ROBOT ENGINEERING 2024

Introduction

Definition of Robot
A Robot is a “re-programmable” “multifunctional” manipulator designed to move
material, parts, tools, or special devices, through variable programmed motion.

- by RIA (Robotics Industry Association)

*Old definition for industrial robot

Applications
Industrial Robot Is NOT Everything:

Ÿ Industry
Ÿ Remote exploration
Ÿ Biomedical
Ÿ Service
Ÿ Entertainment
Ÿ Other emerging applications (Military/Law Enforcement, Disaster Response…)

Five Key Areas of Robotics

① Manipulation

② Locomotion
③ Navigation

④ Interaction

⑤ Intelligence
*This class focuses on Manipulation.

Robotic System & Its Components

① Mechanism

Ÿ Electric

Ÿ Hydraulic

Ÿ Pneumatic

② Computer

Ÿ Receive sensor input

Ÿ Compute control output
Ÿ Send out control output

③ Sensors

Ÿ Encoder/Tachometer
Ÿ Force sensors
Ÿ Tactile sensors
Ÿ Vision (Camera)

Robotics - System Engineering

Robotics as Science of “System Integration”

Related Fields to Robotics

Mechanical Engineering

Ÿ Kinematics

Ÿ Dynamics

Ÿ Control
Ÿ Mechanical Design

Computer Science

Ÿ Programming

Electrical Engineering

Ÿ Mechatronics

Ÿ Sensor

Ÿ Control

This Course Will Cover:

Ÿ Robot Kinematics

Ÿ Robot Dynamics

Ÿ Robot Control

Ÿ Robot Design/Building

*This Class is based on ME, rather than on CS or EE

Other ME Classes Related to This Class

Ÿ Linear Algebra

Ÿ Engineering Mathematics

Ÿ Computer Aided Design

Ÿ Kinematics

Ÿ Dynamics

Ÿ Automatic Control

Ÿ Mechanical Vibration

Ÿ Mechatronics

Ÿ Micro-processor

Ÿ Sensor and Measurement

Ÿ Mechanical Element Design

Prerequisites
Ÿ Engineering Mathematics 1

Ÿ Computer-Aided Design

Ÿ Kinematics

Ÿ Dynamics

Ÿ Mechanical Vibration

Ÿ Automatic Control

Ÿ Introduction to Electrical Engineering

*This is a senior course in mechanical engineering, which requires sufficient

background in related fields.

Contents of This Course

Ÿ System Dynamics and Control
Ÿ Mechatronics

Ÿ Coordinate Transformation

Ÿ Kinematics

Ÿ Velocity Kinematics

Ÿ Statics

Ÿ Stiffness Servo

Ÿ Dynamics

Ÿ Control
System Dynamics and Control

System
An interconnection of elements and devices that we can draw a dotted line around
and define inputs and outputs

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑢(𝑡))

*function 𝑓(… ) mapping input 𝑢 (𝑡) to output 𝑦(𝑡)

*Here, SISO (Single Input Single Output) system

Static System vs. Dynamic System

Static System

Output y at time t depends only on input u at time t

(ex) see-saw

𝑙!
𝑦 (𝑡 ) = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑙"
Dynamic System

Output y at time t depends on past value of input u, as well as input u at time t

(ex) water tank

#
𝐴𝑦(𝑡) = * 𝑎𝑢(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
$

#
𝑎
𝑦 (𝑡 ) = * 𝑢(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
$ 𝐴

OR

𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑎
= 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐴
Ordinary Differential Equation (O.D.E.)

Stability

Stable System

finite input finite output

Unstable System

(ex) positive feedback

(ex) resonance

Linearity

Linear System

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝛼𝑢" + 𝛽𝑢! ) = 𝛼𝑓(𝑢" ) + 𝛽𝑓(𝑢! )

Nonlinear System

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝛼𝑢" + 𝛽𝑢! ) ≠ 𝛼𝑓(𝑢" ) + 𝛽𝑓(𝑢! )

(ex) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 !

