc". (j) C: not indeterminate. A limit of this form has value 0.
(k) m": indeterminate
8. (a) What does rHospital's Rule say?
(1) 1*: indeterminate
UHospiial's Rule says that //the limit of a quotient of
functions is an indeterminate form of type 0/0 or »/«=.
then the limit is equal to the limit of the quotient of their
derivatives:
fix) = ,.lim fix)
lim —
gix) g'ix)
 CHAPTER? CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. Slate the rule for integration by parts. In practice, how do you IVapezoidal Rule:
use it? V = g(x) /-t;
To integrate ff(x)g'(x) dx, let u ~f{x) and
Then j udv = uv ~ i vdu. = + 2/(a,) 4- 2/(a3) 4- 4- 2/(a„-.) 4-/(a„)]
In practice, try to choose u =f{x) to be a function that
where A; = a 4- / Aa.
becomes simpler when differentiated (or at least not more
complicated) at long as dv = g'{x) dx can be readily inte Siropson's Rule:
grated to give V.
2. How do you evaluate{sin^j; cos''a: dx if m is odd? What if n Aa
is odd? What if m and n are both even?
= ^[/(-vo) 4- 4/(ai) 4- 2/(a2) 4- 4/(a3) 4-
If m is odd, use sin'A; = 1 — cos'.c to write all sine factors + 2/(a„-2) + 4/(a„-,) +/(a„)]
except one in terms of cosine. Then substitute u = cos x. where n is even.

If n is odd, use cos^a^ = 1 - sinlr to write all cosine factors We would expect the best estimate to be given by Simpson's
except one in terms of sine. Then substitute u = sin x. Rule.

If m and n are even, use the half-angle identities Suppose |/"(a)| « K and [/'""(a)! « L for « a b. The
errors in the Midpoint, Trapezoidal, and Simpson's Rules are
sin-A = 5(1 - cos 2a) coslr — 5(1 + cos 2a) given by, respectively,
3. If the expression ■Ja'^ — x^ occurs in an integral, what - aY t ^ Kib- aY
\E.
substitution might you try? What if y/a^ + x^ occurs? What 2ArY I2«-
if y/x^ ~ occurs?
Lib - aY
If ~ A^ occurs, try a = a sin 0; if yja'^ + a^ occurs, try miY
A = a tan 0, and if yjx- — occurs, try a = a sec 0.
6. Define the following improper integrals.
4. What is the form of the partial fraction decomposition of a
rational function P{x)(Q{x) if the degree of P is less than the (a) Ja
fix) dx = lim ['/(a) Ja
/—•* Ja
degree of Q and Qix) has only distinct linear factors? What
if a linear factor is repeated? What if Q{x) has an irreducible
quadratic factor (not repeated)? What if the quadratic factor is
repeated? (c) J fix) dj: = J* fix) dx ^ fix) dx, where a is any
For distinct linear factors, real number (assuming that both integrals are convergent)
. Az _ Ak 7. Define the improper integral /^/(a) dx for each of the follow
+ -I- -I-
(2(a) tJ|A + b\ Qzx + bz UkX + bt ing cases.
If the linear factor ai a + b\ is repeated r times, then we must (a) / has an infinite discontinuity at a.
include all the terms
If / is continuous on (a, b\ then
Bz Br
a]X + bt
+
{ciX + bt)'
+ +
(oiA 4- biY fVC-r) dx = lim [''/(a) dx
Ja Jt

If Qix) has an irreducible quadratic factor (not repeated), then if this limit exists (as a fi nite number).
we include a term of the form
(b) / has an infinite discontinuity at b.
Ax + B
If / is continuous on [n, b), then
OX' + bx + c
If the irreducible quadratic factor is repeated r times, then we J" fix)dx= lim_
include all the terms
if this limit exists (as a finite number).
Aix + Bi ^ Azx + Bz ^ +
ArX + Br
ax- + bx + c iax- + bx + c)^ {ax^ + bx + cY (c) / has an infinite discontinuity at c, where a < c < b.

5. State the rules for approximating the definite integral If both Jq/(a) dx and fix) dx are convergent, then
/(a) dx with the Midpoint Rule, the Trapezoidal Rule, and
Simpson's Rule. Which would you expect to give the best £'/(-^) dx = dx + {"/(-t) dx
estimate? How do you approximate the error for each rule? 8. State the Comparison Theorem for improper integrals.
Let <7 « A ^, / = J*/(a) dx, and Ax = (b — a)/n. Suppose that / and g are continuous functions with
Midpoint Rule: fix) 5= gix) Ss 0 for A > fl .
I M„ = Aa [/(a,) + fixz) + ■ - ■ 4- /(a„)] (a) If Ja'/(A) dx is convergent, then Jj" ^(a) dx is convergent.
where a, is the midpoint of [xj-i, a/]. (b) If I* ^(a) dx is divergent, then j„''/(.t) dx is divergent.
 CHAPTER 8 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) How is the length of a curve defined? The consumer surplus represents the amount of money saved
We can approximate a curve C by a polygon with vertices by consumers in purchasing the commodity at price P[when
along C. The length L of C is defined to be the limit of they were willing to purchase it at price p(a)], corresponding
the lengths of these inscribed polygons: to an amount demanded of X.

p
L= lim S i=i
l \p= p{x)
(b) Write an expression for the length of a smooth curve
given by y = /(.v), a ^ x ^ b.
consumei\.
surplus \(X,F)
p
i

(c) What if.v is given as a function of y? p =P

If = g(y), c y d, then L = \/l + [fi('(y)]- dy. 0 X ^

2. (a) Write an expression for the surface area of the surface 7. (a) What is the cardiac output of the heart?
obtained by rotating the curve y — /(.v), « < a- « b, about It is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per unit
the A-axis.
time, that is, the rate of flow into the aorta.
s = £"27r/(A)VTlTTx^dx (b) Explain how the cardiac output can be measured by the
(b) What if A is given as a function of y? dye dilution method.
An amount A of dye is injected into part of the heart and
If A = giy),c=^y^d,then S = J''277)^1 + [s'(y)]- dy. its concentration c(/) leaving the heart is measured over a
(c) What if the curve is rotated about the y-axis? time interval [0, T] until the dye has cleared. The cardiac
output is given by A/J,|c'{f) dt.
5 = J 27rAVl + [/'U)]' 8. What is a probability density function? What properties does
or S = j"* 2Trg(y)y/\ + [g'(y)]- dy such a function have?

Given a random variable X, its probability density function /

3. Describe how we can find the hydrostatic force against a
is a function such that !„/(a) dx gives the probability that X
vertical wall submersed in a fluid.
lies between a and b. The function / has the properties that
We divide the wall into horizontal strips of equal height Aa fix) > 0 for all A, and j!,. fix) dx = \.
and approximate each by a rectangle with horizontal length
/(.V,) at depth a,. If S is the weight density of the fluid, then 9. Suppose fix) is the probability density function for the
weight of a female college student, where a is measured in
the hydrostatic force is
pounds.
F = lim S SA,/(Ai) Aa = J"" Sa/(a)dx (a) What is the meaning of the integral ld^°/(A) dx'?
4. (a) What is the physical significance of the center of mass of It represents the probability that a randomly chosen
a thin plate? female college student weighs less than 130 pounds.
The center of mass is the point at which the plate balances (b) Write an expression for the mean of this density function.
horizontally.
M xfix) dx = xfix) dx
(b) If the plate lies between y =/(.v) and y = 0, where
[since fix)= 0 for a < 0]
a ^ A ^ h, write expressions for the coordinates of the
center of mass. (c) How can we find the median of this density function?

