CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.0 Conceptual framework

2.1.1.1 Value management

Value Management (VM) is a systematic and structured approach aimed at optimizing the

value of a project, product, or service by balancing performance, cost, and risk. It focuses on

achieving the best functional balance between these elements while meeting the needs and

expectations of stakeholders. VM is often used in construction, engineering, and project

management to improve decision-making, enhance project outcomes, and ensure efficient

resource utilization (Kelly, Male, & Graham, 2014). The concept of Value Management

originated in the United States during World War II, when Lawrence D. Miles, an engineer at

General Electric, developed the methodology to address material shortages. Miles sought to

find cost-effective alternatives without compromising functionality, leading to the creation of

Value Analysis (VA). This approach was later expanded into Value Engineering (VE), which

focused on improving the value of products and processes during the design and construction

phases (Dell’Isola, 1997). Over time, VM evolved into a broader discipline that encompasses

not only engineering but also strategic planning, stakeholder engagement, and sustainability.

Today, VM is recognized as a critical tool for achieving value for money in projects,

particularly in the construction industry, where it is used to address challenges such as cost

overruns, delays, and poor quality (Al-Yami & Price, 2009).

2.1.1.2 Key principles and objectives of Value Management

Value Management (VM) is a structured and systematic approach designed to optimize the

value of projects, products, or services by balancing functionality, cost, and performance. At

its core, VM is guided by a set of key principles and objectives that ensure its effective
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application across various industries, particularly in construction. These principles and

objectives are essential for achieving value for money, enhancing project outcomes, and

meeting stakeholder expectations. By focusing on function analysis, stakeholder

collaboration, innovation, and sustainability, VM provides a robust framework for addressing

the challenges of modern projects, such as cost overruns, delays, and poor quality. One of the

foundational principles of VM is function analysis, which involves identifying and analyzing

the primary and secondary functions of a project or product to ensure they align with

stakeholder requirements. This principle emphasizes understanding what a project or product

is intended to achieve, rather than focusing solely on its physical attributes. By prioritizing

functionality, VM helps eliminate unnecessary costs and enhances performance, ensuring that

resources are used efficiently (Kelly, Male, & Graham, 2014). For example, in construction

projects, function analysis can help identify alternative materials or designs that achieve the

same purpose at a lower cost without compromising quality.

Another critical principle of VM is stakeholder collaboration. VM emphasizes the importance

of engaging stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle, as their input is vital for defining

project objectives and ensuring that the final deliverables meet their expectations.

Stakeholders, including clients, contractors, and end-users, provide valuable insights that help

shape the project and ensure its success. This collaborative approach not only improves

decision-making but also fosters a sense of ownership and commitment among stakeholders,

leading to higher levels of satisfaction and support for the project (Al-Yami & Price, 2009).

Creativity and innovation are also central to VM. The methodology encourages creative

thinking and innovative solutions to achieve optimal value. Through brainstorming sessions

and workshops, stakeholders are encouraged to explore new ideas and approaches that

improve functionality while reducing costs. This principle is particularly important in the

construction industry, where innovative solutions can lead to significant cost savings and

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improved project outcomes. For instance, the use of modular construction techniques or

sustainable materials can enhance both the efficiency and environmental performance of a

project (Oke & Aigbavboa, 2017).

VM also adopts a lifecycle perspective, considering the entire lifecycle of a project or product

from planning to disposal. This holistic approach ensures that decisions made during the

design and construction phases contribute to long-term value and sustainability. By taking

into account factors such as maintenance, operational costs, and end-of-life disposal, VM

helps create projects that are not only cost-effective but also environmentally and socially

sustainable (Udeaja, Kamara, & Haywood, 2008). The principle of value for money is

another cornerstone of VM. It seeks to achieve the best possible balance between cost,

quality, and performance, ensuring that resources are used efficiently and that projects deliver

maximum benefits to stakeholders. This principle is particularly relevant in the context of

government-funded projects, where there is often pressure to deliver high-quality outcomes

within tight budgets. By focusing on value for money, VM helps ensure that projects meet

their objectives without unnecessary expenditure (Dell’Isola, 1997).

In addition to these principles, VM promotes a culture of continuous improvement. By

encouraging regular reviews and evaluations of project processes and outcomes, VM helps

identify areas for improvement and ensures that lessons learned are applied to future projects.

This principle fosters a proactive approach to project management, where challenges are

addressed early, and opportunities for enhancement are continuously sought (Kelly et al.,

2014). The objectives of VM are closely aligned with its principles and are designed to

optimize project outcomes. One of the primary objectives is cost optimization, which

involves reducing unnecessary costs without compromising quality or functionality. This is

achieved through function analysis, value engineering, and the elimination of non-value-

adding activities. For example, in tertiary education building projects, VM can help identify

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cost-effective design solutions that meet the functional requirements of the institution while

staying within budget (Al-Yami & Price, 2009).

Another key objective of VM is enhanced performance. By optimizing design, materials, and

processes, VM ensures that projects meet or exceed stakeholder expectations in terms of

functionality, durability, and usability. This objective is particularly important in the

construction of educational infrastructure, where the quality of the building directly impacts

the learning environment and the overall experience of students and staff (Oke & Aigbavboa,

2017). Risk mitigation is also a critical objective of VM. By identifying and addressing risks

early in the project lifecycle, VM helps reduce the likelihood of cost overruns, delays, and

quality issues. This proactive approach not only enhances project outcomes but also builds

stakeholder confidence in the project's success (Udeaja et al., 2008). VM also aims to achieve

stakeholder satisfaction by involving stakeholders in the decision-making process and

ensuring that their needs and expectations are met. This objective is particularly important in

complex projects, where the involvement of multiple stakeholders is essential for success. By

fostering collaboration and communication, VM helps create a sense of shared ownership and

commitment among stakeholders, leading to higher levels of satisfaction and support for the

project (Kelly et al., 2014).

Sustainability is another important objective of VM. By promoting the use of

environmentally friendly materials, energy-efficient designs, and waste reduction strategies,

VM aligns with global efforts to achieve sustainable development goals. This objective is

particularly relevant in the context of tertiary education building projects, where sustainable

practices can contribute to the long-term viability and environmental performance of the

institution (Dell’Isola, 1997).

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Finally, VM seeks to foster innovation and creativity by encouraging stakeholders to think

outside the box and explore new solutions. This objective leads to the development of unique

and cost-effective approaches that enhance project value. For example, the use of innovative

construction techniques or materials can result in significant cost savings and improved

project outcomes (Oke & Aigbavboa, 2017).

2.1.2.0 The Value Management Process, Stages and Methodologies

2.1.2.1 Stages of the Value Management Process

The VM process typically consists of several stages, each with specific objectives and

activities. These stages are designed to ensure that all aspects of a project are carefully

evaluated and that the best possible solutions are identified and implemented. The most

commonly recognized stages of the VM process include information gathering, function

analysis, creative thinking, evaluation, development, and implementation (Al-Yami & Price,

2009).

1. Information Gathering

The first stage of the VM process involves gathering all relevant information about

the project, including its objectives, constraints, and stakeholder requirements. This

stage is critical for understanding the context of the project and identifying the key

issues that need to be addressed. Information gathering may include reviewing project

documents, conducting site visits, and consulting with stakeholders. According to

Norton and McElligott (2019), this stage sets the foundation for the entire VM process

by ensuring that all participants have a clear understanding of the project's goals and

challenges.