Time invariance

Time-Invariant System

(ex)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑢(𝑡) (𝑎 = constant)

At 𝑡 = 𝑡" , 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑈 → 𝑦(𝑡" ) = 𝑎𝑈

At 𝑡 = 𝑡! , 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑈 → 𝑦(𝑡! ) = 𝑎𝑈

Time-Varying System

(ex)

y(t) = 𝑎(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡) (𝑎 = function of time)

At 𝑡 = 𝑡" , 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑈 → 𝑦(𝑡" ) = 𝑎(𝑡" )𝑈

At 𝑡 = 𝑡! , 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑈 → 𝑦(𝑡! ) = 𝑎(𝑡! )𝑈

*battery à modelled as time-invariant, while it is actually time-varying

 System Modeling
l Represent the system mathematically (ex) ODE, Transfer Function

l Describe, Predict, and Control the system

Mechanical System

① Kinematics (Motion, Geometry)

② Force Balance (Free-Body Diagram)

③ Force-Motion Relation (Mechanical Component)

(ex) mass-spring-damper system

① Kinematics (Motion, Geometry)

∆𝑙 = 𝑥

𝑙 ̇ = 𝑙$̇ + ∆𝑙 ̇ = 𝑥̇

② Force Balance (Free-Body Diagram)

ΣF = 𝑓 − 𝑓" − 𝑓!

③ Force-Motion Relations (Mechanical Component)

spring

𝑓" = 𝑘∆𝑙 = 𝑘𝑥
damper

𝑓! = 𝑏𝑙 ̇ = 𝑏𝑥̇
mass

ΣF = 𝑚𝑥̈

○
1 , ○
2 , ○
3 à

System Equation

𝑓 − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥̇ = 𝑚𝑥̈

Electrical System

① Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

② Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

③ Voltage-Current Relations (Electrical Component)

(ex) R-L-C circuit

① Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

𝑖 = 𝑖" = 𝑖! = 𝑖%

② Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

𝐸 − 𝑒" − 𝑒! − 𝑒% = 0

③ Voltage-Current Relation (Electrical Component)

resistance
𝑒" = 𝑖" 𝑅
inductance

𝑑𝑖!
𝑒! = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
capacitance

1
𝑒% = * 𝑖% 𝑑𝑡
𝑐

○
1 , ○
2 , ○
3 à

System Equation

𝑑𝑖 1
𝐸 − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 − * 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑐
integro-differential equation

1
𝐸̇ − 𝑅𝚤̇ − 𝐿𝚤̈ − 𝑖 = 0
𝑐
differential equation
 Electromechanical System

Electrical Domain

Electrical System Modeling ○

1 , ○
2 , ○
3 à

&'
𝑉 − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 − 𝑒( = 0 à ○
a
&#

Mechanical Domain

Mechanical System Modeling ○

1 , ○
2 , ○
3 à

𝜏( − 𝐵𝜃̇ = 𝐼𝜃̈ à ○
b
*angular version of Newton’s Second Law Σ𝜏 = 𝐼𝜃̈ (Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥̈ )

DC Motor (Electromechanical Component)

𝜏( = 𝐾𝑖 à ○
c

&)
𝑒( = 𝐾 à ○
d
&#

*𝑒( = back electromotive force

*Fleming’s left-hand rule à 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝐿

*Fleming’s right-hand rule à 𝑒 = 𝑣𝐵

○
a , ○
b , ○
c , ○
d à

System Equation

𝐿𝐼 𝑅𝐼 𝐿𝐵 𝑅𝐵
𝑉= 𝜃T + U + V 𝜃̈ + U + 𝐾V 𝜃̇
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾 𝐾

*conversion of electrical power to mechanical power

electrical power (Watt = J/sec)

𝑃*+*,#-',.+ = 𝑒( 𝑖
mechanical power (Watt = J/sec)