A =^£a/(a)dx and £2[/{-^)]'dx The median of/ is the number m such that

=Y
where A = j'fix)dx.
10. What is a normal distribution? What is the significance of the
5. What does the Theorem of Pappus say?
standard deviation?
If a plane region 9l that lies entirely on one side of a line C in
A normal distribution corresponds to a random variable X that
its plane is rotated about then the volume of the resulting
has a probability density function with a bell-shaped graph
solid is the product of the area of 91 and the distance traveled
and equation given by
by the centroid of Sft,,
6. Given a demaiui function explain what is meant by the fix) = y==
consumer surplus when the amount of a commodity currently (T-dlTT
available is X and the current selling price is P. Illustrate with where is the mean and the positive constant tr is the stan
a sketch. dard deviation, cr measures how spread out the values of X are.
 CHAPTER 9 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) What is a differential equation? (/(A:)y)' = l{x)Q(x). We then integrate both sides and
It is an equation that contains an unknown function and solve for y.
one or more of its derivatives.
7. (a) Write a differential equation that expresses the law of
(b) What is the order of a differential equation? natural growth. What does it .say in terms of relative
It is the order of the highest derivative that occurs in the growth rale?
equation. If P(r) is the value of a quantity y at time / and if the rate
(c) What is an initial condition? of change of P with respect to t is proportional to its size
It is a condition of the form >'(/o) — yo- Pit) at any time, then = kP.
dt
2. What can you say about the solutions of the equation dP
In this case the relative growth rate, — —,is constant.
y' — X- + >•" just by looking at the differential equation?
The equation tell.s us that the slope of a solution curve at any (b) Under what circumstances is this an appropriate model
point (.x-.y) is x- + y-. Note that x' + y' is always positive for population growth?
except at the origin, where y' = x' + y" = 0. Thus there is a It is an appropriate model under ideal conditions: unlim
horizontal tangent at (0,0) but nowhere else and the solution ited environment, adequate nutrition, absence of predators
curves are increasing everywhere. and disease.

3. What is a direction field for the differential equation (c) What are the solutions of this equation?
y'=F(x,y)l If Piff) = Po, the initial value, then the solutions are
A direction field (or slope field) for the differential equation P(r) = P^e".
y' = F(x, y) is a two-dimensional graph consisting of short
8. (a) Write the logistic differential equation.
line segments with slope F{x, y) at point (.T,y).
The logistic differential equation is
4. Explain how Euler's method works.
Euler's method says to start at the point given by the initial
value and proceed in the direction indicated by the direction
field. Slop after a short time, look at the slope at the new loca where M is the carrying capacity.
tion, and proceed in that direction. Keep stopping and chang
ing direction according to the direction field until the approxi
(b) Under what circumstances is this an appropriate model
for population growth?
mation is complete.
It is an appropriate model for population growth if the
5. What is a separable differential equation? How do you population grows at a rate proportional to the size of the
solve it?
population in the beginning, but eventually levels off and
It is a differential equation in which the expression for dy/dx approaches its carrying capacity because of limited
can be factored as a function of x times a function of y. that is, resources.

dy/dx = g{x)f{y). We can solve the equation by rewriting it

as[1 //(y)] dy = gl.v) dx, integrating both sides, and solving 9. (a) Write Lotka-Volterra equations to model populations of
food-fish {F) and sharks (S).
for y.
dF
6. What is a first-order linear differential equation? How do you — =kF- aFS
dt
and ^
dt
= -rS + bFS
solve it?
(b) What do these equations say about each population in the
A first-order linear differential equation is a differential equa
absence of the other?
tion that can be put in the form
In the absence of sharks, an ample food supply would
+ P{x)y = Q(x) support exponential growth of the fi.sh population, that is.
dx
dF/dt = kF, where k is a positive constant. In the absence
where P and Q are continuous functions on a given interval. of fish, we assume that the shark population would decline
To solve such an equation, we multiply both sides by the at a rate proportional to itself, that is dS/dt = —rS, where
integrating factor /(.r) = gJ'''''''' to put it in the form r is a positive constant.
 CHAPTER 10 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) What is a parametric curve? (b) Write equations that express the Cartesian coordinates
A parametric curve is a set of points of the form (x, y) of a point in terms of the polar coordinates.
U, v) = (/(/), git)), where / and g are functions of a vari jc = rcosP y = rsin0
able t, the parameter. (c) What equations would you use to find the polar coordi
(b) How do you sketch a parametric curve? nates of a point if you knew the Cartesian coordinates?
Sketching a parametric curve, like sketching the graph of To find a polar representation (r, 0) with r ^ 0 and
a function, is difficult to do in general. We can plot points 0 ^ 6 < 2it, first calculate r = V.r- + y^. Then 9 is
on the curve by finding /(/) and git) for various values specified by tan 9 — y/x. Be sure to choose 9 so that (r, 9)
of r. either by hand or with a calculator or computer. lies in the correct quadrant.
Sometimes, when /and g are given by formulas, we can
eliminate(from the equations .r =f{t) and y = g{t) to get 5. (a) How do you find the slope of a tangent line to a polar
curve?
a Cartesian equation relating x and y. It may be easier to
graph that equation than to work with the original formu
las for X and y in terms of t. i >
2. (a) How do you find the slope of a tangent to a parametric dx dx d , d
curve?

You can find dy/dx as a function of t by calculating

I sinfl + rcos0
dy dyfdt / ^n dd
where r =/(0)
COS0 - rsmi
(b) How do you find the area under a parametric curve?
If the curve is traced out once by the parametric equations
(b) How do you find the area of a region bounded by a polar
X =/(/), y — git), a ^ t ^ then the area is
curve?
= \^gii)fV)dr A = jy2'-'de = j'\[fid)yde
[or.6 git)fit) dt if the leftmost point is (/(/3), gi^)) (c) How do you find the length of a polar curve?
rather than (/(a), g(a))].
3. Write an expression for each of the following; L= y/idxIdOY + idy/dQY dO
(a) The length of a parametric curve
If the curve is traced out once by the parametric equations
= J"" Jr- + idr/dBY dB
X — fit), y = git), a ^ /3, then the length is
= jyUie)]'+ [fie)Y do
L= -Jidx/dl)^ + idy/di)' dt
6. (a) Give a geometric definition of a parabola.
= iyirm + igW dt A parabola is a set of points in a plane whose distances
from a fixed point F (the focus) and a fixed line / (the
(b) The area of the surface obtained by rotating a parametric directrix) are equal.
curve about the a:-axis
(b) Write an equation of a parabola with focus (0,p) and
S= liry-tjidx/dt)^ + idy/dt)^ dt directrix y = —p. What if the focus is ip,0) and the
directrix is .v = -p?
= 27rg(f) + [g'(')]- dt In the first case an equation is = 4py and in the second
' case, y" = 4pAr.
4. (a) Use a diagram to explain the meaning of the polar coor
dinates (r. 9)of a point. 7. (a) Give a definition of an ellipse in terms of foci.

y
An ellipse is a set of points in a plane the sum of whose
= P{x,y) distances from two fixed points (the foci) is a constant.
(b) Write an equation for the ellipse with foci (±c,0) and
r
vertices i±a,0).
y 7 7

^
a'
+ ^=1
b'
yy
0 X X
where a ^ > 0 and — b^.
(continued)
CHAPTER 10 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
8. (a) Give a definition of a hyperbola in terms of foci. (b) What can you say about the eccentricity if the conic
section is an ellipse? A hyperbola? A parabola?
A hyperbola is a set of points in a plane the difference
of whose distances from two fixed points (the foci) is e < 1 for an ellipse; c > 1 for a hyperbola; e = 1 for a
a constant. This difference should be interpreted as the parabola
larger distance minus the smaller distance. (c) Write a polar equation for a conic section with eccen
(b) Write an equation for the hyperbola with foci (±c,0) and tricity e and directrix x = d. What if the directrix is
vertices(±a,0). x = -dl y = dly= -dl

4-f-i
a b directrix x = d: r =
ed
1 + e cos0
where c" = «" + b'.
(c) Write equations for the asymptotes of the hyperbola in ed
x= -d: r =
part (b). ^ 1 - e cos9
y = ± —X
a
ed
y = d: r =
9. (a) What is the eccentricity of a conic section? 1 + e sin0
If a conic section has focus F and corresponding directrix
ed
/. then the eccentricity e is the fixed ratio|PF j/1P/] for y = —d: r =
points P of the conic section. 1 - e sine
 CHAPTERn CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) Wlial is a convergent sequence? (C) The Comparison Test
A convergent sequence {a„} is an ordered list of numbers Suppose that 2 and 2K are series with positive terms.
where iim„_» a„ exists.
■ If2iJn is convergent and a„ ^ bn for all n, then 2a„ is
(b) What is a convergent series? also convergent.
A series 2a„ is the sum of a sequence of numbers. It is ■ If 2 is divergent and a„ & b„ for all n, then 2 is
convergent if the partial sums = 2) On approach a finite also divergent.
i-i
value, that is, lim„-,« exists as a real number. (d) The Limit Comparison Test

(c) What does lim„-.^ a„ = 3 mean?