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2. Function Analysis

Function analysis is the core of the VM process. It involves identifying and analyzing

the primary and secondary functions of a project or product to ensure they align with

stakeholder needs. This stage focuses on understanding what the project or product is

intended to achieve, rather than how it is currently designed or constructed. By

prioritizing functionality, VM helps eliminate unnecessary costs and enhances

performance. For example, in construction projects, function analysis can help

identify alternative materials or designs that achieve the same purpose at a lower cost

without compromising quality (Kelly, Male, & Graham, 2014).

3. Creative Thinking

The creative thinking stage encourages stakeholders to generate innovative ideas and

solutions that improve value. This stage often involves brainstorming sessions and

workshops where participants are encouraged to think outside the box and explore

new approaches. The goal is to identify a wide range of potential solutions that can be

evaluated and refined in later stages. According to Male et al. (2020), creative

thinking is essential for unlocking the full potential of VM, as it allows stakeholders

to challenge conventional practices and explore new possibilities.

4. Evaluation

In the evaluation stage, the ideas generated during the creative thinking stage are

assessed based on their feasibility, cost-effectiveness, and alignment with project

objectives. This stage involves a systematic evaluation of each idea to determine its

potential impact on the project. Techniques such as weighted scoring, cost-benefit

analysis, and risk assessment are often used to prioritize the most promising solutions.

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 As noted by Thiry (2016), the evaluation stage is critical for ensuring that only the

best ideas are carried forward for further development.

5. Development

The development stage involves refining the selected ideas into detailed proposals

that can be implemented. This stage includes preparing cost estimates, technical

specifications, and implementation plans. The goal is to ensure that the proposed

solutions are practical, cost-effective, and aligned with the project's objectives.

According to Oke and Aigbavboa (2017), the development stage is where the

theoretical benefits of VM are translated into actionable plans that can deliver real

value.

6. Implementation

The final stage of the VM process is implementation, where the selected solutions are

put into practice. This stage involves coordinating with project teams, securing

approvals, and monitoring progress to ensure that the proposed changes are

effectively implemented. The success of the VM process depends on the successful

execution of this stage, as it is where the value-enhancing solutions are realized. As

highlighted by Udeaja et al. (2008), effective implementation requires strong

leadership, clear communication, and ongoing monitoring to ensure that the desired

outcomes are achieved.

2.1.2.2 Methodologies of the Value Management Process

The VM process employs a variety of methodologies to achieve its objectives. These

methodologies are designed to facilitate collaboration, creativity, and decision-making among

stakeholders. Some of the most commonly used methodologies include workshops, value

engineering, and life cycle costing (Norton & McElligott, 2019).

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1. Workshops

Workshops are a key methodology in the VM process, providing a platform for

stakeholders to collaborate, share ideas, and develop solutions. These workshops are

typically facilitated by a VM expert and involve a diverse group of participants,

including project managers, designers, contractors, and end-users. The interactive

nature of workshops encourages creative thinking and ensures that all perspectives are

considered. According to Male et al., (2020), workshops are particularly effective for

addressing complex issues and generating innovative solutions.

2. Value Engineering (VE)

Value engineering is a specialized methodology within the VM process that focuses

on optimizing the value of a project by improving its design, materials, and processes.

VE involves a systematic analysis of the project's functions and the identification of

cost-effective alternatives that achieve the same or better performance. This

methodology is widely used in the construction industry to reduce costs, improve

quality, and enhance sustainability. As noted by Al-Yami and Price (2009), VE is

particularly effective for addressing cost overruns and delays in construction projects.

3. Life Cycle Costing (LCC)

Life cycle costing is a methodology that considers the total cost of a project over its

entire lifecycle, from planning to disposal. This approach ensures that decisions made

during the design and construction phases contribute to long-term value and

sustainability. By taking into account factors such as maintenance, operational costs,

and end-of-life disposal, LCC helps identify solutions that minimize costs and

maximize value over the project's lifecycle. According to Thiry (2016), LCC is an

essential tool for achieving sustainable outcomes in construction projects.

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 4. Function Analysis System Technique (FAST)

The Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) is a graphical tool used in the VM

process to identify and analyze the functions of a project or product. FAST diagrams

help stakeholders visualize the relationships between different functions and identify

opportunities for improvement. This methodology is particularly useful for complex

projects, where understanding the interdependencies between functions is critical for

optimizing value. As highlighted by Oke & Aigbavboa (2017), FAST is a powerful

tool for enhancing communication and collaboration among stakeholders.

2.1.2.3 Benefits of Value Management in construction projects

Value Management (VM) has become an indispensable tool in the construction industry,

offering a structured and systematic approach to optimizing project outcomes. By focusing on

functionality, cost-effectiveness, and stakeholder satisfaction, VM provides numerous

benefits that enhance the overall performance of construction projects. These benefits are

particularly relevant in the context of tertiary education building projects in the South-South

region of Nigeria, where challenges such as cost overruns, delays, and poor quality are

prevalent.

1. Cost Savings and Budget Control

One of the most significant benefits of VM is its ability to deliver cost savings and improve

budget control. VM achieves this by identifying and eliminating unnecessary costs while

maintaining or enhancing the functionality of the project. Through techniques such as

function analysis and value engineering, VM helps stakeholders explore cost-effective

alternatives that do not compromise quality. For example, in a study by Al-Yami and Price

(2009), VM was found to reduce construction costs by up to 20% in some cases, making it a

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valuable tool for managing tight budgets. This is particularly important in government-funded

projects, where financial constraints are often a major challenge.

2. Improved Project Performance

VM contributes to improved project performance by optimizing design, materials, and

processes. By focusing on the functions of a project rather than its physical attributes, VM

ensures that the final deliverables meet or exceed stakeholder expectations in terms of quality,

durability, and usability. According to Oke and Aigbavboa (2017), VM enhances project

performance by promoting innovative solutions and efficient resource utilization. For

instance, in tertiary education building projects, VM can lead to the design of more functional

and sustainable facilities that enhance the learning environment for students and staff.

3. Enhanced Stakeholder Satisfaction

Another key benefit of VM is its ability to enhance stakeholder satisfaction. VM emphasizes

stakeholder collaboration, ensuring that the needs and expectations of all parties are

considered throughout the project lifecycle. By involving stakeholders in decision-making

processes, VM fosters a sense of ownership and commitment, leading to higher levels of

satisfaction and support for the project. As noted by Kelly, Male, and Graham (2014),

stakeholder engagement is a critical factor in the success of construction projects, and VM

provides a structured framework for achieving this.

4. Risk Mitigation

VM plays a crucial role in risk mitigation by identifying and addressing potential risks early

in the project lifecycle. Through techniques such as function analysis and life cycle costing,

VM helps stakeholders anticipate challenges and develop strategies to mitigate them. This

proactive approach reduces the likelihood of cost overruns, delays, and quality issues, thereby

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enhancing project outcomes. According to Thiry (2016), VM is particularly effective in

complex projects, where the ability to manage risks is essential for success.

5. Sustainability and Environmental Benefits

VM promotes sustainability by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly materials,

energy-efficient designs, and waste reduction strategies. By taking a lifecycle perspective,

VM ensures that decisions made during the design and construction phases contribute to

long-term environmental and social sustainability. For example, in a study by Norton and

McElligott (2019), VM was found to significantly reduce the environmental impact of

construction projects by promoting sustainable practices. This is particularly relevant in the

context of tertiary education building projects, where sustainability is increasingly becoming

a priority.

