LOGARITHMS

x x x
It is easy to find values of x, such that 2 = 2 or 2 = 4, or 2 = 32. On the other hand, how
do we solve the equation 2x = 10?

Problems such as this arise naturally when we deal with exponential growth and decay.
In the example above, we gave the formula for the mass of a radioactive substance to be
t
1
M = 100 × 2 g.
t
1
If we ask the question, when is the mass equal to say 30g, then we need to solve 2 = 0.3
to find the time.

Just as taking a square root is the inverse process to squaring, taking a logarithm is the
inverse process to taking a power.

Since 23 = 8, we say that log2 8 = 3. That is, the logarithm is the index in the equation
23 = 8. We read this as ‘the log of 8 to the base 2 is 3.’

To find the logarithm of a number a to the base b, we ask the question ‘what power do I
raise b to, in order to obtain a?
5
So, to find for example, log3 243, we recall that 243 = 3 , so log3 243 = 5.

1
EXAMPLE
Find log8 4.

SOLUTION
x
One approach is to write, log8 4 = x and so 4 = 8 . Since both numbers are powers of 2,
we can write 22 = (23)x = 23x.
2
Equating indices, 3x = 2, so x = .
2
Thus, log8 4 = .
2 2
(Indeed, 8 = ( ) = 22 = 4.)

The relationship connecting logarithms and powers is:

x = loga y means y = ax.

x
The number is called the base and must be a positive number. Also since a is positive, we
can only find the logarithm of a positive number. We will assume from now on that both
are positive, but can be negative.

EXERCISE 9
Find the value of x.

1
a log2 32 = x b log8 =x c log2 x = 5
1
d logx 16 = 2 e log36 x = – 2 f log7 x = 2

Note: The following identities exemplify the inverse operations of taking a power and
taking a logarithm. These need to be properly understood by students.

For x > 0,
log2 x
2 = x.

More generally, for a > 0, x > 0,

loga x
a = x.

In the other direction, for any x,

loga 2x = x.

More generally, for a > 0,

x
loga a = x.

It is important for students to properly understand these two general identities.

2
Logarithms to the base 10
You will notice that in all the examples above, the values of the logarithms were rational
numbers, which were not too hard to find. Suppose we wanted to know the value of
log10 7? Thus, we seek a number x such that 7 = 10x.

x
We can see from the graph of y = 10 that such a number lies between 0 and 1.

The calculator is able to give an approximate value of this number. It is shown in the
module, The Real Numbers that numbers such as this are irrational.

Thus, to 4 decimal places, the calculator reports that log10 7 0.8451.

The Logarithm Laws

Suppose a > 0 for the rest of this section.

Law 1 loga = 0 and loga a = 1

0
since a = 1, we have loga 1 = 0.

Similarly, since a1 = a, we have loga a = 1.

Law 2 If x and y are positive numbers, then loga xy = loga x + loga y

That is, the logaithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms.

c d
Suppose x = a and y = a so that loga x = c and loga y = d.
Then xy = ac × ad
c+d
=a (by Index law 1)
c+d
So loga xy = loga a

=c+d

= loga x + loga y

x
Law 3 If x and y are positive numbers, then loga y = loga x – loga y.

That is, the logarithm of a quatient is the di erence of their logarithms.

Suppose x = ac and y = ad so that loga x = c and loga y = d.

x
Then y =
c–d
=a (by Index law 2)
x c–d
So loga y = loga a

=c–d

= loga x + loga y

3
Law 4 If x is a positive number, then loga x1 = –loga x.

This follows from logarithm law 3 and logarithm law 1.

loga x1 = loga 1 – loga x (logarithm law 3)

= 0 – loga x (logarithm law 1)

= –loga x, as required.

n
Law 5 If x is a positive number and n is any rational number, then loga (x ) = nloga x.

This follows from logarithm law 3 and logarithm law 1.

loga (xn) = loga ((ac)n)
cn
= loga (a ) (by Index law 3)

= nloga x, as required.

EXAMPLE
Given log7 2 = ␣, log7 3 = ␤ and log7 5 = ␥, express in termd of ␣, ␤ and ␥:
1
a log7 6 b log7 6 c log7 2

SOLUTION
a log7 6 = log7 (2 × 3) b log7 6 = log7 (3 × 25)
= log7 2 + log7 3 = log7 3 + log7 52
=␣+␤ = ␤ + 2␥
1
c log7 2 = log7 15 – log7 2
= log7 (3 × 5) – log7 2
= log7 3 + log7 5 – log7 2
=␤+␥–␣

EXERCISE 10
Simplify:
2 3 4
a logb x + logb x – logb x b logk + logk
2 2
c logb (x – a ) – logb (x – a), if x > a

4
Change of base
Some calculators are able to find the logarithm of a number to any positive base. This is
not, however, universal, and there are many occasions when we would like to change
from one base to another.