Suppose that 2 and 2 are series with positive terms.
If lim a„/b„ = c, where c is a finite number and c > 0,
The terms of the sequence {a„} approach 3 as n becomes n—

large.
then either both series converge or both diverge.
(e) The Alternating Series Test
(d) What does 2n=i a„ = 3 mean?
If the alternating series
By adding sufficiently many terms of the series, we can
make the partial sums as close to 3 as we like.
2. (a) What is a bounded sequence?
i; = bi~b2-i-b3-bA + bs-b6 + - - -
A sequence {a„} is bounded if there are numbers m and M
where b„> 0 satisfies (i) b„+\ b„ for all n and
such that m « =s A/ for all n > 1.
(ii) lim b„ = 0, then the series is convergent.
(b) What is a monotonic sequence?
(f) The Ratio Test
A sequence is monotonic if it is either increasing or
decreasing for all n > 1. ^n +1
If lim = L < I, then the series 2 is
(c) What can you say about a bounded monotonic sequence? a„

Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent. absolutely convergent(and therefore convergent).

3. (a) What is a geometric series? Under what circumstances is
fln+l <2/1+1
it convergent? What is its sum? If lim = L > I or lim = CO, then the
an
A geometric series is of the form
series 2 a„ is divergent.
2 ^ a + ar + ar^ + ■ ■ ■ n-l

It is convergent if|r|< I and its sum is y——. If lim

Qn
1
= 1, the Ratio Test is inconclusive.

(b) What is a p-series? Under what circumstances is it

(g) The Root Test
convergent?
■ If Iim-t/|a„ I = L < l,then the series 2 a„ is
A /7-series is of the form It is convergent if p > 1. 1—»

absolutely convergent(and therefore convergent).

4. Suppose 2 = 3 and is the /ith partial sum of the series.
■ If lim ^\a„ I = L> I or lim ^|fl„
|= «, then the
What is lim„-x a„l What is Iim„-x i„? n—*0-

If 2(2„ = 3, then lim a„ = 0 and lim s„ = 3. series 2 a„ is divergent.

5. State the following.
■ If lim I = 1, the Root Test is inconclusive.
(a) The Test for Divergence rt—

If lim a„ does not exist or if lim a„ ^ 0, then the series

n—•» 6. (a) What is an absolutely convergent scries?
%

A series 2a„ is called absolutely convergent if the series

X a„ is divergent.
of absolute values 2| [ is convergent.
(b) The Integral Test (b) What can you say about such a scries?
Suppose/is a continuous, positive, decreasing function If a series 2a„ is absolutely convergent, then it is
on [1, =») and let a„ =fin). convergent.

■ If i fix) dx is convergent, then 2 is convergent. (C) What is a condilionally convergent series?

A series 2a„ is called conditionally convergent if it is
■ If[ fix)dx is divergent, then 2 is divergent, convergent but not absolutely convergent.
n-l

(continued)
 CHAPTER 11 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
7. (a) If a series is convergent by the Integral Test, how do you 10. (a) Write an expression for the nth-degree Taylor polynomial
estimate its sum? of/ centered at ci.
The sum s can be estimated by the inequality

Sn + J ^ f{x)dx s ^ s„ + j f{x)dx .-0 t!

(b) Write an expression for the Taylor series of/centered

where Sn is the nth partial sum. at a.

(b) If a series is convergent by the Comparison Test, how do ^ r"\a)(x -a)"

you estimate its sum? «-0 nl

We first estimate the remainder for the comparison series. (c) Write an expression for the Maclaurin series of /.
This gives an upper bound for the remainder of the origi
nal series (as in Example 11.4.5).
[a = 0 in part (b)]
(c) If a scries is convergent by the Alternating Series Test, „-o «!
how do you estimate its sum? (d) How do you show that fix) is equal to the sum of its
We can use a partial sum s„ of an alternating series as an Taylor series?
approximation to the total sum. The size of the error is If fix) = T„ix) + Rnix), where T„ix) is the nth-degree
guaranteed to be no more than
| a„+i |, the absolute value Taylor polynomial of/and ^„(.r) is the remainder of the
of the first neglected term. Taylor series, then we must show that
8. (a) Write the general form of a power series. lim R„ix) = 0
rt —

A power series centered at a is

(e) Stale Taylor's Inequality.
2 c„(j: - a)" If I I ^ iW for |x — a I ^ d, then the remainder
n=0
R„ix) of the Taylor series satisfies the inequality
(b) What is the radius of convergence of a power series?
M
1 Rnix) I U - al for IX — a I
Given the power series X ~ a)", the radius of in + 1)!
n-O

convergence is: 11. Write the Maclaurin series and the interval of convergence
for each of the following functions.
(i) 0 if the series converges only when x = a,
(ii) if the series converges for all x, or (a) —=ix",
1 X n-o
R= I
(iii) a positive number R such that the series converges if
I - 01 < /? and diverges if j a: — o|> ^. (b)c' = i^, fi = ®
»-o n!
(c) What is the interval of convergence of a power scries?
The interval of convergence of a power series is the inter (e) sinx= X(-l)" /? — ®
val that consists of all values of x for which the series con n-o (2n + 1)!
verges. Corresponding to the cases in part (b), the interval
of convergence is (i) the single point {a},(ii)(-=c, «), or (d) cosx-2(-l)''-—, R = oo
n-o (2n)!
(iii) an interval with endpoints a - R and a + R that can
contain neither, either, or both of the endpoints. (e) tan '.v = SC-l)" ^ /?= 1
n-o 2n + 1
9. Suppose fix) is the sum of a power series with radius of
convergence R. (f) ln(l H- x) = SC-l)""' — R=l
n-l n
(a) How do you differentiate /? What is the radius of conver
gence of the series for /'? 12. Write the binomial series expansion of(1 + x)^ What is the
radius of convergence of this series?
Iffix)= 2 c„ix - a)", then fix)= 2 nc„(A: - a)""'
n-O n-1 If k is tmy real number and [x| < 1, then
with radius of convergence R.
(b) How do you integrate /? What is the radius of conver
(I + x)* = 2 l-v'
gence of the series for J fix) dxl n-o \n

* (rt ^ kik - 1) , kik - l)ik - 2)

|/(a:) i/x = C + 2 with radius of = \ + kx +
2!
-x^ +
" 3!
x^ -1-
n-o n+ 1
convergence R. The radius of convergence for the binomial series is 1.
 CHAPTER 12 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. What is the difference between a vector and a scalar? 7. Write expressions for the scalar and vector projections of b
A scalar is a real number, whereas a vector is a quantity that onto a. Illustrate with diagrams.
has both a real-valued magnitude and a direction. a* b
Scalar projection of b onto a: comp, b =
2. How do you add two vectors geometrically? How do you add
them algebraically?
To add two vectors geometrically, we can use either the
Triangle Law or the Parallelogram Law:

u+ v
compa b

Vector projection of b onto a:

Triangle Law Parallelogram Law

, a•b\ a
Algebraically, we add the corresponding components of the proj.b-1^ = a• b
vectors.

3. If a is a vector and c is a scalar, how is ca related to a

geometrically? How do you find ca algebraically?
For c > 0. ca is a vector with the same direction as a and
length c times the length of a. If c < 0, ca points in the direc
tion opposite to a and has length|c \ times the length of a.
Algebraically, to find ca we multiply each component of a
by c. proja b

4. How do you find the vector from one point to another?

8. How do you (ind the cross product a X b of two vectors if
The vector from point A(xi, yi, zi) to point B{x2, yi,?:) is you know ilieir lengths and the angle between them? What if
given by you know liieir components?
(-1^2 - Xi,y2 - yi,Z2 - zi) If 6 is the angle between a and b (0 ^ 0 ^ tt), then a X b is
the vector with length|a X b|= [ a 1 1 b|sin 0 and direction
5. How do you find the dot product a • b of two vectors if you orthogonal to both a and b, as given by the right-hand rule. If
know their lengths and the angle between them? What if you
know their components? a =(ai, 02. aj) and b =(bu bi, bj)
If 6 is the angle between the vectors a and b, then then

a ■ b = 1 a 1 1 b [ cos 0 i j k

a X b= 0) 02 03

If a = (a,, az, <73) and b = {by, bz, b}), then b] bi bi

a • b — a]b\ + 02^2 + 0}bi = {a2b3 - a^bz, ajbi — Oibj, ^162 - Oib])

6. How arc dot products useful? 9. How are cross products useful?
The dot product can be used to find the angle between two The cross product can be used to create a vector orthogonal
vectors. In particular, it can be used to determine whether two to two given vectors and it can be used to compute the area
vectors are orthogonal. We can also use the dot product to find of a parallelogram determined by two vectors. Two nonzero
the scalar projection of one vector onto another. Additionally, vectors are parallel if and only if their cross product is 0. In
if a constant force moves an object, the work done is the dot addition, if a force acts on a rigid body, then the torque vector
product of the force and displacement vectors. is the cross product of the position and force vectors.