6. Innovation and Creativity

VM fosters a culture of innovation and creativity by encouraging stakeholders to think

outside the box and explore new solutions. Through brainstorming sessions and workshops,

VM provides a platform for generating innovative ideas that enhance project value.

According to Male et al. (2020), VM is particularly effective in unlocking the creative

potential of project teams, leading to the development of unique and cost-effective solutions.

For instance, the use of modular construction techniques or sustainable materials can result in

significant cost savings and improved project outcomes.

7. Improved Decision-Making

VM provides a structured framework for improved decision-making, ensuring that all options

are carefully evaluated before a final decision is made. By focusing on function analysis and

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stakeholder collaboration, VM helps stakeholders make informed decisions that align with

project objectives. This reduces the likelihood of errors and ensures that the best possible

solutions are implemented. As highlighted by Udeaja, Kamara, and Haywood (2008),

effective decision-making is a critical factor in the success of construction projects, and VM

provides the tools and methodologies needed to achieve this.

8. Lifecycle Cost Optimization

VM takes a lifecycle perspective, considering the total cost of a project from planning to

disposal. This approach ensures that decisions made during the design and construction

phases contribute to long-term value and sustainability. By taking into account factors such as

maintenance, operational costs, and end-of-life disposal, VM helps identify solutions that

minimize costs and maximize value over the project's lifecycle. According to Oke and

Aigbavboa (2017), lifecycle cost optimization is particularly important in the construction of

educational infrastructure, where long-term performance and sustainability are critical.

9. Enhanced Communication and Collaboration

VM promotes enhanced communication and collaboration among project stakeholders. By

involving all parties in the decision-making process, VM ensures that everyone is on the same

page and working towards a common goal. This collaborative approach not only improves

project outcomes but also builds trust and mutual respect among stakeholders. As noted by

Kelly et al. (2014), effective communication and collaboration are essential for the success of

construction projects, and VM provides a structured framework for achieving this.

2.2.0 Tertiary Education Building Projects

2.2.1.1 Overview of tertiary education infrastructure in Nigeria.

Nigeria’s tertiary education system comprises universities, polytechnics, and colleges of

education, which are essential for producing skilled professionals who can drive economic
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growth and development. However, the infrastructure supporting these institutions is often

inadequate, outdated, and poorly maintained. According to Okebukola, (2020), many tertiary

institutions in Nigeria face severe infrastructure deficits, including insufficient lecture halls,

laboratories, libraries, and student accommodation. This has led to overcrowding, with

students often struggling to access basic facilities and resources. The South-South region of

Nigeria, which includes states such as Rivers, Delta, and Akwa Ibom, is particularly affected

by these challenges. Despite being rich in natural resources, the region has struggled to

develop its educational infrastructure due to factors such as inadequate funding, poor

planning, and corruption. A study by Eze & Okpala (2021) highlights that many tertiary

institutions in the South-South region operate with dilapidated buildings, outdated equipment,

and insufficient teaching materials, which negatively impact the quality of education and

student outcomes.

The poor state of tertiary education infrastructure in Nigeria has had a profound impact on the

quality of education and student outcomes. Overcrowded classrooms, inadequate facilities,

and outdated equipment have created an unconducive learning environment, leading to low

academic performance and high dropout rates. According to Okebukola (2020), the lack of

infrastructure has also limited the ability of tertiary institutions to attract and retain qualified

academic staff, further compromising the quality of education. In the South-South region,

these challenges are particularly acute. A study by Eze & Okpala (2021) found that students

in the region often struggle to access basic facilities such as libraries, laboratories, and

hostels, which negatively affects their academic performance and overall experience. This has

led to a growing demand for improved infrastructure to support the region’s educational

development. In recent years, the Nigerian government and private sector have made efforts

to address the infrastructure deficit in tertiary education. Initiatives such as the Tertiary

Education Trust Fund (TETFund) have been established to provide funding for infrastructure

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development in tertiary institutions. According to TETFund (2023), over 500 infrastructure

projects have been completed in tertiary institutions across Nigeria, including lecture halls,

laboratories, and libraries. However, these efforts have been insufficient to meet the growing

demand for infrastructure, particularly in the South-South region. The private sector has also

played a role in addressing the infrastructure deficit through public-private partnerships

(PPPs). For example, some private companies have partnered with tertiary institutions to

build hostels, lecture halls, and other facilities. However, these initiatives are often limited in

scope and have not been able to fully address the infrastructure challenges facing the sector

(Adeyemi & Ademiluyi, 2020).

One of the primary challenges facing tertiary education infrastructure in Nigeria is inadequate

funding. Government allocations to the education sector are often insufficient to meet the

growing demand for infrastructure development and maintenance. According to the National

Universities Commission (NUC) (2022), many tertiary institutions rely heavily on

government funding, which is often delayed or insufficient. This has resulted in a backlog of

infrastructure projects and a lack of resources to address existing deficiencies. The rapid

increase in student enrolment has placed immense pressure on existing infrastructure, leading

to overcrowding in lecture halls, laboratories, and hostels. A report by the World Bank (2021)

indicates that Nigeria’s tertiary institutions are operating at over 150% of their capacity, with

many students forced to share limited facilities. This overcrowding not only affects the

quality of education but also creates an uncomfortable and unconducive learning

environment. Another significant challenge is the poor maintenance culture in many tertiary

institutions. Existing infrastructure is often left to deteriorate due to a lack of regular

maintenance and repair. According to Adeyemi & Ademiluyi (2020), the absence of a

proactive maintenance strategy has led to the rapid decay of buildings and facilities, further

exacerbating the infrastructure deficit.

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Many tertiary institutions in Nigeria lack adequate teaching and learning facilities, such as

modern laboratories, libraries, and ICT resources. This limits the ability of students to engage

in practical learning and research, which are essential for developing critical skills and

knowledge. A study by Okafor & Eze (2022) found that only 30% of tertiary institutions in

Nigeria have access to modern laboratory equipment, while the majority rely on outdated and

non-functional facilities. There are significant regional disparities in the distribution of

tertiary education infrastructure in Nigeria. While some regions, such as the South-West, have

relatively better infrastructure, others, like the South-South, lag behind. According to Eze &

Okpala (2021), the South-South region has fewer tertiary institutions compared to other

regions, and those that exist are often underfunded and poorly equipped. This disparity has

contributed to unequal access to quality education and limited opportunities for students in

the region.

2.2.1.2 Importance of tertiary education buildings for national development.

1 Human Capital Development

Tertiary education buildings are critical for human capital development, as they provide the

physical infrastructure needed to deliver quality education and training. According to the

World Bank (2021), human capital is a key driver of economic growth, and tertiary

institutions play a central role in developing the skills and knowledge required for a modern

economy. In Nigeria, tertiary education buildings are essential for producing graduates in

fields such as engineering, medicine, agriculture, and information technology, which are vital

for addressing the nation’s development challenges. However, the poor state of infrastructure

in many Nigerian tertiary institutions has hindered their ability to fulfill this role. A study by

Okebukola (2020) highlights that inadequate lecture halls, laboratories, and libraries have

limited the quality of education and training provided to students. This has resulted in a skills

15
gap, with many graduates lacking the competencies needed to meet the demands of the labor

market. Improving the quality and availability of tertiary education buildings is therefore

essential for enhancing human capital development and driving national growth.