𝑃(*,/.0',.+ = 𝜏( 𝜃̇

energy efficiency of DC motor is near 100% à 𝑒( 𝑖 ≈ 𝜏( 𝜃̇

DC motor

𝜏( = 𝐾" 𝑖

𝑒( = 𝐾! 𝜃̇

(𝐾! 𝜃̇)𝑖 ≈ (𝐾" 𝑖)𝜃̇

∴
𝐾! = 𝐾" = 𝐾

System Behavior

Physical System
Modeling

Mathematical Model (O.D.E)

Solving

System Behavior (Solution)

Solution of ODE

Ÿ time-domain solution à step response

Ÿ Laplace-domain solution à transfer function, root locus

Ÿ frequency-domain à frequency response function, Bode plot

Time-Domain Solution

Analytical Solution

*what you learned in Engineering Mathematics I

① check the type of ODE

② apply known solution

③ general solution = homogeneous solution + particular solution

④ apply initial conditions

Numerical Solution

*use ode45 in matlab

① ONE N-th order ODE à N 1st order ODE’s

② input N 1st order ODE’s and I.C. into matlab code

③ solve using ode45.m

Laplace-Domain Solution

Transfer Function

relation between input and output in s-domain

output

𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑈(𝑠)
Input

Block Diagram

graphical representation of transfer function

Block Diagram Manipulation

𝑌 = 𝐾𝐺𝐸
where

𝐸 = 𝑅 − 𝐻𝑌

𝑌 = 𝐾𝐺 (𝑅 − 𝐻𝑌) à 𝑌(1 + 𝐾𝐺𝐻) = 𝐾𝐺𝑅

𝑌 𝐾𝐺
=
𝑅 1 + 𝐾𝐺𝐻

Feedback Control

Open-Loop System

(ex) mass-spring-damper system

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹

𝑚𝑠 ! 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑘𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)

Transfer function 𝐺 (𝑠 )

𝑋(𝑠) 1
𝐺 (𝑠) = =
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 ! + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘

Step Input à Step Response

System Performance?
Ÿ Stable?

Ÿ Fast?

Ÿ Error?

Step response

Ÿ transient behavior

Ÿ system performance in time domain

Ÿ performance indices à overshoot, rise time, settling time, steady-state error

l Overshoot 𝑀1 à

Max percent overshoot

l Rise Time 𝑡- à

10-90%, 5-95%, 0-100%

l Settling Time 𝑡2 à
1, 2 or 5% of final value

l Steady-State Error 𝑒22 à

error as 𝑡→∞

*ideal response?

* use step function in matlab

(ex)

50
𝐺 (𝑠) =
𝑠 % + 9𝑠 ! + 30𝑠 + 40

>> step(50,[1 9 30 40]);

Closed-Loop System

Improve System Performance by Closing the Loop

* 𝑟(𝑡 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑅(𝑠) = reference input

l Plant 𝐺 (𝑠 )
- a dynamic system to be controlled

- unsatisfactory system performance

l Controller 𝐾(𝑠)
- provides the excitation for the plant

- designed to control the overall system behavior

l Sensor 𝐻 (𝑠 )

- measure the state of plant

- may have its own dynamics

PID-Controller
- 90 % (or more) of control loops in industry

- Simple controller

Time domain

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾3 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾4 * 𝑒(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝐾5
𝑑𝑡

Laplace domain

𝐾4 𝐾5 𝑠 ! + 𝐾3 𝑠 + 𝐾4
𝑈(𝑠) = U𝐾3 + + 𝐾5 𝑠V 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠
where

𝐾3 = proportional gain

𝐾4 = Integral gain

𝐾5 = derivative gain

(ex)

Mass-Spring-Damper System
 𝑋(𝑠) 1
𝐺 (𝑠) = =
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 ! + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
PID controller