(continued)
 CHAPTER 12 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
10. (a) How do you Rnd the area of the parallelogram deter (c) How do you tell if two planes are parallel?
mined by a and b? Two planes are parallel if and only if their normal vectors
The area of the parallelogram determined by a and b is are parallel.
the length of the cross product;|a X b [. 16. (a) Describe a method for determining whether three points
(b) How do you lind the volume ol' the parallelepiped P. Q,and R lie on the same line.
delcrniliied by a, b, and e? Determine the vectors PQ = a and PR — b. If there is a
The volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b. scalar t such that a = fb, then the vectors are parallel and
and c is the magnitude of their scalar triple product: the points must all lie on the same line.
|a • (b X c)|.
Alternatively, if PQ x PR = 0, then PQ and PR are
11. How do you find a vector perpendicular to a plane? parallel, so P, Q, and R are collinear.
If an equation of the plane is known, it can be written in An algebraic method is to determine an equation of the
the form ax + by + cz + d = 0. A normal vector, which is line joining two of the points, and then check whether or
perpendicular to the plane, is {a, b, c)(or any nonzero scalar not the third point satisfies this equation.
multiple of{a, b, c)). If an equation is not known, we can use
(b) Describe a method for determining whether four points
points on the plane to find two nonparallel vectors that lie in
P. Q, R, and S lie in the same plane.
the plane. The cross product of these vectors is a vector per
pendicular to the plane. Find the vectors PQ = a, PR = b,PS = c. Then a X b
12. How do you find the angle between two intersecting planes? is normal to the plane formed by P, Q, and R, and so S
lies on this plane if a X b and c are orthogonal, that is, if
The angle between two intersecting planes is defined as the
(a X b)• c = 0.
acute angle 9 between their normal vectors. If ni and n: are
the normal vectors, then Alternatively, we can check if the volume of the paral
Hi • Hi
lelepiped determined by a, b, and c is 0(see Example
cos 9 = 12.4.5).
ni j|n2
An algebraic method is to find an equation of the plane
13. Write a vector equation, parametric equations, and symmetric determined by three of the points, and then check whether
equations for a line. or not the fourth point satisfies this equation.
A vector equation for a line that is parallel to a vector v 17. (a) How do you find the distance from a point to a line?
and that passes through a point with position vector to is
Let P be a point not on the line L that passes through the
r = To + /V. Parametric equations for a line through the point
(jTo, yo. 2o) and parallel to the vector(a, b,c)are points Q and R and let a = QR, b = QP. The distance
from the point P to the line L is
X = Xo at y = ya + bt z = zo + ct
Ia X b
while symmetric equations are d=
IaI
X - xq y - yo ^ z - zq
a b c (b) How do you find the distance from a point to a plane?
14. Write a vector equation and a scalar equation lor a plane. Let Poixo, yo, Zo) be any point in the plane
A vector equadon of a plane that passes through a point with ax + by + cz + d = 0 and let Pi(j:i, yi, zi) be a point not
position vector To and that has normal vector n (meaning n is in the plane. If b = PqP^ = (tti — xo, yi - yo,zi — zo),
orthogonal to the plane) is n • (r — fo) = 0 or, equivalenlly, then the distance D from Pi to the plane is equal to the
n • r = n • To- absolute value of the scalar projection of b onto the
A scalar equadon of a plane through a point (jto, yo. 2o) with plane's normal vector n = {a, b, c):
normal vector n — {a, b, c)is 1 n • bI \ax\ + by\ czi + |
a{x - jco) + b{y - yo) + c(z - Zo) = 0 D =|compnb I =
■Ja'^ + b- + c'^
15. (a) How do you tell if two vectors are parallel?
(c) How do you fi nd the distance between two lines?
Two (nonzero) vectors are parallel if and only if one is a
Two skew lines L\ and can be viewed as lying on two
scalar multiple of the other. In addidon, two nonzero vec
parallel pUuies, each with normal vector n = V| X vi,
tors are parallel if and only if their cross product is 0.
where Vi and v^ are the direction vectors of L| and Lz.
(b) How do you tell if two vectors arc perpendicular? After choosing one point on L| and determining the equa
Two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot tion of the plane containing Lz, we can proceed as in
product is 0. part (b). (See Example 12.5.10.)

{continued)
 CHAPTER 12 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
18. What are the traces of a surface? How do you find them?
Elliptic paraboloid: i.= £l + Zl
The traces of a surface are the curves of intersection of the c

surface with planes parallel to the coordinate planes. We can

find the trace in the plane .r = k (parallel to the yc-plane) by Hyperboloid of one sheet: fl + ii.il.i
t - 1 T 1
setting X = k and determining the curve represented by the
resulting equation. Traces in the planes y = k (parallel to the
-vr-plane) and z = k (parallel to the A:y-plane) are found Hyperboloid of two sheets:
similarly.
19. Write equations in standard form of the six types of quadric
surfaces. Hyperbolic paraboloid: z.
b'
Equations for the quadric surfaces symmetric with respect to
the r-axis are as follows.

Ellipsoid: =I
a y c'-

Cone: — = — + TT
c a b^
 CHAPTER 13 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. What is a vector function? How do you find its derivative and 5. How do you fi nd the length of a space curve given by a vector
its integral? function r(r)?
A vector function is a function whose domain is a set of real If r{t) = {fit), g{t), h{t)}, a ^ t ^ b, and the curve is
numbers and whose range is a set of vectors. To find the traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b, then the
derivative or integral, we can differentiate or integrate each length is
component function of the vector function.

2. What is the connection between vector functions and space

L = £ I r'(r) IA = £ V[/'W]' + [gm- + [/>'(0]= dt
curves?
6. (a) What is the definition of curvature?
A continuous vector function r defines a space curve that is
traced out by the tip of the moving position vector r(r). dl
The curvature of a curve is k = where T is-the
ds
3. How do you find the tangent vector to a smooth curve at a unit tangent vector.
point? How do you find the tangent line? The unit tangent (b) Write a formula for curvature in terms of r'(r) and T'(t).
vector?

The tangent vector to a smooth curve at a point P with posi . . |T'(r)|

k(0
tion vector r(/) is the vector r'(0. The tangent line at P is the |r'(f)
line through P parallel to the tangent vector r'(r). The unit
(c) Write a formula for curvature in terms of r'(0 and r"(r).
tangent vector is T(r) = ^ r'(/)
r'it) X r"(/)|
k(/) =
4. If u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a scalar, T'it)
and / is a real-valued function, write the rules for differenti
(d) Write a formula for the curvature of a plane curve with
ating the following vector functions.
equation y = fix).
(a) u(/) + v(r)
l/"U-)
Kix) = n.V2

-[u(r) + v(0]= u'(r) + v'(0 [1 + (/'W)-]

7. (a) Write formulas for the unit normal and binormal vectors
(b) cu(r) of a smooth space curve r(r).
— [cu(r)3 = cu'(/) T'(/)
at Unit normal vector: N(/) =
|T'(/)|
(c) f{t)u{t)
Binormal vector: B(/) = T(r) X N(r)

at
(b) What is the normal plane of a curve at a point? What is
the osculating plane? What is the osculating circle?
(d) u(r) • v(r) The normal plane of a curve at a point P is the plane
determined by the normal and binormal vectors N and
B at P. The tangent vector T is orthogonal to the normal
■^[u{r).v(r)] = u'(/)-v(r) + □(/). v'(r)
at
plane.
The osculating plane at P is the plane determined by the
(e) u(r) X v(r) vectors T and N. It is the plane that comes closest to con
taining the part of the curve near P.
— [u(r) X v(r)] = u'{0 X v{t) + u(0 x v'(0 The osculating circle at P is the circle that lies in the
at osculating plane of C at P, has the same tangent as C at
P, lies on the concave side of C (toward which N points),
(0 u(/W) and has radius p = 1/k (the reciprocal of the curvature).
It is the circle that best describes how C behaves near P; it
=/'(/) u'{/(f))
at shares the same tangent, normal, and curvature at P.