2 Innovation and Research

Tertiary education buildings are also crucial for fostering innovation and research, which are

key drivers of economic development. Modern laboratories, research centers, and libraries

provide the facilities needed for cutting-edge research and innovation. According to Okafor

and Eze (2022), tertiary institutions in Nigeria have the potential to contribute significantly to

national development through research and innovation. However, this potential is often

unrealized due to inadequate infrastructure. For example, many Nigerian universities lack the

modern laboratories and equipment needed to conduct high-quality research. This has limited

their ability to address critical national challenges, such as healthcare, agriculture, and energy.

A report by the National Universities Commission (NUC) (2022) indicates that only 20% of

Nigerian universities have access to state-of-the-art research facilities, while the majority rely

on outdated and non-functional equipment. Investing in tertiary education buildings is

therefore essential for unlocking the research potential of Nigerian universities and driving

innovation.

3 Economic Growth and Development

Tertiary education buildings contribute to economic growth and development by producing

skilled graduates who can drive productivity and innovation in various sectors of the

economy. According to Adeyemi and Ademiluyi (2020), tertiary institutions play a critical

role in developing the human capital needed for industrialization and economic

diversification. In Nigeria, where the economy is heavily reliant on oil, there is an urgent

need to diversify into other sectors, such as agriculture, manufacturing, and technology.

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Tertiary education buildings are essential for producing the skilled workforce needed to

achieve this goal. Moreover, the construction and maintenance of tertiary education buildings

create employment opportunities and stimulate economic activity. A study by Eze and Okpala

(2021) found that investments in tertiary education infrastructure have a multiplier effect on

the economy, creating jobs and generating income for local communities. This is particularly

important in the South-South region, where unemployment and poverty rates are high.

4 Social Development and Equity

Tertiary education buildings also play a critical role in promoting social development and

equity by providing access to quality education for all segments of society. According to the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2021),

education is a fundamental human right and a key driver of social mobility. In Nigeria, where

access to quality education is often limited by socio-economic factors, tertiary education

buildings are essential for creating an inclusive and equitable education system. However,

regional disparities in the distribution of tertiary education infrastructure have limited access

to quality education for many Nigerians. A study by Okafor & Eze (2022) found that students

in the South-South region are often disadvantaged due to the lack of adequate infrastructure

in tertiary institutions. This has contributed to unequal access to education and limited

opportunities for social mobility. Investing in tertiary education buildings in underserved

regions is therefore essential for promoting social development and equity.

5 Global Competitiveness

Tertiary education buildings are essential for enhancing Nigeria’s global competitiveness by

producing graduates who can compete in the global economy. According to the World Bank
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(2021), the quality of tertiary education infrastructure is a key determinant of a nation’s

ability to attract foreign investment and participate in the global knowledge economy. In

Nigeria, the poor state of tertiary education infrastructure has limited the ability of institutions

to produce globally competitive graduates. For example, many Nigerian universities lack the

modern facilities and resources needed to provide world-class education and training. This

has resulted in a brain drain, with many Nigerian students seeking education abroad due to

the poor quality of local institutions. A report by the National Universities Commission

(NUC) (2022) indicates that over 75,000 Nigerian students are currently studying abroad,

costing the nation billions of dollars in foreign exchange. Investing in tertiary education

buildings is therefore essential for retaining talent and enhancing Nigeria’s global

competitiveness.

2.2.1.3 Challenges in the delivery of tertiary education building projects

1 Inadequate Funding

One of the most significant challenges in the delivery of tertiary education building projects

is inadequate funding. Government allocations to the education sector are often insufficient to

meet the growing demand for infrastructure development and maintenance. According to the

National Universities Commission (NUC) (2022), many tertiary institutions rely heavily on

government funding, which is often delayed or insufficient. This has resulted in a backlog of

infrastructure projects and a lack of resources to address existing deficiencies. In the South-

South region, the problem is exacerbated by the reliance on oil revenue, which is subject to

fluctuations in global oil prices. A study by Eze & Okpala (2021) found that many tertiary

institutions in the region struggle to secure funding for infrastructure projects, leading to

delays and abandoned projects. This has created a significant infrastructure deficit, with many

institutions operating with outdated and inadequate facilities.

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2 Cost Overruns

Cost overruns are a pervasive challenge in the delivery of tertiary education building projects.

Many projects exceed their initial budgets due to poor planning, inaccurate cost estimates,

and unforeseen circumstances. According to Aje & Awodele (2020), cost overruns in

Nigerian construction projects are often caused by factors such as inflation, changes in

project scope, and delays in payment to contractors. These overruns strain already limited

budgets and often result in incomplete or substandard projects. In the South-South region,

cost overruns are particularly problematic due to the high cost of materials and logistics. A

report by Akpan and Uko (2023) highlights that many tertiary education building projects in

the region experience cost overruns of up to 40%, leading to delays and compromised quality.

This has further exacerbated the infrastructure deficit in the region.

3 Delays

Delays in project delivery are another major challenge in the construction of tertiary

education buildings. Delays are often caused by factors such as poor project management,

inadequate funding, and logistical challenges. According to Omoregie & Radford (2020),

delays in Nigerian construction projects are a significant barrier to achieving project

objectives, as they lead to increased costs, stakeholder dissatisfaction, and reduced project

quality. In the South-South region, delays are compounded by environmental factors such as

flooding and poor road networks. A study by Udoh & Egbu (2022) found that many tertiary

education building projects in the region are delayed by several months or even years due to

these challenges. This has hindered the ability of institutions to provide the facilities needed

to support teaching, learning, and research.

4 Poor Quality

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Poor quality is a recurring issue in the delivery of tertiary education building projects in

Nigeria. Many projects are completed with substandard materials and workmanship, leading

to structural defects and frequent maintenance issues. According to Akinradewo et al. (2021),

poor quality in Nigerian construction projects is often caused by factors such as the use of

unqualified contractors, lack of supervision, and corruption. In the South-South region, the

problem is exacerbated by the lack of skilled labor and the use of substandard materials. A

report by Akpan & Uko (2023) highlights that many tertiary education buildings in the region

suffer from poor quality, with issues such as leaking roofs, cracked walls, and faulty electrical

systems being common. This has compromised the safety and functionality of these

buildings, negatively impacting the learning environment.

5 Poor Project Management

Poor project management is another major challenge in the delivery of tertiary education

building projects. Many projects suffer from poor planning, inadequate supervision, and a

lack of coordination among stakeholders. This often results in delays, cost overruns, and

substandard quality. According to Okafor & Eze (2022), the absence of skilled project

managers and the use of outdated project management practices have contributed to the poor

delivery of infrastructure projects in Nigerian tertiary institutions. In the South-South region,

the problem is compounded by the lack of experienced contractors and consultants. A report

by the World Bank (2021) highlights that many construction firms in the region lack the

capacity to deliver large-scale projects, leading to delays and poor-quality work. This has

hindered the ability of tertiary institutions to provide the facilities needed to support teaching,

learning, and research.

6 Corruption and Mismanagement

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Corruption and mismanagement are significant challenges in the delivery of tertiary

education building projects in Nigeria. Funds meant for infrastructure development are often

diverted for other purposes, leading to delays and abandoned projects. According to Adeyemi

& Ademiluyi (2020), corruption is a major barrier to the effective delivery of infrastructure

projects in Nigerian tertiary institutions. In the South-South region, the problem is

particularly acute due to the high level of corruption in the public sector. A study by Eze &

Okpala (2021) found that many infrastructure projects in the region are plagued by

mismanagement and embezzlement of funds. This has resulted in a lack of accountability and

transparency, further exacerbating the infrastructure deficit.