𝐾5 𝑠 ! + 𝐾3 𝑠 + 𝐾4
𝐾 (𝑠) =
𝑠

𝑋 𝐾𝐺
=
𝑅 1 + 𝐾𝐺
𝑋(𝑠) 𝐾5 𝑠 ! + 𝐾3 𝑠 + 𝐾4
= = 𝐺67 (𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 % + (𝑏 + 𝐾5 )𝑠 ! + (𝑘 + 𝐾3 )𝑠 + 𝐾4

*𝐺67 (𝑠) = Closed-Loop Transfer Function (CLTF)

Design of PID Controller

Design of “Well-Behaving” CL system

Ÿ Stable

Ÿ Fast response

Ÿ Minimum overshoot

Ÿ No steady-state error

Determine right values for KP, KI, and KD to improve the step response

*Rules of Thumb in Determining Gains

- Not exactly accurate, because KP, KI, and KD are dependent on each other

- Still useful… Can be used as a reference

General Tips

① Obtain an Open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved

② Add P-controller to improve the rise time

③ Add D-controller to improve the overshoot.

④ Add I-controller to eliminate the steady state error

⑤ Adjust each of KP , KI , and KD until you obtain a desired overall response

For more information:

https://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Introduction&section=Contr
olPID

More on PID control

physical meaning of PID control

① P control

ex) spring-loaded door à restoring torque

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾3 𝑒(𝑡)

② PD control

ex) spring-loaded door with viscous damper

correct for the momentum as it moves towards the reference point

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾3 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾5
𝑑𝑡
③ PI control

integrate error over time à

kick to drive the system to reference point

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾3 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾4 * 𝑒(𝜏)𝑑𝜏

 Implementation of Feedback Control System
Robot Joint - DC motor driving a link

Modeling of Plant

Electrical Domain

① KCL
② KVL

③ Voltage-Current Relation

&'
à 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + 𝑒( ≈ 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑒( a
à○
&#

where

𝑅≫𝐿

Mechanical Domain

① kinematics

② force balance

③ Force-Motion Relation

à 𝜏( = 𝐼𝜃̈ + 𝐵𝜃̇ b
à○

Electromechanical Component (DC Motor)

𝑒( = 𝐾𝜃̇, 𝜏( = 𝐾𝑖 c
à○

Plant Dynamics

○
a, ○
b, ○
c à

𝐾! 𝑉
𝐼𝜃̈ + f𝐵 + g 𝜃̇ = 𝐾
𝑅 𝑅

𝛩 𝐾
= = 𝐺 (𝑠)
𝑉 𝐾!
𝑅 i𝐼𝑠 ! + U𝐵 + 𝑅 V 𝑠j
 Feedback Control

P-Control

𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝐾3 𝑒(𝑡)

𝛩 𝐾𝐾3
=
𝛩- 𝐾!
𝑅 i𝐼𝑠 ! + U𝐵 + 𝑅 V 𝑠j + 𝐾𝐾3

PD-Control

𝑑𝑒
𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝐾3 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾5
𝑑𝑡
𝛩 𝐾𝐾3 + 𝐾𝐾5 𝑠
=
𝛩- 𝐾 ! 𝐾𝐾
𝑅 i𝐼𝑠 ! + U𝐵 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 5 V 𝑠j + 𝐾𝐾3

*Velocity Feedback

𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝐾3 𝑒(𝑡) − 𝐾8 𝜔
where

𝜔 = “measured” angular velocity

𝜴
* ?
𝑽

𝛩 𝐾
= = 𝐺 (𝑠)
𝑉 ! 𝐾!
𝑅 i𝐼𝑠 + U𝐵 + 𝑅 V 𝑠j

𝛺 𝑠𝛩 𝐾
= = 𝑠𝐺 (𝑠) =
𝑉 𝑉 𝐾!
𝑅 i𝐼𝑠 + U𝐵 + 𝑅 Vj
Ÿ Directly measure angular velocity 𝜔 using tachometer