(continued)
 CHAPTER 13 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
8. (a) How do you find the velocity, speed, and acceleration of a 9. State Kepler's Laws.
particle that moves along a space curve? ■ A planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with
If r(0 is the position vector of the particle on the space the sun at one focus.
curve, the velocity vector is v(/) = r'(/), the speed is given
by I v(/)|. and the acceleration is a{0 = v'(r) = r"(/). ■ The line joining the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal times.
(b) Write the acceleration in terms of its tangential and nor
mal components. ■ The square of the period of revolution of a planet is pro
a = ajT + fl,vN, where or = v' and fl,v = kv'{v —|v|is portional to the cube of the length of the major axis of its
speed and k is the curvature). orbit.
 CHAPTER 14 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) What is a function of two variables? 5. (a) Write expressions for the partial derivatives f^ia, b) and
A function /of two variables is a mie that assigns to each fia. h)as limits.
ordered pair (x,}») of real numbers in its domain a unique
fia + h,b) ~ fia, b)
real number denoted by f{x, v). fxia, b) = lim
/i—*0 h
(b) Describe three methods for visualizing a function of two
variables. fja, b-^ h) -fja, b)
fia, b) = lim
One way to visualize a function of two variables is by h—»0 h
graphing it, resulting in the surface r =/(.v, y). Another (b) How do you interpret fM,b) and fia, b) geometrically?
method is a contour map, consisting of level curves How do you interpret them as rates of change?
fix, y) = kik a constant), which are horizontal traces If fia, b) = c, then the point Pia, b, c) lies on the surface
of the graph of the function projected onto the .ry-plane. S given by z =fix, y). We can interpret fia, b) as the
Also, we can use an arrow diagram such as the one below.
slope of the tangent line at P to the curve of intersection
of the vertical plane y = b and S. In other words, if we
y
restrict ourselves to the path along S through P that is par
allel to the -vz-piane, then f,ia, b) is the slope at P looking
/(-v.y) in the positive .v-direction. Similarly, fia, b) is the slope
Ax,y)) of the tangent line at P to the curve of intersection of the
vertical plane x = a and S.
0
I ^ {a,b) ^ N. .V If z =fix, y), then fix, y) can be interpreted as the rate
of change of z with respect to x when y is fixed. Thus
f{a,h)
\^ fia, b) is the rate of change of z(with respect to .v) when
y is fixed at b and x is allowed to vary from a. Similarly.
fia, b) is the rate of change of z (with respect to y) when
X is fixed at a and y is allowed to vary from b.
2. What is a function of three variables? How can you visualize (c) If /(.V, v) is given by a formula, how do you calculate f
such a function?
and/,?
A function /of three variables is a rule that assigns to each To find /„ regard y as a constant and differentiate fix, y)
ordered triple (.t, y,z) in its domain a unique real number with respect to x. To find /„ regard a: as a constant and
/(.V, y, z). We can visualize a function of three variables by differentiate fix, y) with respect to y.
examining its level surfaces fix, y,z) = k, where k is a
constant. 6. What does Clairaut's Theorem say?

3. What does If/ is a function of two variables that is defined on a disk D

containing the point ia, b) and the functions /,, and fx are
Urn fix, y) = L both continuous on D, then Clairaut's Theorem states that
fyia, b) =fA^,b).
mean? How can you show that such a limit does not exist?
7. How do you find a tangent plane to each of the following
lim fix, y) = L means that the values of fix, y) types of surfaces?
(a.>)—{«,/))
approach the number L as the point (.v. y) approaches the point (a) A graph of a function of two variables, z =fix, y)
(fl, b) along any path that is within the domain of /. We can If/ has continuous partial derivatives, an equation of
show that a limit at a point does not exist by finding two dif the tangent plane to the surface z =fix, y) at the point
ferent paths approaching the point along which /(.v,y) has ixo, yn, ^o) is
diftereni limits.
z - Zo =fixo,yo)ix - Xo) +fixo,yo)iy - yo)
4. (a) What docs it mean to say that f is continuous at (a, h)?
A function / of two variables is continuous at (a, b) if (b) A level surface of a function of three variables.
Fix, y,z) = k
lim fix, y) =fia, b) The tangent plane to the level surface Fix, y, z) = k ai
Pixo, yc, Zo) is the plane that passes through P and has
(b) If/is continuous on R", what can you say about its normal vector VF(a:o, yo, Zo):
graph?
Fxixn, yo, Zo)(x - a:o) + Fyixa, yo, zo)(y - yo)
Iff is continuous on !R^ its graph will appear as a surface
without holes or breaks. + F/xo.yo, zo)(z - Zo) = 0

(continued)
 CHAPTER 14 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
8. Define the linearization of/at {a, b). What is the corre 12. If z is defined implicitly as a function of x and y by an equa
sponding linear approximation? What is the geometric inter tion of the form F{x, y,z) = 0, how do you find dz/dx and
pretation of the linear approximation? az/ay?

The linearization of/at (a, b) is the linear function whose If F is differentiable and dF/dz # 0, then
graph is the tangent plane to the surface z =f[x, y) at the
dF dF
point (a, b,f{a, b)):
dz dx az
Jz_
y) =f(a, b) +f,(a, h){x - a) +fyia, b){y - b) dx ~dF dy BF
dz dz
The linear approximation of/at (a, b) is

=fia,b) +fXa,h){x - a) +fy{a,b){y - b) 13. (a) Write an expression as a limit for the directional deriva
tive of/at (xo, yo) in the direction of a unit vector
Geometrically, the linear approximation says that function u = {a, b). How do you interpret it as a rate? How do
values fix. y) can be approximated by values L(x, y) from the you interpret it geometrically?
tangent plane to the graph of/ at {a, b,fia, b)) when (x, y) is The directional derivative of/at (xo, yo) in the direction
near(n, b). of u is
9. (a) What does it mean to say that/is differentiable at (a, b)l
/(xo + /la.yo + hb) -/(xo.yo)
If r =fix, y). then / is dilTerentiable at (n, b) if Az can be Du/(xo, yo) = lim
h
expressed in the fonn
if this limit exists.
A- =/,(«, b) Ax + fyia, b) Ay -I- ei Ax + S2 Ay
We can interpret it as the rate of change of/(with respect
where ei and e: —» 0 as (Ax, Ay) (0,0). In other to distance) at (xo, yo) in the direction of u.
words, a differentiable function is one for which the linear
Geometrically, if P is the point (xo.yo,/(.vo.yo)) on the
approximation as stated above is a good approximation
graph of/and C is the curve of intersection of the graph
when (x, y) is near (n, b).
of/ with the vertical plane that passes through P in the
(b) How do you usually verify that/ is differentiable? direction of u, then D^fixo, yo) is the slope of the tangent
If the partial derivatives /, and exist near (o, b) and are line to C at P.
continuous at (a, b), then /is differentiable at (n, b). (b) If/is differentiable, write an expression for D^fixa, yo)
10. If z =fix, y), what are the differentials dx, dy, and dzl in terms of /. and

The differentials dx and dy are independent variables that

Du/(xo,yo) =/^(xo.yo)« +/,(xo,yo)^»
can be given any values. If/ is differentiable, the differential
dz is then defined by 14. (a) Define the gradient vector V/ for a function /of two or
dz=fAx.y)dx+fyix,y)dy three variables.

If/is a function of two variables, then

11. State the Chain Rule for the case where z =fix, y) and x and
y are functions of one variable. What if x and y are functions
of two variables?
V/U,;>.) =(fM.y)J,(x.y))= +
dx dy
Suppose that z =fix, y) is a differentiable function of x and
y, where x = git) and y = h{i) are both differentiable func For a function /of three variables,
tions of/. Then r is a differeniiable function of / and
V/(x,y,z) = if,ix,y,z),fyix,y,z),f(x,y,z))
dz _ r)f dx ^ bf dy
dt bx dl c)v dl
dx dy dz
If z =fix, y) is a differentiable function of x and y, where
X = 3(r, /) and y = his, t) are differentiable functions of s and (b) Express Duf in terms of V/.
/, then
Oa/(x,y)= V/(x,y)-u
dz _ dz dx dz by dz dz a.x dz dy
ds ax ds by ds dt bx dt dy bt or D„/(x, y,z) = V/(x, y,z)• u