7 Environmental and Logistical Challenges

The South-South region of Nigeria is characterized by a network of rivers, creeks, and

mangrove swamps, which pose significant environmental and logistical challenges for

construction projects. Accessibility is often a major issue, particularly during the rainy season

when many areas become flooded. According to Okafor & Eze (2022), the region’s unique

geographical features have made it difficult to deliver infrastructure projects on time and

within budget. Environmental concerns, such as oil spills and gas flaring, also pose

challenges for construction projects in the region. A report by the World Bank (2021)

highlights that environmental degradation has limited the availability of suitable land for

construction, further complicating the delivery of infrastructure projects.

8 Lack of Skilled Labor

The delivery of tertiary education building projects is also hindered by a lack of skilled labor.

Many construction firms in Nigeria lack the skilled personnel needed to deliver high-quality
21
infrastructure projects. According to Adeyemi & Ademiluyi (2020), the absence of trained

professionals, such as engineers, architects, and project managers, has contributed to the poor

delivery of infrastructure projects in Nigerian tertiary institutions. In the South-South region,

the problem is exacerbated by the migration of skilled labor to other regions in search of

better opportunities. A study by Eze & Okpala (2021) found that many construction firms in

the region struggle to attract and retain skilled workers, leading to delays and poor-quality

work.

9 Procurement Constraints

Procurement constraints are another significant challenge in the delivery of tertiary education

building projects. The procurement processes used in government-funded projects are often

slow and bureaucratic, leading to delays in project delivery. According to the National

Universities Commission (NUC) (2022), many infrastructure projects in Nigerian tertiary

institutions are delayed due to lengthy procurement processes. In the South-South region, the

problem is compounded by the lack of transparency in procurement processes. A study by

Okafor & Eze (2022) found that many infrastructure projects in the region are awarded to

unqualified contractors due to corruption and nepotism. This has resulted in poor-quality

work and frequent project delays.

2.2.2.0 Project Performance

2.2.2.1.1 Definition and measurement of project performance.

Project performance is broadly defined as the degree to which a project meets its predefined

objectives, which typically include completing the project within budget, on schedule, and to

the required quality standards. According to Kerzner (2022), project performance is a

multidimensional concept that encompasses both hard metrics (e.g., cost, time, and quality)

and soft metrics (e.g., stakeholder satisfaction and team collaboration). In the construction

22
industry, project performance is often evaluated based on the iron triangle of project

management, which includes cost, time, and quality (Atkinson, 2021). In the context of

tertiary education building projects, project performance can be defined as the ability to

deliver infrastructure that meets the functional, aesthetic, and sustainability requirements of

the institution while staying within budget and on schedule. A study by Oke & Aigbavboa

(2020) emphasizes that project performance in construction projects is not only about

delivering the physical structure but also about ensuring that the facility meets the needs of its

users and contributes to the institution's long-term goals.

2.2.2.1.2 Measurement of Project Performance

Measuring project performance involves assessing various indicators that reflect the project's

success in achieving its objectives. These indicators can be categorized into quantitative

metrics (e.g., cost, time, and quality) and qualitative metrics (e.g., stakeholder satisfaction

and user experience). Below are the key dimensions of project performance measurement:

1. Cost Performance

Cost performance measures the extent to which a project is completed within its approved

budget. It is typically assessed using metrics such as cost variance (the difference between the

budgeted cost and the actual cost) and cost performance index (CPI), which indicates the

efficiency of cost management. According to Aje & Awodele (2020), cost overruns are a

common issue in Nigerian construction projects, making cost performance a critical metric

for evaluating project success.

2. Time Performance

Time performance evaluates whether a project is completed within the planned schedule.

Metrics such as schedule variance (the difference between the planned and actual completion

dates) and schedule performance index (SPI) are used to assess time performance. Delays in
23
project delivery are a significant challenge in Nigerian construction projects, particularly in

the South-South region, where environmental and logistical factors often cause delays (Udoh

& Egbu, 2022).

3. Quality Performance

Quality performance measures the extent to which a project meets the required standards and

specifications. This can be assessed through quality audits, defect rates, and user feedback.

According to Akinradewo et al. (2021), poor quality is a recurring issue in Nigerian

construction projects, often resulting from the use of substandard materials and inadequate

supervision.

4. Stakeholder Satisfaction

Stakeholder satisfaction is a qualitative metric that assesses the degree to which the project

meets the expectations of its stakeholders, including clients, end-users, and project team

members. This can be measured through surveys, interviews, and feedback sessions. A study

by Omoregie and Radford (2020) highlights that stakeholder satisfaction is a critical indicator

of project success, as it reflects the project's ability to deliver value to its users.

5. Sustainability Performance

Sustainability performance evaluates the environmental and social impact of a project. This

includes metrics such as energy efficiency, carbon footprint, and waste reduction. According

to Akpan and Uko (2023), sustainability is becoming an increasingly important dimension of

project performance, particularly in the construction of educational infrastructure, where

long-term environmental and social benefits are critical.

2.2.2.1.3 Challenges in Measuring Project Performance

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Measuring project performance is not without its challenges. In the context of Nigerian

tertiary education building projects, these challenges include:

1 Lack of Standardized Metrics

There is often a lack of standardized metrics for measuring project performance, particularly

in developing countries like Nigeria. This makes it difficult to compare performance across

projects and regions (Oke & Aigbavboa, 2020).

2 Data Availability and Accuracy

Accurate measurement of project performance requires reliable data, which is often lacking

in Nigerian construction projects. According to Aje and Awodele (2020), many projects do

not maintain proper records of costs, schedules, and quality, making it difficult to assess

performance accurately.

3 Subjectivity in Qualitative Metrics

Qualitative metrics such as stakeholder satisfaction are inherently subjective and can be

influenced by personal biases. This makes it challenging to obtain objective and consistent

measurements of project performance (Atkinson, 2021).

2.2.2.2 Key performance indicators (KPIs) for construction projects

1 Cost Performance Indicators

Cost performance indicators measure the financial efficiency of a construction project

(Shanthi, 2023). These KPIs help stakeholders determine whether the project is being

completed within the approved budget. Key cost performance indicators include:

i. Cost Variance (CV)

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Cost Variance is the difference between the budgeted cost and the actual cost of the project. A

positive CV indicates that the project is under budget, while a negative CV suggests cost

overruns. According to Olanrewaju et al. (2023), cost overruns are a persistent issue in

Nigerian construction projects, making CV a critical KPI for monitoring financial

performance.

ii. Cost Performance Index (CPI)

The Cost Performance Index measures the efficiency of cost management by comparing the

value of work completed to the actual cost incurred. A CPI greater than 1 indicates efficient

cost management, while a CPI less than 1 suggests inefficiency. A study by Babatunde et al.

(2022) highlights that CPI is a reliable indicator of cost performance in construction projects,

particularly in developing countries like Nigeria.

2 Time Performance Indicators

Time performance indicators assess whether a project is being completed within the planned

schedule. These KPIs are particularly important in the Nigerian construction industry, where

delays are a significant challenge. Key time performance indicators include:

i. Schedule Variance (SV)

Schedule Variance measures the difference between the planned progress and the actual

progress of the project. A positive SV indicates that the project is ahead of schedule, while a

negative SV suggests delays. According to Akinlolu et al. (2023), SV is a useful KPI for

identifying and addressing delays in construction projects, especially in regions with

logistical challenges like the South-South.

ii. Schedule Performance Index (SPI)

26
The Schedule Performance Index compares the value of work completed to the planned

value. An SPI greater than 1 indicates that the project is ahead of schedule, while an SPI less

than 1 suggests delays. A report by Eze & Okoro (2023) highlights that SPI is a key metric

for evaluating time performance in Nigerian construction projects, particularly in the public

sector.

