What is a Database?

Database: Collection of related relations. Consider the following collection of tables:A database in a
DBMS could be viewed by lots of different people with different responsibilities.
For example, within a company there are different departments, as well as customers, who each
needto see different kinds of data. Each employee in the company will have different levels of
access to the database with their own customized front-end application.In a database, data is
organized strictly in row and column format. The rows are called Tuple or
Record. The data items within one row may belong to different data types. On the other hand,
thecolumns are often called Domain or Attribute. All the data items within a single attribute are of
thesame data type.
A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs
toaccess those data. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a
database.The collection of data, usually referred to as the database, contains information relevant
to an DATABASE MANGAEMENT SYSTEM Page 3 enterprise. The primary goal of a DBMS is to
provide a way to store and retrieve database informationthat is both convenient and efficient. By
data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have
implicit meaning.
Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of information. Management of data
involves both defining structures for storage of information and providing mechanisms for the
manipulation ofinformation. In addition, the database system must ensure the safety of the
information stored, despite system must avoid possible anomalous results.
Database Management System (DBMS) and Its Applications:
A Database management system is a computerized record-keeping system. It is a repository or
container for collection of computerized data files. The overall purpose of DBMS is to allow he
usersto define, store, retrieve and update the information contained in the database on demand.
Information can be anything that is of significance to an individual or organization.
Databases touch all aspects of our lives. Some of the major areas of application are as follows:1.
Banking2. Airlines3. Universities5. Human resources Advantages of DBMS:Controlling of
Redundancy: Data redundancy refers to the duplication of data (i.e storing same data multiple
times). In a database system, by having a centralized database and centralized control of data
by the DBA the unnecessary duplication of data is avoided. It also eliminates the extra time for
processing the large volume of data. It results in saving the storage space.
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Improved Data Sharing : DBMS allows a user to share the data in any number of application
programs.Data Integrity : Integrity means that the data in the database is accurate. Centralized
control of the
data helps in permitting the administrator to define integrity constraints to the data in the database.
For example: in customer database we can can enforce an integrity that it must accept the
customer only from Noida and Meerut city.Security : Having complete authority over the operational
data, enables the DBA in ensuring that the only mean of access to the database is through proper
channels. The DBA can define authorization checks to be carried out whenever access to sensitive
data is attempted.Data Consistency : By eliminating data redundancy, we greatly reduce the
opportunities forinconsistency. For example: is a customer address is stored only once, we cannot
have disagreementon the stored values. Also updating data values is greatly simplified when each
value is stored in oneplace only. Finally, we avoid the wasted storage that results from redundant
data storage.
Efficient Data Access : In a database system, the data is managed by the DBMS and all access to
th