(continued)
 CHAPTER 14 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
(c) Explain the geometric significance of the gradient. 18. (a) What is a closed set in What is a bounded set?
The gradient vector of/ gives the direction of maximum A closed set in is one that contains all its boundary
rate of increase of /. On the graph of z =f{x, _y), V/ points. If one or more points on the boundary curve are
points in the direction of steepest ascent. Also, the gradi omitted, the set is not closed.
ent vector is perpendicular to the level curves or level
A bounded set is one that is contained within some disk.
surfaces of a function.
In other words, it is finite in extent.
15. What do the following statements mean?
(b) State the Extreme Value Theorem for functions of two
(a) /has a local maximum at {a, b). variables.
f has a local maximum at {a, b) if fix,.v) ^f{a, b) when If/ is continuous on a closed, bounded set D in then
(x,}") is near (a, b). /attains an absolute maximum value fix\, yi) and an
(b)/ has an absolute maximum at (a, b). absolute minimum value /(.V2, v:) at some points (.vi. yO
and (.Vi.y:) in D.
f has an absolute maximum at (a. b) if f{x, y) ^/(a, b)
for all points (x, y) in the domain of/. (c) How do you find the values that the Extreme Value
(c) / has a local minimum at (a, b). Theorem guarantees?
■ Find the values off at the critical points of/in D.
f has a local minimum at (a, b) if /{x, y) > f{a, b) when
U,y) is near {a, b). ■ Find the extreme values of/on the boundary of D.
(d)/ has an absolute minimum at (a, b).
■ The largest of the values from the above steps is the
f has an absolute minimum at (a, b) if fix, y) 3= /(a, b) absolute maximum value; the smallest of these values is
for all points ix, y) in the domain of /. the absolute minimum value.
(e) / has a saddle point at (a, b).
19. Explain how the method of Lagrange multipliers works
f has a saddle point at (a, b) if /(a, b) is a local maximum in finding the extreme values of fix, y,z) subject to the con
in one direction but a local minimum in another. straint gix.y, z) = k. What if there is a second constraint
16. (a) If/ has a local maximum at (a, b), what can you say hix, y. z) = c?
about its partial derivatives at ia, 6)7 To find the maximum and minimum values of fix, y,z)
If/ has a local maximum at (a, b) and the first-order subject to the constraint gix, y, z) == k [assuming that
partial derivatives of/exist there, then /.(a, ~ 0 and these extreme values exist and Vg 5^ 0 on the surface
fyia, b) = 0. g(x, y, z) = k], we first find all values of x, y, and A where
(b) What is a critical point of /? V/(.V, y, z) = A ^gix, y, z) and ^(.v, y,z) = k.(Thus we are
finding the points from the constraint where the gradient vec
A critical point of/ is a point [a, b) such that ffa,/?) = 0
tors V/ and are parallel.) Evaluate / at all the resulting
and fyia, = 0 or one of these partial derivatives does points ix. y,z); the largest of the.se values is the maximum
not exist.
value of /, and the smallest is the minimum value of f.
17. State the Second Derivatives Test.
If there is a second constraint hix, y, z) = c, then we find all
Suppose the second partial derivatives of/are continuous on values of x, y, r. A, and /i such that
a disk with center (a, b), and suppose that /(a, b) = 0 and
fyia, b)= 0 [that is,(o, b) is a critical point of f]. Let V/{x. y, z) = A Vf;{.v. y, z) + fx Vhix, y,z)
D = Dia, b) =f,Aa, b)fyyia, b) - [fyia, b)]' Again we find the extreme values of/ by evaluating f at the
■ If D > 0 and fxia, b) > 0, then fia, b) is a local minimum.
resulting points (.r, y,z).

■ If D > 0 and f.xia, b) < 0, then fia, b) is a local

maximum.

■ If D < 0, then fia, h) is not a local maximum or minimum.

The point [a, b) is a saddle point of /.
 CHAPTER 15 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. Suppose/is a continuous function defined on a rectangle Then we define
R = [a, b\ X [c,d\
(a) Write an expression for a double Riemann sum of /. |J/U,y)JA = j|F(A:,y)rfA
D R
If/(.t,>') 2= 0, what does the sum represent?
A double Riemann sum of/ is (b) What is a type I region? How do you evaluate
IJy fix, y) dA if D is a type I region?
A region D is of type I if it lies between the graphs of two
/-I j-\
continuous functions of x, that is,
where AA is the area of each subrectangle and is
a sample point in each subrectangle. If f(x, y) & 0,
£* = {u. y) I x^b, Qiix)^ y ^ 3i(a:)}
this sum represents an approximation to the volume of the where g, and gz are continuous on [a, 6]. Then
solid that lies above the rectangle R and below the graph
of/.
(b) Write the definition of JJ^/(-v.>') dA as a limit. D '

(c) What is a type II region? How do you evaluate

rr "
fix, y)dA= lim 2Sfix*,}'*) AA WofiX' y)^A if D is a type II region?
m, ;^f :-i
R t i; I
A region D is of type II if it lies between the graphs of
(c) What is the geometric interpretation of J f^/(.r, y) dA if two continuous functions of y, that is,
fix, y) 2= 0? What if/ takes on both positive and nega
tive values? D = {(A,y) I c^y^d, /ii(y) ^ a ^ /i2(y)}
If f(x, y) > 0, Jj^/(A", y) dA represents the volume of the
where h\ and hi are continuous on [c, d]. Then
solid that lies above the rectangle R and below the surface
z =fix, y). If/takes on both positive and negative val
ues, then JJ^/(.v,y) dA is V| - Va. where V\ is the volume
above R and below the surface 2 =fix, y), and Vz is the
(d) What properties do double integrals have?
volume below R and above the surface.

(d) How do you evaluate JJ^/U, y) dA'? ■ JJ [fix, y) + gix, y)]dA

D
We usually evaluate .fj^/(.v, y) dA as an iterated integral
according to Fubini's Theorem: = £fix,y)dA + jjgix, y)dA
D D

J|fix, y)dA =££/{.v, y)dy dx = ££/(a:, y)dx dy ■ JJ cfix, y)dA = c JJfix, y)dA
H
U D

(e) What does the Midpoint Rule for double integrals say? where c is a constant
The Midpoint Rule for double integrals says that we
approximate the double integral 1 /(.t, y) dA by the ■ If fix,y) ^ gU,y) for all U.y) in D, then

double Riemann sum 2 2fixi, y,)AA, where the sample

r=l ;=l
JJfix,y)dA ^ JJ gix, y)dA
D D
points (a;, Vj) are the centers of the subrectangles.
(f) Write an expression for the average value of/. ■ If D = Z)i U Dz, where Di and Dz don't overlap except
perhaps on their boundaries, then
fit\e jj/U,)dA
AiR) JJ fix, y) = JJ fix,y)dA + JJ fix, y)dA
l> l>, Dz
where A(/?) is the area of R.
2. (a) How do you define jfi^fix, y) dA if D is a bounded region ■ JJ 1 dA = A(D), the area of D.
that is not a rectangle? D

Since D is bounded, it can be enclosed in a rectangular

■ If m ^fix,y) M for all (.v,y) in D, then
region R. We define a new function F with domain R by

F(Ar, y) =
fix, y) if ix, y) is in D inAiD)^ JJfix, y)dA « MA(D)
0 if (.r, y) is in R but not in D

(continued)
CHAPTER 15 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
3. How do you change from rectangular coordinates to polar (b) What properties does/possess?
coordinates in a double integral? Why would you want to
make the change? nx.y)^0 ^jf(x,y)dA = \
R'
We may want to change from rectangular to polar coordinates
in a double integral if the region D of integration Is more eas (c) What are the expected values of X and Y7
ily described in polar coordinates:
The expected value of X is /xi = J|xf{x,>>) dA
D = {(r,0) I a « 0 « /i,(0) « r hzid)}

To evaluate dA, we replace x by rcos0, y by rsin0, The expected value of y is p.2 = JJ" yfix,y)dA
R'
and dA by r dr dd (and use appropriate limits of integration):
6. Write an expression for the area of a surface with equation
jjfix, y)dA = cos 0, r sin 0)r dr dd z=fix,y\ix,y)^D.

A{5)= II + [/v(-c,y)]^ + 1 dA
4. If a lamina occupies a plane region D and has density func D

tion p(x, y), write expressions for each of the following in

terms of double integrals. (assuming that and /> are continuous).
7. (a) Write the definition of the triple integral of/over a
(a) The mass: m = Jj p(-».y)dA rectangular box B.
D

(b) The moments about the axes: , lim S E ifix*jt,y*k,z*k)^V

B

= jj yp(x,y)dA My = JJ xp(x,y)dA where AV is the volume of each sub-box and

D D
(•T**, y*k, Zijk) is a sample point in each sub-box.
(c) The center of mass; (b) How do you evaluate|f|g fix, y, z) dV?
^ - My ^ We usually evaluate fix, y,z)dV as an iterated inte
(x,y), where x = — and y=
m m gral according to Fubini's Theorem for Triple Integrals:
If/is continuous on B = [a,6] X [c,d] X [r,i], then
(d) The moments of inertia about the axes and the origin:
IIIfix,y, z)dV = ££IV(-^. y, dx dy dz
B
ix = y-pix,y)dA
D Note that there are five other orders of integration that we
can use.

ly = Jj x^pix,y)dA (c) How do you define fix, y, z)dV if £" is a bounded

solid region that is not a box?
D

Since E is bounded, it can be enclosed in a box B as

h-il(x'+ y')p^x,y)dA described in part (b). We define a new function F with
domain B by

5. Let/ be a joint density function of a pair of continuous . . f/U.y.x) if (x,y.z) is in

i E
random variables X and Y. ^ lo if (x, y,z)is in
i B but not in E
(a) Write a double integral for the probability that X lies
Then we define
between a and h and Y lies between c and d.