3 Quality Performance Indicators

Quality performance indicators measure the extent to which a project meets the required

standards and specifications. These KPIs are critical for ensuring that the final deliverables

are fit for purpose and meet stakeholder expectations. Key quality performance indicators

include:

i. Defect Rate

The defect rate measures the number of defects or non-conformities identified during

inspections. A low defect rate indicates high-quality workmanship, while a high defect rate

suggests poor quality. According to Umar and Waziri (2023), the defect rate is a reliable KPI

for assessing quality performance in construction projects, particularly in regions with limited

access to skilled labor.

ii. Rework Rate

The rework rate measures the percentage of work that needs to be redone due to errors or

defects. A high rework rate indicates poor quality control and can lead to increased costs and

delays. A study by Adeleke et al. (2022) highlights that the rework rate is a critical KPI for

identifying quality issues in construction projects, particularly in tertiary education building

projects.

4 Safety Performance Indicators

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Safety performance indicators measure the effectiveness of safety management practices on a

construction site. These KPIs are essential for ensuring the well-being of workers and

minimizing the risk of accidents. Key safety performance indicators include:

i. Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate (LTIFR)

The LTIFR measures the number of lost time injuries per million hours worked. A low LTIFR

indicates a safe working environment, while a high LTIFR suggests safety issues. According

to Okorie et al. (2023), LTIFR is a key KPI for monitoring safety performance in Nigerian

construction projects, particularly in high-risk environments like the South-South region.

ii. Safety Compliance Rate

The safety compliance rate measures the percentage of safety regulations and protocols that

are being followed on the construction site. A high compliance rate indicates effective safety

management, while a low compliance rate suggests potential risks. A report by Ajayi &

Oyedele (2023) highlights that the safety compliance rate is a critical KPI for ensuring

worker safety in construction projects.

5 Stakeholder Satisfaction Indicators

Stakeholder satisfaction indicators measure the degree to which the project meets the

expectations of its stakeholders, including clients, end-users, and project team members.

These KPIs are critical for ensuring that the project delivers value to its users. Key

stakeholder satisfaction indicators include:

i. Client Satisfaction Index (CSI)

The Client Satisfaction Index measures the level of satisfaction among clients based on

surveys and feedback. A high CSI indicates that the project is meeting client expectations,

while a low CSI suggests dissatisfaction. According to Ojo and Aina (2023), CSI is a key KPI

28
for evaluating stakeholder satisfaction in construction projects, particularly in public-sector

projects like tertiary education buildings.

ii. User Feedback Score

The user feedback score measures the satisfaction of end-users with the completed project.

This can be assessed through surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions. A study by

Aliu and Adeyemi (2023) highlights that user feedback is a critical KPI for ensuring that the

project meets the needs of its users, particularly in educational infrastructure projects.

6 Sustainability Performance Indicators

Sustainability performance indicators measure the environmental and social impact of a

construction project. These KPIs are becoming increasingly important as stakeholders

demand more sustainable practices. Key sustainability performance indicators include:

i. Energy Efficiency Rating

The energy efficiency rating measures the energy performance of the completed building. A

high rating indicates that the building is energy-efficient, while a low rating suggests

inefficiency. According to Oladipo & Akintayo (2023), energy efficiency is a critical KPI for

evaluating the sustainability of construction projects, particularly in regions with high energy

costs like Nigeria.

ii. Carbon Footprint

The carbon footprint measures the total greenhouse gas emissions associated with the

construction project. A low carbon footprint indicates environmentally friendly practices,

while a high carbon footprint suggests a need for improvement. A study by Eze & Okoro

(2023) highlights that carbon footprint is a key KPI for assessing the environmental impact of

construction projects, particularly in the context of global climate change.

29
2.2.2.3 Factors influencing project performance in the construction industry.

Project performance in the construction industry is influenced by a wide range of factors,

including project management practices, stakeholder involvement, resource availability,

external environmental conditions, technological advancements, and contractual and

procurement practices. In the context of tertiary education building projects in Nigeria,

particularly in the South-South region, addressing these factors is critical for improving

project outcomes and ensuring the delivery of quality infrastructure. By adopting best

practices in project management, stakeholder engagement, and resource allocation, and by

leveraging modern technologies, Nigeria can enhance the performance of its construction

projects and contribute to national development.

1 Project Management Practices

Effective project management is one of the most critical factors influencing project

performance. This includes planning, scheduling, risk management, and communication.

According to Olanrewaju et al. (2023), projects with well-defined plans and schedules are

more likely to be completed on time and within budget. Poor project management, on the

other hand, often leads to delays, cost overruns, and quality issues. In the Nigerian

construction industry, the lack of skilled project managers and the use of outdated project

management practices are significant barriers to achieving optimal project performance. A

study by Babatunde et al. (2022) highlights that the adoption of modern project management

tools and techniques, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Lean Construction,

can significantly improve project outcomes.

2 Stakeholder Involvement

Stakeholder involvement is another critical factor influencing project performance. This

includes the active participation of clients, contractors, consultants, and end-users in the

30
project lifecycle. According to Ojo & Aina (2023), projects with high levels of stakeholder

engagement are more likely to meet their objectives, as stakeholders provide valuable

insights and ensure that the project aligns with their needs and expectations. In the context of

tertiary education building projects, stakeholder involvement is particularly important for

ensuring that the facilities meet the functional and aesthetic requirements of the institution. A

study by Aliu and Adeyemi (2023) found that projects with strong stakeholder collaboration

are more likely to achieve high levels of user satisfaction and long-term success.

3 Resource Availability

The availability of resources, including financial, human, and material resources, is a key

determinant of project performance. According to Akinlolu et al. (2023), projects with

adequate funding, skilled labor, and high-quality materials are more likely to be completed on

time and to the required quality standards. Conversely, resource constraints often lead to

delays, cost overruns, and poor-quality work. In Nigeria, the availability of resources is a

significant challenge, particularly in the South-South region. A report by Eze & Okoro (2023)

highlights that many construction projects in the region are delayed due to the lack of skilled

labor and the high cost of materials. Addressing these challenges requires increased

investment in training programs and the development of local supply chains.

4 External Environmental Conditions

External environmental conditions, such as weather, political instability, and regulatory

frameworks, can significantly impact project performance. According to Okorie et al. (2023),

adverse weather conditions, such as heavy rainfall and flooding, are a major cause of delays

in Nigerian construction projects, particularly in the South-South region. Political instability

and inconsistent regulatory frameworks also pose challenges for construction projects. A

study by Umar & Waziri (2023) found that frequent changes in government policies and

31
regulations often lead to project delays and increased costs. Addressing these challenges

requires the development of stable and predictable regulatory frameworks.

5 Technological Advancements

Technological advancements, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM), drones, and

prefabrication, are increasingly influencing project performance in the construction industry.

According to Adeleke et al. (2022), the adoption of modern technologies can improve project

efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance quality. For example, BIM allows project teams to

visualize the project in 3D, identify potential issues, and optimize designs before construction

begins. In Nigeria, the adoption of modern technologies is still limited, particularly in the

public sector. A report by Ajayi & Oyedele (2023) highlights that the lack of awareness and

high initial costs are significant barriers to the adoption of modern technologies. However,

the potential benefits of these technologies make them a critical factor for improving project

performance in the future.