Ÿ No need to differentiate angle 𝜃

More on System Performance

Ÿ Time domain

Ÿ Laplace domain
Ÿ Frequency domain

Time Domain

transient behavior

Step Response

Ÿ overshoot

Ÿ rise time

Ÿ settling time

Ÿ steady-state error

*use step function in matlab

(ex)

50
𝐺 (𝑠) =
𝑠 % + 9𝑠 ! + 30𝑠 + 40

>> sys = tf([50],[1 9 30 40]);

>> step(sys)
>> S = stepinfo(sys)

Laplace Domain

stability in Laplace plane

Root Locus

Ÿ Poles and zeros in Laplace plane

Ÿ Placement of CL poles

Ÿ Stability

* use rlocus function in matlab

(ex)

50
𝐺 (𝑠) =
𝑠 % + 9𝑠 ! + 30𝑠 + 40
>> rlocus(50,[1 9 30 40]);
 Frequency Domain

steady-state behavior

Bode plot

Ÿ Stability

Ÿ Gain Margin/Phase Marginà

margins to instability (amplitude ratio = 1 , phase shift = 180o)

*use bode function in matlab

(ex)

50
𝐺 (𝑠) =
𝑠 % + 9𝑠 ! + 30𝑠 + 40
>> bode(50,[1 9 30 40]);
Mechatronics
Implementation of Robotic System

Analog Controller

Op-Amp (Operational Amplifier)

Ideal Op-Amp

𝑒$ = 𝐴(𝑒! − 𝑒" )

where

𝐴 → ∞ (~10; )
𝑖 < , 𝑖 = → 0 (~10=> )
𝑒$ is not affected by load

*almost always used by feedback to keep 𝑒" = 𝑒!

 Op-Amp Circuits

Inverting Amp

𝑖 = 𝑖" + 𝑖! , 𝑖" = 0
𝑒 − 𝑒$ 𝑒$
𝑖! = = − (𝑒 ≅ 𝑒! = 0)
𝑅! 𝑅!
𝑒" − 𝑒 𝑒"
𝑖= =
𝑅" 𝑅"
𝑖! = 𝑖

𝑅!
𝑒$ = − 𝑒
𝑅" "

Differential Amp
𝑖=0
𝑒" − 𝑒 𝑒 − 𝑒$
𝑖" = =
𝑅" 𝑅!
𝑒! − 𝑒 𝑒 − 0
𝑖! = =
𝑅% 𝑅?

𝑅" + 𝑅! 𝑅? 𝑅!
𝑒$ = U 𝑒! − 𝑒V
𝑅" 𝑅% + 𝑅? 𝑅" + 𝑅! "

Let

𝑅" = 𝑅% and 𝑅! = 𝑅?

𝑅!
𝑒$ = (𝑒 − 𝑒" )
𝑅" !
*Can also build OP-Amp Integrator and OP-Amp Differentiator

Digital Controller
Digital Devices as Controller

Ÿ PC

Ÿ Digital Signal Processor (DSP)

Ÿ Micro-Controller
sensor output à analog

PC à digital

motor input à analog

A/D D/A Converters

Ÿ A/D – Analog to Digital (Sensor to Computer)

Ÿ D/A – Digital to Analog (Computer to Motor)

 A/D Converter

① Sampling

② Quantization
① Sampling

analog signal – continuous function of time 𝑓(𝑡)

Sampling

digital signal – time series 𝑓(0), 𝑓 (∆𝑡), 𝑓(2∆𝑡), 𝑓(3∆𝑡), …

Here,

1
∆𝑡 =
𝑓@ABCDEFG

where

∆𝑡 = sampling time interval (sec)

𝑓2.(1+'0H = sampling frequency (Hz)

Nyquist Theorem
*Low Sampling Rate and Aliasing

(a) 𝒇𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍

(b) 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 < 𝒇𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 < 𝟐 × 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍

(c) 𝒇𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟐 × 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍

*Nyquist Theorem

Sampling frequency 𝒇𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 should be larger than Nyquist frequency

𝒇𝑵𝒚𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒕 to avoid aliasing.