Pia ^ X ^ b, c ^ y ^ d)= J*'' y)dy dx IIIfix,y,z)dV = III Fix,y,z)dV

{continued}
CHAPTER 15 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
(d) What is a type 1 solid region? How do you evaluate 8. Suppose a solid object occupies the region £ and has den
jJjf if ^ is such a region? sity function p(.t, y, z). Write expressions for each of the
A region E is of type I if it lies between the graphs of two following.
continuous functions of x and y, that is, (a) The mass:

£= I uiU.y)^ z UiUy)} m = IJJ pU y, z) dV

E

where D is the projection of E onto the jry-plane. Then

(b) The moments about the coordinate planes:

f
E /J L •
''']
J
= IJj xpix, y, z) dV
E

(e) What is a type 2 solid region? How do you evaluate

Jliz if ^ is such a region? Afir = III ypU, y, z) dV
E
A type 2 region is of the form

E= {U,y,z) I iy,z) G D, U|(y,z)^ J z)} j|J zp{x, y, z) dV

E

where D is the projection of E onto the yr-plane. Then

(c) The coordinates of the center of mass:

III
E
>'• =IJ
t> ^ J
(j:, y, z), where x = —y = —z
m m m

(f) What is a type 3 solid region? How do you evaluate

(d) The moments of inertia about the axes:
\\\e /(j:, y,z) dV if E is such a region?
A type 3 region is of the form
E= iff iy' + z^)p{x,y,z)dV
E= {U y,z) I (x,z) G D. U[(.T, z) ^ y « H2(jc, z)}
(jc^ + 2^)pUy,z) dV
where D is the projection of E onto the xz-plane. Then

f >■ =JI
r n .
''']
J
(j:^ + y^)pix,y, z)dV

(continued)
 CHAPTER 15 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
9. (a) How do you change from rectangular coordinates to cylindrical coordinates in a triple integral?

JJJ
y,z)(IV = JoP J'lilUI
C''"" Jni(r cos W, rsindl cos e, r sin 6,z) rdidrdB
E

where

£ = |(;-^ 0^2) I a ^ e :s fide) ^ r =s /j:(0), Hi(/ cos 0, rsin 0) « z « «2(rcos 0, rsin 0)}
Thus we replace ^ by r cos 0, y by r sin 0, rfV by r dz dr dd, and use appropriate limits of integration.
(b) How do you change from rectangular coordinates to spherical coordinates in a triple integral?

Jjj/Cv, y,z)dV = I'' P sin^ cos 0,p sin<^ sin0, p cos (/)) p* sint|> dpdO d<t>
where E = {(p,0,(/»)|a 0 ^ /3. c ^ ^ d. gdQ, <j)) ^ p 1/2(0, d>)}
Thus we replace x by p sin d> cos 0, y by p sin (f> sin 0, 2 by p cos (/>, dV by p" sin (f> dp dd d4), and use appropriate limits of
integration.
(c) In what situations would you change to cylindrical or spherical coordinates?
We may want to change from rectangular to cylindrical or spherical coordinates in a triple integral if the region £ of integration
is more easily described in cylindrical or spherical coordinates. Regions that involve symmetry about the z-axis are often simpler
to describe using cylindrical coordinates, and regions that are symmetrical about the origin are often simpler in spherical coordi
nates. Also, sometimes the integrand is easier to integrate using cylindrical or spherical coordinates.
10. (a) If a transformation T is given by a: = g{u, v), y = h{u, v), what is the Jacobian of T1

dx dx

0(-v.y) du dv dx dy dx dy
0(",f) dy dy du dv dv du

du dv

(b) How do you change variables in a double integral?

We change from an integral in ,v and y to an integral in u and v by expressing x and y in terms of u and v and writing

dix,y)
dA = du dv
diu, v)
Thus, under the appropriate conditions,
0(a:, y)
JJ/(Ar,y)rfA=jJ/(4«. v),yiu,v)) diu, v)
du dv
R S

where R is the image of 5 under the transformation,

(c) How do you change variables in a triple integral?
Similarly to the case of two variables in part (b).

dix, y,z)
V, w).ziu. V, w)) du dv dw
dill, V, w)

dx dx dx
du dv dw

a(Ar.y, z)
where
diu, v, w) du dv dw

dz dz dz

du dv dw

is the Jacobian.
 CHAPTER 16 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. What is a vector field? Give three examples that have physical (d) Write the definitions of the line integrals along C of a
meaning. scalar function / with respect to x, y, and z.
A vector field is a function that assigns a vector to each point
in its domain. lfix,y,2)dx= lim j:f(xr,yr,zr)Ax^
JC fl —-ce

A vector field can represent, for example, the wind velocity

at any location in space, the speed and direction of the ocean f /{x,y.z)dy= lim i/Uf.yf, z^ Ay,-
JC n —«
current at any location, or the force vector of the earth's
gravitational field at a location in space. [ f{x,y,z)dz= lim 2' f{xf,yf,zf)A2i
JC n-.»
2. (a) What is a conservative vector field?
(We have similar results when / is a function of two
A conservative vector field F is a vector field that is the
variables.)
gradient of some scalar function /, that is, F = V/.
(e) How do you evaluate these line integrals?
(I)) What is a potential function?
The function / in part(a) is called a potential function £ fix, y, z) dx = £/(^('). yW, ^(0) Al) dt
for F.
y, z) dy = yC')- ^W) y'W dt
3. (a) Write the definition of the line integral of a scalar func
tion /along a smooth curve C with respect to arc length.
If C is given by the parametric equations x = .v(/),
£/(x, y, z) dz = yW. zW) At) dt
}' = a t b,wc divide the parameter interval 4. (a) Define the line integral of a vector field F along a smooth
[a, h]into n subintervals [/i-i, /<] of equal width. The rth curve C given by a vector function r(r).
subinlerval corresponds to a subarc of C with length Ai;.
Then
If F is a continuous vector field and C is given by a vector
function r(0, a ^ t b, then
f f(x,y)ds= lim 2/Ur,yD A.^,-
JC >1 -♦<»:
£ F • rfr = £ F(r(r)) • r'(/) t/r = £ F ■ T ds
where {xf, yf) is any sample point in the /th subarc. (b) If F is a force field, what does this line integral represent?
(b) How do you evaluate such a line integral? It represents the work done by F in moving a particle
along the curve C.
(c) If F = {P, Q, R), what is the connection between the
dt
line integral of F and the line integrals of the component
functions P, Q, and /??
Similarly, if C is a smooth space curve, then
£f ■ rfr = £Pi/x+ Qdy + Rdz
£/U.y, z)cls 5. Slate the Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals.
If C is a smooth curve given by r(f), a ^ t ^ b, and / is a
dl differentiable function whose gradient vector V/ is continuous
on C, then

(c) Write expressions for the mass and center of mass of a lvf-dv=f{m)-ma))
thin wire shaped like a curve C if the wire has linear den
sity function p(.v, y). 6. (a) What does it mean to say that fj- F • tfr is independent
of path?
The mass is m = p{x, y) ds.
F • rfr is independent of path if the line integral has the
The center of mass is (x, y), where same value for any two curves that have the same initial
points and the same terminal points.
X = — f xpix, y) ds (b) If you know that F ' dr is independent of path, what
m JC
can you say about F?
We know that F is a conservative vector field, that is, there
3; = J-f
m JC exists a function / such that V/= F.

(continued)
 CHAPTER 16 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
7. State Green's Theorem. (b) Write an expression for the area of a parametric surface.
Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple If5 is a smooth parametric surface given by
closed curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded by
r(«, y) = a(u, y) i + yiu, y)j + z(u, v) k
C. If P and Q have continuous partial derivatives on an open
region that contains D,then where (u, v) G D and S is covered just once as («, y)
ranges throughout D,then the surface area of S is

D
A(5)= JJ |ru X r^j JA
8. Write expressions for the area enclosed by a curve C in terms (c) What is the area of a surface given by an equation
of line integrals around C. z = g(A.y)?