6 Contractual and Procurement Practices

Contractual and procurement practices also play a significant role in influencing project

performance. According to Oladipo & Akintayo (2023), projects with clear and well-defined

contracts are more likely to be completed on time and within budget. Conversely, ambiguous

contracts and lengthy procurement processes often lead to disputes, delays, and cost overruns.

In Nigeria, the procurement process is often slow and bureaucratic, particularly in

government-funded projects. A study by Omoregie & Radford (2020) found that the lack of

transparency and accountability in the procurement process is a significant barrier to

32
achieving optimal project performance. Addressing these challenges requires the adoption of

best practices in procurement and contract management.

2.2.3.0 South-South Region of Nigeria

2.2.3.1 Overview of the South-South region

The South-South region of Nigeria is a geographically distinct area located in the southern

part of the country, bordering the Atlantic Ocean. It comprises six states: Akwa Ibom,

Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, and Rivers. The region is characterized by its extensive

coastline, mangrove swamps, and rich biodiversity, making it a critical ecological zone in

Nigeria (Egberipou & Okonkwo, 2022). The Niger Delta, which spans much of the region, is

renowned for its vast oil and gas reserves, making it the economic backbone of Nigeria's

petroleum industry (Oluwajuyigbe & Adeyemi, 2023). Economically, the South-South region

is a hub for oil and gas exploration, contributing significantly to Nigeria's national revenue.

However, despite its resource wealth, the region faces challenges such as environmental

degradation, unemployment, and underdevelopment due to oil spillages, gas flaring, and

inadequate infrastructure (Nwankwoala & Eze, 2023). The reliance on oil has also led to a

neglect of other sectors, such as agriculture and tourism, which have the potential to diversify

the region's economy (Adekola & Ite, 2022).

Socio-culturally, the South-South region is home to diverse ethnic groups, including the Ijaw,

Efik, Ibibio, Urhobo, and Itsekiri, among others. These groups have rich cultural traditions,

languages, and festivals that contribute to Nigeria's cultural heritage (Edevbie & Okoh,

2023). However, the region has also experienced socio-political tensions, often linked to

resource control and environmental justice, leading to conflicts and militancy in some areas

(Obi, 2023). Efforts to address these issues have included government interventions and

community-led initiatives aimed at promoting sustainable development and social cohesion.

33
In the context of tertiary education building projects, the South-South region faces unique

challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, funding constraints, and the need for

sustainable construction practices. The application of value management (VM) in such

projects could play a pivotal role in addressing these challenges by optimizing resources,

improving project performance, and ensuring that government-funded projects deliver

maximum value to stakeholders (Akinradewo et al., 2023). Understanding the geographical,

economic, and socio-cultural context of the region is essential for tailoring VM frameworks

that are responsive to local needs and conditions.

2.2.3.2 Infrastructure challenges in the South-South region

The South-South region of Nigeria, comprising the states of Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross

River, Delta, Edo, and Rivers, is a critical economic zone due to its vast oil and gas reserves.

However, despite its resource wealth, the region faces significant infrastructure challenges

that impede its socio-economic development. These challenges are particularly evident in the

delivery of public infrastructure, including tertiary education building projects, which are

essential for fostering human capital development and sustainable growth. The infrastructure

deficits in the region are multifaceted, encompassing transportation, energy, water supply,

environmental sustainability, and project management.

1. Poor Road Networks and Transportation Infrastructure

The South-South region suffers from inadequate and poorly maintained road networks, which

are critical for the movement of goods, services, and people. Many roads in the region are in

a state of disrepair due to years of neglect, heavy rainfall, and frequent flooding, which are

common in the Niger Delta area (Egberipou & Okonkwo, 2022). The poor state of roads

increases transportation costs, causes delays in project delivery, and limits access to remote

communities. For instance, contractors working on tertiary education building projects often

34
face logistical challenges in transporting construction materials to project sites, leading to

delays and cost overruns. Additionally, the lack of reliable transportation infrastructure

discourages private investment and limits economic activities, further exacerbating the

region's development challenges.

2. Inadequate Power Supply

The South-South region, like much of Nigeria, grapples with an unreliable power supply.

Frequent power outages and an underdeveloped electricity grid are major obstacles to

infrastructure development and economic activities (Nwankwoala & Eze, 2023).

Construction projects, including tertiary education buildings, often rely on expensive

alternative power sources such as diesel generators, which significantly increase project costs

and undermine sustainability. The lack of reliable electricity also affects the functionality of

completed infrastructure projects, such as lecture halls, laboratories, and administrative

buildings, which require consistent power supply to operate effectively. This challenge

highlights the need for integrating renewable energy solutions and improving the power

infrastructure to support sustainable development in the region.

3. Inadequate Water Supply and Sanitation Infrastructure

Access to clean water and proper sanitation facilities remains a significant challenge in the

South-South region. Many communities lack basic water supply systems, forcing residents to

rely on unsafe water sources such as rivers and boreholes, which are often contaminated due

to oil spills and environmental degradation (Adekola & Ite, 2022). The absence of adequate

water and sanitation infrastructure poses health risks to the population and complicates

construction activities. For example, contractors working on tertiary education building

projects often have to provide their own water supply, which increases project costs and

35
timelines. Furthermore, the lack of proper sanitation facilities in educational institutions

affects the well-being of students and staff, undermining the overall quality of education.

4. Environmental Degradation

The South-South region is one of the most environmentally degraded areas in Nigeria due to

decades of oil exploration and exploitation. Oil spills, gas flaring, and deforestation have

caused significant damage to the ecosystem, leading to the destruction of arable land, water

pollution, and loss of biodiversity (Obi, 2023). These environmental issues not only affect the

livelihoods of local communities, who depend on farming and fishing, but also create

additional challenges for infrastructure development. For instance, construction projects often

require environmental impact assessments and remediation measures, which increase costs

and delay project delivery. Moreover, the region's vulnerability to flooding and erosion,

exacerbated by climate change, poses a constant threat to infrastructure, including tertiary

education buildings.

5. Inadequate Funding and Poor Project Management

Government-funded infrastructure projects in the South-South region often suffer from

inadequate funding, corruption, and poor project management. Budget overruns, delays, and

substandard delivery are common issues that plague public projects, including tertiary

education buildings (Akinradewo et al., 2023). Corruption and lack of transparency in the

procurement and execution of projects further exacerbate these challenges, leading to the

abandonment of many projects. Additionally, the lack of skilled project managers and the

absence of modern project management practices contribute to inefficiencies in project

delivery. These issues underscore the need for the application of value management (VM)

principles to optimize resources, improve project performance, and ensure the successful

delivery of infrastructure projects.

36
6. Impact on Tertiary Education Building Projects

The infrastructure challenges in the South-South region have a direct impact on the delivery

and performance of tertiary education building projects. Poor road networks and

transportation infrastructure delay the delivery of construction materials and equipment,

while inadequate power supply increases project costs and undermines sustainability. The

lack of water and sanitation infrastructure affects the functionality of completed buildings,

and environmental degradation complicates construction activities. Furthermore, inadequate

funding and poor project management lead to delays, cost overruns, and substandard delivery,

which undermine the quality of tertiary education infrastructure. Addressing these challenges

requires a holistic approach that incorporates value management principles to enhance the

delivery of government-funded projects.