𝒇𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 > 𝒇𝑵𝒚𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒕

where

𝒇𝑵𝒚𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐 × 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍

② Quantization

Determine signal values to some accuracy

Q-size (Quantization size) = Resolution

𝑫
𝟐𝑵 ≥
𝑸
where

𝑁 = bits required

𝐷 = signal range

𝑄 = Q-size (resolution)

(ex)

5 quantization levels à needs 3-bit encoding (23 = 8 > 5)

Sampling and Quantization

(ex)

5 Samples in 5 Sec à Sampling at 1 Hz

11 quantization levels à needs 4-bit encoding (24 = 16 > 11)

 D/A Converter

① Zero-Order Hold (ZOH)

② Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

① Zero-Order Hold (ZOH)

discrete-time signal 𝑓(0), 𝑓(∆𝑡), 𝑓(2∆𝑡), 𝑓 (3∆𝑡), …

Zero-Order Hold

continuous-time signal 𝑓(𝑡)

② Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

Effective control of DC motor

𝑉.8*-.H* = 𝑉1*.V × 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

where

𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = (0~100%)
𝑃𝑊𝑀 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
1
𝑃𝑊𝑀 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑠𝑒𝑐) =
𝑃𝑊𝑀 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧)
 Coding Digital Controller

Differential to Difference

𝑑𝜃 𝜃 (𝑘∆𝑡) − 𝜃((𝑘 − 1)∆𝑡)

≈
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡

Integral to Summation

# V

* 𝜃 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 ≈ ‚ 𝜃(𝑖∆𝑡)∆𝑡
$ 'W$
 (ex)

PID-Controller

𝑢(𝑡) =
#
𝑑𝜃- (𝑡) 𝑑𝜃(𝑡)
𝐾3 ƒ𝜃- (𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑡)„ + 𝐾4 * ƒ𝜃- (𝜏) − 𝜃(𝜏)„𝑑𝜏 + 𝐾5 f − g
$ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

≈ 𝐾3 ƒ𝜃- (𝑘∆𝑡) − 𝜃(𝑘∆𝑡)„

V V

+𝐾4 (‚ 𝜃- (𝑖∆𝑡)∆𝑡 − ‚ 𝜃(𝑖∆𝑡)∆𝑡)

'W$ 'W$

𝜃- (𝑘∆𝑡) − 𝜃- ((𝑘 − 1)∆𝑡) 𝜃 (𝑘∆𝑡) − 𝜃((𝑘 − 1)∆𝑡)

+𝐾5 ( − )
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

Sensors

Types of Sensors for Robotics System

l Internal Sensors – Information on Internal State of Robot

- Position Sensor

- Velocity Sensor

- Torque and Acceleration Sensors

l External Sensors – Information on State of Environment Outside of Robot

- Tactile Sensor

- Force and Torque Sensors

- Proximity Sensor

- Range Sensor

- Vision Sensor

Commonly Used Sensors in Robotic System

Ÿ Encoder - Displacement/Velocity

Ÿ Potentiometer - Displacement

Ÿ Tachometer - Velocity

Ÿ Force Sensor - Force/Torque

Encoder

Optical Encoder

Ÿ Disc with transparent and opaque areas

Ÿ Light emitters and light detectors

Ÿ Count of pulses

Incremental Encoder
Ÿ 2 tracks

Ÿ 90-degree phase difference (cw or ccw)

Ÿ Can only measure “relative’ angular displacement

Absolute Encoder

Ÿ Multiple tracks (bits)