A = j) .V dj = —^ y d.*: = 5 ^ xdy — y dx A(5)=

9. Suppose F is a vector field on

(a) Define curl F. 12. (a) Write the definition of the surface integral of a scalar
function /over a surface S.
We divide S into "patches" Then
dy bz j \dz dx/^ \dx dy'
ff/(A,y,z)^5= lim
=V X F

(b) Define div F. where is the area of the patch and Pf is a sample
point from the patch.(5 is divided into patches in such a
^ dP dO dR „ way that ensures that ASy —*0 as m,n —* <».)
divF = — + — + — = V- F
dx dy dz (b) How do you evaluate such an integral if 5 is a parametric
surface given by a vector function r(H, y)?
(c) If F is a velocity field in fluid flow, what are the physical
interpretations of curl F and div F? J|/(-f. y.2)ifS = JJ/(r(w, y)) I r„ X p„ IJA
At a point in the fluid, the vector curl F aligns with the s D

axis about which the fluid lends to rotate, and its length where D is the parameter domain of S.
measures the speed of rotation; div F at a point measures
(c) What if S is given by an equation z = g{x, y)?
the tendency of the fluid to flow away (diverge) from that
point.
dS
10. If F = P i + (2 how do you determine whether F is conser
vative? What if F is a vector field on R'?

If P and Q have continuous first-order derivatives and dA

dP BQ
—= , then F is conservative.
dy dx (d) If a thin sheet has the shape of a surface S, and the den
If F is a vector field on R'whose component functions have sity at (.r, y, z) is p(a, y, z), write expressions for the mass
and center of mass of the sheet.
continuous partial derivatives and curl F = 0. then F is
conservative. The mass is

11. (a) What is a parametric surface? What are its grid curves? m =|jp(a,y,2)dS
A parametric surface 5 is a surface in described by a
vector function The center of mass is (a, y,z), where

t(u, v) = x{u, v) i + y{u, y)j + z(u, v) k

^ = — f I* ap(a,y,z)dS
m JJ
of two parameters u and v. Equivalent parametric equa s

tions are
>■ = —ffypUy.
m JJ
A" = a(w, v) y = y(u, y) z = z(m, y) s

The grid curves of S are the curves that correspond to r = — ff 2pU,y,z)dS

m JJ
holding either u or v constant.

(continued)
 CHAPTER 16 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
13. (a) What is an oriented surface? Give an example of a non- for the upward oriematlon of 5; we multiply by -1 for the
oricntabie surface. downward orientation.

An oriented surface S is one for which we can choose a 14. State Stokes' Theorem.
unit normal vector n at every point so that n varies con Let S be an oriented piecewise-smooth surface that is bounded
tinuously over S. The choice of n provides 5 with an by a simple, closed, piecewise-smooth boundary curve C with
orientation. positive orientation. Let F be a vector field whose components
A Mobius strip is a nonorientable surface. (It has only have continuous partial derivatives on an open region in
one side.) that contains S. Then

(b) Define the surface integral (or (lux) of a vector field F

over an oriented surface S with unit normal vector n. £ F • (/r = IJ curl F ■ dS

s a
15. State the Divergence Theorem,
Let £ be a simple solid region and let S be the boundaiy sur
(c) How do you evaluate such an integral if S is a parametric
face of £, given with positive (outward) orientation. Let F be
surface given by a vector function r(H, v)'?
a vector field whose component functions have continuous
JJ F • rfS = Jj F ■ (r„ X r„) dA partial derivatives on an open region that contains £. Then
S D
j|F.rfS = JJjdivF,/F
We multiply by — 1 if the opposite orientation of S is
desired.

(d) What if S is given by an equation z = ^(-v, y)? 16. In what ways are the Fundamental Theorem for Line
Integrals, Green's Theorem, Stokes' Theorem, and the
lfF =(P, Q,R), Divergence Theorem similar?
In each theorem, we integrate a "derivative" over a region, and
JjF.^S- dx dy
this integral is equal to an expression involving the values of
the original function only on the boundary of the region.
 CHAPTER 17 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
1. (a) Write the general form of a second-order homogeneous is a polynomial, choose y,, to be a general polynomial
linear differential equation with constant coefficients. of the same degree. If G(.r) is of the form Ce'", choose
ay" by' cy = Q ypW — Ae''^. If G(a:) is Ccos kx or C sin kx, choose
yp{x) = A cos kx + B sin kx. If G(.r) is a product of func
where a, b, and c are constants and a 7^ 0. tions, choose yp to be a product of functions of the same
(b) Write the auxiliary equation. type. Some examples are:

ar' + br + c = 0
G{x) ypW ■
(c) How do you use the roots of the auxiliary equation to x' Ax- + Bx + C
solve the differential equation? Write the form of the e" Ae^'
solution for each of the three cases that can occur.
sin 2x A cos 2x + B sin 2x
If the auxiliary equation has two distinct real roots ri and xe'' {Ax + B)e~'
/■j, the general solution of the differential equation is

y = C[e'" + cie"'^ We then substitute yp, y'p, and y'p into the differential equa
tion and determine the coefficients.
If the roots are real and equal, the solution is
If yp happens to be a solution of the complementary equa
y = cic" + CiXe" tion, then multiply the initial trial solution by x (or x^ if
necessary).
where r is the common root.
If the roots are complex, we can write ri = a + and
If GCat) is a sum of functions, we find a particular solution
rz = a — //3, and the solution is
for each function and then yp is the sum of these.
The general solution of the differential equation is
. y= cos /3,x + cz sin /Sx)
y(-T) = yp(j:) + y.(4
2. (a) What is an initial-value problem for a second-order dif
ferential equation? (d) Explain how the method of variation of parameters
works.
An initial-value problem consists of finding a solution y of
the differential equation that also satisfies given conditions We write the solution of the complementary equation
>'Uo) = yo and y'(-*o) = yu where >'o and yt are constants, ay" + by' + cy = 0 as = ciydx) + C2y:(.r).
where yi and yi are linearly independent solutions. We
(b) What is a boundary-value problem for such an equation?
then take y^Cx) = ui(x)yi(x) + U2(x)y:(x) as a particular
A boundary-value problem consists of finding a solution y solution, where Ui(.r) and Uzix) are arbitrary functions.
of the differential equation that also .satisfies given bound After computing yj,, we impose the condition that
ary conditions y(.to) = yo and y(.vi) = yi.
3. (a) Write the general form of a second-order nonhomo- "iyi+«2y2=0 (1)
geneous linear differential equation with constant
and then compute y'p. Substituting yp, y/, and yp into the
coefficients.
original differential equation gives
ay" + by' + cy = C(x), where o, b, and c are constants
and G is a continuous function. a(M'iyi + niyi) = G (2)
(b) What is the complementary equation? How does it help We then solve equations (1) and (2) for the unknown
solve the original differential equation? functions and u'z. If we are able to integrate
The complementary equation is the related homogeneous these functions, then a particular solution is
equation ay" + by' + cy = 0. If we fi nd the general solu ypix) = ui(x)yi(x) + M2(x)y2(x) and the general solution
tion yc of the complementary equation and y^ is any par is y(x) = y^{x) + y,(x).
ticular solution of the nonhomogeneous differential equa
4. Discuss two applications of second-order linear differential
tion, then the general solution of the original differential
equations.
equation is y(.r) = y^U) + ycU).
The motion of an object with mass m at the end of a spring
(c) Explain how the method of undetermined coefficients
is an example of simple harmonic motion and is described by
works.
the second-order linear differential equation
To determine a particular solution y^ of
ay" + by' + cy = G{x), we make an initial guess that d^x
m —T + kx = 0
y'p is a general function of the same type as C. If G(a:) dr

(continued)
 CHAPTER 17 CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS (continued)
where k is the spring constant and x is the distance the spring Differentiating gives
is stretched (or compressed)from its natural length. If there
are external forces acting on the spring, then the differential y = 2 nc„x"~^ = 2(n + Ijcn+ix"
B~l n~0
equation is modified.
and
Second-order linear differential equations are also used to
analyze electrical circuits involving an electromotive force, a y" = 2 n(" ~ = 2(n + 2)(n + l)c„+2X"
n—2 n»0
resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor in series.
See the discussion in Section 17.3 for additional details. We substitute these expressions into the differential equation
and equate the coefficients of x" to find a recursion relation
5. How do you use power series to solve a differential equation? involving the constants c„. Solving the recursion relation gives
We first assume that the differential equation has a power a formula for c„ and then
series solution of the form at

y = 2 CnX"
n=0

y = 2 CflX" Co + cix + cjjt' + cjx^ +

«-o is the solution of the differential equation.

'-jC