A Data Model in Database Management System (DBMS) is the concept of tools that are developed
to summarize the description of the database. Data Models provide us with a transparent picture of
data which helps us in creating an actual database. It shows us from the design of the data to its
proper implementation of data.
Types of Relational Models Conceptual Data Model, Representational Data Model, Physical
Data Model
It is basically classified into 3 types:-The conceptual data model describes the database at a very
high level and is useful to understand the needs or requirements of the database. It is this model,
that is used in the requirement-gathering process i.e. before the Database Designers start making
a particular database. One such popular model is the entity/relationship model (ER model). The
E/R model specializes in entities, relationships, and even attributes that are used by database
designers. In terms of this concept, a discussion can be made even with non-computer
science(non-technical) users and stakeholders, and their requirements can be understood.
Entity-Relationship Model( ER Model): It is a high-level data model which is used to define the data
and the relationships between them. It is basically a conceptual design of any database which is
easy to design the view of data.Components of ER Model: Entity: An entity is referred to as a
real-world object. It can be a name, place, object, class, etc. These are represented by a rectangle
in an ER Diagram. Attributes: An attribute can be defined as the description of the entity. These are
represented by Ellipse in an ER Diagram. It can be Age, Roll Number, or Marks for a Student.
Relationships are used to define relations among different entities. Diamonds and Rhombus are
used to show Relationships.
Representational Data Model
This type of data model is used to represent only the logical part of the database and does not
represent the physical structure of the database. The representational data model allows us to
focus primarily, on the design part of the database. A popular representational model is a Relational
model. The relational Model consists of Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus. In the
Relational Model, we basically use tables to represent our data and the relationships between
them. It is a theoretical concept whose practical implementation is done in Physical Data Model.
The physical Data Model is used to practically implement Relational Data Model. Ultimately, all data
in a database is stored physically on a secondary storage device such as discs and tapes. This is
stored in the form of files, records, and certain other data structures. It has all the information on the
format in which the files are present and the structure of the databases, the presence of external
data structures, and their relation to each other. Here, we basically save tables in memory so they
can be accessed efficiently. In order to come up with a good physical model, we have to work on
the relational model in a better way. Structured Query Language (SQL) is used to practically
implement Relational Algebra.
This Data Model describes HOW the system will be implemented using a specific DBMS system.
This model is typically created by DBA and developers. The purpose is actual implementation of the
database.The Network Model was formalized by the Database Task group in the 1960s. This model
is the generalization of the hierarchical model. This model can consist of multiple parent segments
and these segments are grouped as levels but there exists a logical association between the
segments belonging to any level. Mostly, there exists a many-to-many logical association between
any of the two segments.
3. Object-Oriented Data Model
In the Object-Oriented Data Model, data and their relationships are contained in a single structure
which is referred to as an object in this data model. In this, real-world problems are represented as
objects with different attributes. All objects have multiple relationships between them. Basically, it is
a combination of Object Oriented programming and a Relational Database Model.

NATURE OF MANAGEMENT
1. It is a Universal Activity: Management is relevant in every sphere of activity. It is relevant in army,
government, private household work etc. the work can be done in a
more systematic manner with the application of the techniques of management. The material and
human resources can be effectively handled and the goal can be attained with maximum efficiently.
2. It is goal oriented: Management focuses attention on the attainment of specific objectives. For
Ex. a business may aim for a particular level of sales. This can be
achieved by proper forecast of sales by planning production by fixing the targets.3. It is an
Intellectual activity: the practice of management requires application of mind
and intelligence. Every work needs to be properly planned and Execute work has to be assigned to
different Individuals and responsible have to be fixed on them. Ex. in a
manufacturing unit production finance and marketing are the important activities It is a process: it is
process consisting of various stages/ functions. Planning is the
starting point of management and control is its last stage.5. Management is both art and science:
the practice of science needs knowledge of theory and formulae. But the practice of art requires
skill management is social science.
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT / MANAGEMENT PROCESS / POSDCORB
1. Planning: Planning means forecasting or predicting the future activity in a specific manner or
structure. It is the basic function and essential for all the organization.
2. Organizing: It is collection or joining of all the resources available within the organization and
outside, in order to achieve the organizational goal with efficiency.
3. Staffing: It involves appointing the right man for the right job at the right time. The management is
to analyze the human resource, see if he is suitable for the job and
accordingly allocate the work in the organization.4. Directing: It is showing the correct path or
correct way to achieve the organizational goal within the stipulated time.
5. Controlling: Controlling as a function involves regulating the person or examining the person
whether he is working in the right way or not. In order to achieve the common
goal as efficient as possible. 6. Coordinating: It is a type of support function. It involves
accumulating the work to achieve the task.7. Budgeting: It means allocation of the resources. It
involves financial planning for the future activities.8. Reporting: It is a statement showing the
various activities to the top management. It shows the status of the work done.

EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
PRE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ERA:
1. Robert Owen (1771- 1858) he advocated that workers should be treated as human beings, he
has taken efforts to improve working conditions in the factory reduce working hours, increase
minimum wages, provide meals to employees, allocate education provision , housing and other
labor welfare facilities. His main contribution is that the effective and good personnel
management was essential part of manager’s job since it pays dividends to the employer.2. Charles
Babbage (1792-1872): he was a professor of math’s of Cambridge university from
1828to 1839. He has suggested aspects like division of labor, work measurement, profit sharing
and engineering to improve the efficiency of management.
He has invented mechanical calculators which were called as “differential machine”.He has
emphasized in improving efficiency through the application of math’s and science in the
operation of factories.3. Charles Dupin (1784-1873) he has emphasized systematic education in
management He was French engineer and formally tried to structure the subject matter of
management.These early contributors focused attention on managerial problems.
They have not presented any unified theory of management.
Systematic and scientific study of management started after 1880. Due to the creation of joint
stock corporate organizational set up.

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of how individuals, groups, and structures influence
behavior within organizations
. In management, OB is a crucial applied science used to increase an organization's effectiveness
and achieve its goals by understanding, predicting, and influencing employee behavior. It helps
managers navigate the human element of a company to create a more productive, efficient, and
satisfying workplace. Key elements of organizational behavior
OB analysis is conducted at three levels, which help managers understand the multifaceted nature
of human dynamics in the workplace:
Individual level: Focuses on employees' personal attributes, such as personality, perceptions,
values, and motivations.
Group level: Examines group dynamics, including how teams are formed, how they interact, how
they make decisions, and how they resolve conflicts.
Organizational level: Considers the impact of the organization's structure and culture on
employee behavior. This includes looking at formal structures, hierarchies, and informal social
systems. The vital role of OB in managementThe application of organizational behavior helps
managers improve performance and build a healthy work environment.
Enhances employee performance and productivity: By understanding what motivates employees
and providing constructive feedback, managers can create a more engaging work environment that
boosts productivity. Improves leadership effectiveness: OB equips leaders with the tools to
inspire, influence, and guide their teams positively. Effective leaders understand human behavior
and can foster trust and open communication.
Fosters a positive organizational culture: OB provides insights into how to build and maintain a
positive and inclusive culture by understanding the shared beliefs and values of an organization.
Facilitates change management: In a constantly evolving business landscape, OB helps managers
understand the psychology of change, overcome resistance, and implement effective strategies to
support their teams through transitions.Resolves conflicts and improves communication: OB offers
strategies for conflict resolution and provides insights into communication patterns. This helps
managers minimize misunderstandings and promote harmonious relationships.
Aids in human resource strategies: For HR teams, OB research helps identify the right talent during
recruitment, design effective training programs, and create reward systems that increase employee
engagement and retention.
Common OB topics in management
Motivation and engagement: Using motivational theories to increase job satisfaction and
performance, which can lead to higher employee retention.
Leadership and power: Examining different leadership styles and how they influence
decision-making, team dynamics, and overall organizational effectiveness.Communication:
Understanding and enhancing communication patterns to reduce misunderstandings and
strengthen collaboration across all levels of the organization.
Team dynamics: Building effective and collaborative teams by studying how groups form, make
decisions, and interact.
Organizational culture: Shaping and managing the culture to align employees with the company's
vision and values.
Ethics and social responsibility: Ensuring ethical decision-making and promoting social
responsibility within the organization.

A functional dependency occurs when the value of one attribute (or a set of attributes) uniquely
determines the value of another attribute. This relationship is denoted as:
X → YHere, X is the determinant, and Y is the dependent attribute. This means that for each unique
value of X, there is precisely one corresponding value of Y.
Example:Consider a table named Students with the following attributes: StudentID
StudentName StudentAgeIf each student has a unique StudentID, and this ID determines the
student's name, we can express this functional dependency as:StudentID → StudentName
This indicates that knowing the StudentID allows us to determine the StudentName.
Integrity rules:In DBMS systems, integrity rules, which take a prime place, are designed to ensure
that the quality of data is always high, with no inconsistencies or errors. The set of principles, also
known as the integrity rules or constraints, helps to manage the data stored in the system in the
right way and determine whether it’s suitable for certain purposes. It is not without reason that these
rules are so crucial since they are key to the overall integrity of the database and its quality. Herein,
we investigate the centrality of governance regulations, illustrate the different types that exist, and
provide their implementation in DBMS.