Ÿ Optical patterns to measure “absolute” angle

 Potentiometer

Variable Resistance

𝑙
𝑅∝
𝐴

𝑉- = 𝑅#X#.+ 𝑖
𝑉$ = 𝑅𝑖
Here,

𝑖 = common

Since 𝑉$ ∝ 𝑅 and 𝑅∝𝑥

𝑉$ ∝ 𝑥

Likewise, for angular displacement

𝑉$ ∝ 𝜃

Tachometer

Electrical Generator DC motor

v
*Mechanical Energy v Electrical Energy
Same equations as DC motor

𝜏 = 𝑘𝑖
𝑒( = 𝑘𝜃̇ = 𝑘𝜔

Force Sensor

Strain gages on structure

Cantilever Beam
moment

𝑀 =𝐹∙𝐿
stress distribution

𝑀𝑦
σ=−
𝐼Y
where

𝑏ℎ%
𝐼Y =
12

strain gauge located at 𝑦 = ℎ/2

6𝑀
σ=
𝑏ℎ!

Since

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
 𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝑬𝜺
𝑭=
𝟔𝑳

Torsion Bar

𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐼[

𝜋𝑑?
𝐼[ =
32

strain gate located at 𝑟 = 𝑑/2

16𝑇
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑%

*principal stress (Mohr’s Circle)

 16𝑇
𝜏=𝜎=
𝜋𝑑%

Since

𝐸
𝜎= 𝜀
1+𝜈

𝝅𝒅𝟑 𝑬𝜺
𝑻=
𝟏𝟔(𝟏 + 𝝂)

Actuators

Types of Actuators for Robotic System

https://robocademy.com/2020/04/13/how-to-choose-an-actuator-for-your-robot/

l Electromagnetic Actuator
 - high precision, low noise, easy to program, fewer environmental hazards

- high cost, overheating, wear and tear

l Hydraulic Actuator

- easy to control and accurate, easy maintenance, capable of generating

constant torque/fore regardless of speed change

- maintenance required, expensive, leakage, dangerous

l Pneumatic Actuator

- clean, inexpensive, safe, easy to operate

- loud and noisy, lack of precision, vibration

Other Actuators for Robotics System

Ÿ Piezoelectric Actuator
Ÿ Shape Memory Alloy

DC Motor

- rotor (coil windings) and stator (permanent magnet)

- supply DC voltage to two motor terminals (+ and -)

- commutator touching brushes in armature (wear-out)

BLDC (Brushless DC) Motor

- flipped version of brushed DC motor

(rotor – permanent magnet, stator – coil windings)

- no commutator and brushes

- electronic commutation instead of brushes (mechanical commutation)

- controlled by directions of magnetic fields generated by stator coils

Hydraulic Actuator

- Pascal’s Law à

The pressure applied to a fluid in a closed container is transmitted equally to

all points in the fluid and act in all directions of the container
 amplification of force à

𝐹" = 𝑃𝐴"

𝐹! = 𝑃𝐴!

- composed of cylinder and piston

- pressure applied to hydraulic fluid in chamber to push piston

 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑥̇

Pneumatic Actuator

- compressed air instead of hydraulic fluid

- air - compressible fluid

 Piezoelectric Actuator

Elasticity + Electricity

electrical property
𝐃 = 𝛆𝐄

where

𝐄 = electric field strength

𝐃 = electric displacement

𝛆 = permittivity

mechanical property

𝐒 = 𝐬𝐓

where

𝐒 = strain

𝐓 = stress

𝐬 = compliance under short-circuit conditions

piezoelectric property

𝐒 = 𝐬𝐓 + 𝐝𝐓 𝐄

𝐃 = 𝐝𝐓 + 𝛆𝐄

where

𝐝 = matrix for the direct piezoelectric effect

Shape Memory Alloy

Mechanical Elements
l Gears

- Spur Gear

- Helical Gear

- Worm Gear

- Bevel Gear

- Rack and Pinion

l Belt Drives

- Round Belt

- Flat Belt

- V-Belt

- Timing Belt

Gears
 Belt Drives

Gear Train

Simple Gear Train

gear ratio

𝑟!
𝑛=
𝑟"

𝜏" = 𝐹𝑟"

𝜏! = 𝐹𝑟!