For example, to find log3 7 we can change from base 3 to base 10, where the calculator
can be used. Change of base is also important in calculus, where logarithms to the base
are used.

The change of base formula states that:

logb c =

Here is a proof of this result.

x
Let x = logb c, then c = b .

Take logarithms to the base of both sides, then

loga c = loga bx = xloga b (using logarithm law 5).

Hence x = . That is logb c = .

EXAMPLE
Calculate log7 8 to four decimal places.

SOLUTION
Changing form base 7 to base 10.
log7 8 1
= 1

1.0686

As a check, with the calculator, 71.0686 7.9997.

The Logarithm graph

As we did for exponentials, we can draw the graph of y = log2 x by drawing up a table of values.
1 1 1 1
x 1 2 1 2 4 8 16
y –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

y
y = log2 x
(8, 3)
(4, 2)

(2, 1)
x
0 (0, 1)
1
2
, –1

5
We note the following features of the graph:

• the graph is to the right of the y-axis, since only logarithms of positive numbers are defined.
• as becomes small, the y values become large negative numbers. Thus, the graph
approaches, but does not touch, the negative axis. We say that the negative y-axis is
an asymptote of the graph.

• the x-intercept is (1, 0) since log2 1 = 0.

• the graph does not have a y-intercept.
• as x takes large positive values, log2 x becomes large.
Logarithms and exponentials are inverses of each other. Their graphs are reflections of
each other in the line y = x.

This is illustrated in the following graphs of y = log3 x and y = 3x.

y y=x
(2, 9)

y = 3x

(1, 3)
(9, 2)
y = log3 x
(0, 1)
– 31 , 1
(3, 1)
x
0 (1, 0)
1
3
, –1

EXERCISE 11
Use a table to draw on the same diagram the graphs of y = log2 x and y = log3 x. What
can you say about the graphs when x < 1 and x > 1 when ?

Using Logarithms to solve exponential equations

We will conclude this module with some further applications of exponentials and logarithms.
x
Earlier in the module we raised the question of solving 2 = 7. If we have a calculator that
finds logarithms to the base 2, we can solve this equation by re-writing it using logarithms,
2x = 7

So, x = log2 7 2.807 (correct to 3 dec. places.)

If the calculator only has logarithms to the base 10, we can use the change of base form
to write

1
log2 7 = 2 2.807 (correct to 3 dec. places.)
1

6
EXAMPLE
$50 000 is invested on Jan 1 2008 at 8% per annum. Interest is only paid on Jan 1 of each
year. After how many years will the investment be worth:

a $75 000 b $100 000?

7
21

O
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn

The diagram shows a solid shape made by joining a large hemisphere and a small
hemisphere.
The centre of the base of the large hemisphere and the centre of the base of the small
hemisphere meet at the point O

radius of large hemisphere : radius of small hemisphere 3:1

The total surface area of the solid shape is 567S cm 2

Calculate the total volume, in cm³ to 3 significant figures, of the solid shape.

8
22 (a) Express 50  242 in the form a a where a is an integer.

..............................................................

(2)
12
(b) Express in the form y x  y where x and y are integers.
5 1
Show each stage of your working.

..............................................................

(3)
(Total for Question 22 is 5 marks)

9
23 x  4 is a factor of 6 x 3  kx 2  26 x  24 , where k is a constant.
(a) Use the factor theorem to show that k 19

(2)
(b) Hence solve 6 x 3  19 x 2  26 x  24 0
Show clear algebraic working.

.............................................................................................

(4)
(Total for Question 23 is 6 marks)

10
24 There are only pink and yellow sweets in a bag containing N sweets.
There are 25 more pink sweets than yellow sweets.
Stan takes at random 2 sweets from the bag.
7
The probability that Stan takes 2 pink sweets from the bag is
19
Find the probability that Stan takes 2 yellow sweets from the bag.
Show clear algebraic working.

11
25
C

B Diagram NOT
115° accurately drawn

53°
A D

The diagram represents a small horizontal field ABCD

AB 8 m BC 11 m CD 15 m
‘ABC 115° ‘ADC 53°

Calculate, in m² to the nearest whole number, the area of the field.

12
 § 6 4 · 5 x 2  15 x  10
26 Show that ¨  ¸u can be written
© x2 x3¹ x2 1

p
in the form where p and q are integers to be found.
xq

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