𝐹 = common

𝜏" 𝜏!
𝐹= =
𝑟" 𝑟!
𝝉𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝝉𝟐 = ∙ 𝒓𝟐 = ∙ 𝝉𝟏 = 𝒏𝝉𝟏
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟏

Power

𝑃 =𝐹∙𝑣 =𝜏∙𝜔
𝜏" 𝜔" ≈ 𝜏! 𝜔!

with negligible friction

𝟏
𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎
𝒏 𝟏

Backlash

the amount by which the width of a tooth space is wider than the thickness of the
engaging tooth as referenced to the pitch cycle

Robot Arm Drive System with Gear Train

There are errors in Asada’s Book. Pleas follow the steps below.
Robot Arm Drive System

*Rotor of DC motor is driven by magnetic force between Rotor and Stator

Inertia of Rotor 𝐼"

Inertia of Arm Link (Load) 𝐼+X.&

Kinematics

l Gear Train

Gear Ratio 𝑟

1
𝜔! = 𝜔"
𝑟

l Rigid Shafts

𝜔( = 𝜔"

𝜔! = 𝜔+X.&

Force Balance

l Massless Gear

𝜏! = 𝑟𝜏"

l Massless Shafts

𝜏! = 𝜏+X.&

l Resultant Torque on Rotor

𝛴𝜏 = 𝜏( − 𝜏"

* NOTE!!!

𝜏( ≠ 𝜏"
𝜏( = electromagnetic torque between the stator and the rotor

𝜏" = reactive torque in the shaft for the smaller gear

l Resultant Torque on Arm Link (Load)

𝛴𝜏 = 𝜏+X.& − 𝑏𝜔+X.&

Dynamics

l Rotor of DC Motor

𝐼( 𝜔̇ ( = 𝜏( − 𝜏"

l Arm Link (Load)

𝐼+X.& 𝜔̇ +X.& = 𝜏+X.& − 𝑏𝜔+X.&

Resulting System Equation

(𝑰𝒍 + 𝒓𝟐 𝑰𝒎 )𝝎̇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝝎𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝒓𝝉𝒎

 Robotics Terminology

Joints

Ÿ Revolute Joint (Rotary Joint)

Joints in which the adjacent links rotate with respect to each other about the joint
axis

Ÿ Prismatic Joint (Sliding Joint):

Joints in which the adjacent links translate linearly to each other along the joint axis

(ex)

3 revolute joints and 1 prismatic joint

Links

A rigid mechanical object which connects two joints

Serial kinematic linkage (Open Kinematic Chain):

A sequence of links connected together by joints

End-Effectors

Depending on tasks:

(ex)

Gripper for assembly

Tools for welding, painting, grinding, etc.

Degrees of freedom (DOFs)

Ÿ Number of independent coordinates which are used to describe the motion of an

object.

Ÿ An unconstrained rigid body has 6 DOF. ß 3 translations + 3 rotations

Ÿ A manipulator with n joints (revolute and prismatic) has n DOF.

Ÿ In order for the manipulator arm to move its end-effector to an arbitrary position
and orientation in 3-D space, 6 DOFs are required.

*n-DOF manipulator has n joints and (n+1) links including a base link (ground).
Wrists

Ÿ 3 DOFs with 3 revolute joints

Ÿ Roll-Pitch-Yaw motion

Workspace

the space which the end-effector of a manipulator can reach

(ex)
Resolution

the smallest increment of motion achieved by a robotic manipulator at its endpoint

Accuracy

capability to position its endpoint at a given target point within its work volume

Repeatability

ability to position its endpoint back to a position in space that was previously taught