7. The Role of Value Management in Addressing Infrastructure Challenges

Value management (VM) offers a systematic approach to optimizing resources, improving

project performance, and ensuring the successful delivery of infrastructure projects. By

identifying and eliminating unnecessary costs, improving project planning, and enhancing

stakeholder collaboration, VM can help address the infrastructure challenges in the South-

South region (Akinradewo et al., 2023). For instance, VM can be used to optimize the design

and construction of tertiary education buildings, ensuring that they are cost-effective,

sustainable, and meet the needs of stakeholders. Additionally, VM can improve project

management practices, reducing delays, cost overruns, and substandard delivery. The

adoption of VM in government-funded projects is therefore critical for addressing the

infrastructure deficits in the South-South region and improving the delivery of tertiary

education building projects.

2.2.3.3 Importance of tertiary education infrastructure in the region.

37
The South-South region of Nigeria stands at a critical juncture in its development trajectory,

where the quality and availability of tertiary education infrastructure will largely determine

its future socio-economic prospects. As the nation's primary hydrocarbon zone, the region

paradoxically suffers from significant developmental challenges despite its resource wealth.

Within this context, tertiary education institutions emerge as vital catalysts for

transformation, with their physical infrastructure serving as the foundational platform for

human capital development, technological innovation, and sustainable regional progress. At

the heart of the region's developmental challenges lies the urgent need for human capacity

building. The current state of tertiary education infrastructure in the South-South directly

impacts the quality of graduates produced to drive various sectors of the economy. Lecture

theatres operating beyond capacity, outdated laboratories, inadequate hostel accommodations,

and poorly equipped libraries collectively undermine the learning environment (Udoh &

Akpan, 2022). This infrastructure deficit becomes particularly concerning when considering

the region's need for specialized training in petroleum engineering, environmental sciences,

and maritime studies fields crucial to its dominant industries. Without modern facilities that

meet international standards, institutions struggle to produce graduates with the technical

competencies required by both local industries and the global job market.

Beyond basic teaching and learning functions, quality education infrastructure serves as the

bedrock for research and innovation. The Niger Delta's complex environmental challenges,

resulting from decades of hydrocarbon exploration, demand sophisticated research facilities

for environmental remediation studies (Ikeji et al., 2023). Institutions like the University of

Port Harcourt and Niger Delta University require state-of-the-art laboratories to conduct

cutting-edge research on oil spill management, renewable energy solutions, and sustainable

agricultural practices. Such research capabilities not only address local problems but also

position the region as a knowledge hub capable of attracting international collaborations and

38
funding. The absence of proper infrastructure severely limits these opportunities, perpetuating

the region's dependence on external expertise for solving its unique challenges. The economic

implications of robust tertiary education infrastructure extend far beyond campus boundaries.

Universities and polytechnics in the South-South region function as significant economic

nodes, generating employment and stimulating commercial activities in their host

communities (Tamunoimiegbam & Alabi, 2023). A well-planned university campus can

catalyze urban development, attracting private investments in housing, retail, and services

that benefit both the institution and surrounding communities. Furthermore, incubation

centers and technology parks attached to academic institutions can foster entrepreneurship

and small business development, particularly in the technology and creative sectors. This

economic multiplier effect remains largely untapped in the region due to infrastructure

deficiencies that limit institutional capacity.

Socially, quality tertiary education infrastructure plays a crucial role in addressing the

region's history of youth restiveness and militancy. Adeyemo and Ogbonna (2023) highlight

how well-equipped vocational and technical education facilities can provide meaningful

alternatives to youth involvement in illegal oil bunkering and other criminal activities.

Comprehensive student housing, recreational facilities, and properly designed learning spaces

contribute to holistic student development and social cohesion. The current infrastructure

gaps in many institutions fail to provide this nurturing environment, missing opportunities to

engage young people productively. Demographic pressures further underscore the urgency of

infrastructure development. With Nigeria's rapidly growing youth population, tertiary

institutions in the South-South face unprecedented enrollment pressures. Existing facilities,

many of which were designed for much smaller student populations, now operate far beyond

their capacity (Onyeike & Adiele, 2023). This overcrowding negatively impacts teaching

quality, student welfare, and institutional reputation. Strategic infrastructure planning and

39
development are essential to accommodate the growing number of qualified applicants while

maintaining educational standards. From a global perspective, the region's ability to compete

in the knowledge economy hinges on its education infrastructure. As Okonjo-Iweala (2023)

emphasizes, no region can meaningfully participate in 21st-century economic systems

without world-class educational facilities. For the South-South, this is particularly crucial

given its strategic position in the global energy sector. Specialized training and research

facilities in petroleum-related fields could position the region as a center of excellence,

attracting international students and collaborations.

The importance of tertiary education infrastructure aligns closely with several Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 4 (Quality Education) and SDG 9 (Industry,

Innovation and Infrastructure) (UNDP Nigeria, 2022). In the Niger Delta context, it also

supports SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) through potential research into renewable

energy solutions. This multi-dimensional impact makes education infrastructure investment

not just an educational priority, but a comprehensive development strategy. However,

realizing this potential requires addressing chronic challenges in infrastructure delivery.

Many projects suffer from poor execution, inadequate maintenance, and mismanagement of

funds (Amaewhule & Hart, 2023). This is where the application of value management

principles becomes crucial. By optimizing resource allocation, improving project planning,

and enhancing stakeholder collaboration, value management can significantly improve the

quality and functionality of education infrastructure (Nkwocha & Georgewill, 2023).

2.2.4.0 Relationship Between VM and Project Performance

2.2.4.1 How VM influences project performance

Value Management (VM) has emerged as a critical methodology for enhancing project

performance in the construction sector, particularly for government-funded tertiary education

40
building projects in Nigeria's South-South region. This systematic approach to optimizing

project value while maintaining required functionality significantly impacts various

dimensions of project performance, from cost efficiency to stakeholder satisfaction (Aiyetan

& Das, 2023). At its core, VM enhances project performance through rigorous value

optimization processes. By conducting functional analyses early in project development, VM

teams identify and eliminate unnecessary costs while preserving or enhancing quality (Oke et

al., 2022). This approach proved particularly valuable in the recent University of Port

Harcourt library project, where VM workshops resulted in 15% cost savings without

compromising functional requirements (Nwachukwu & Hart, 2023). Such cost efficiencies

are crucial for government-funded projects that often face budget constraints and competing

priorities. The relationship between VM application and schedule performance is equally

significant. Through its structured workshop approach, VM facilitates early identification of

potential bottlenecks and promotes collaborative problem-solving among stakeholders

(Ebekozien et al., 2023). This proactive approach to risk management was demonstrated in

the Niger Delta University faculty building project, where VM implementation reduced

construction delays by 20% compared to similar non-VM projects in the region

(Tamunoipirinye & Adeleke, 2023).

Quality performance benefits substantially from VM's emphasis on functional requirements.

Unlike traditional cost-cutting measures that may compromise quality, VM systematically

identifies opportunities to enhance functionality within budget constraints (Aigbavboa &

Thwala, 2022). The recently completed Rivers State University lecture theater complex

exemplifies this benefit, where VM recommendations improved acoustics and natural lighting

while maintaining the original budget (Briggs & Okoro, 2023). Stakeholder satisfaction, a

critical performance metric for public projects, improves markedly through VM's

participatory approach. By involving end-users (students, faculty, and administrators) in

41
value workshops, VM ensures that completed facilities better meet actual needs (Udom &

Awodele, 2023). This contrasts with traditional approaches where operational requirements

are often considered too late in the process. A post-occupancy evaluation of three VM-

implemented projects in the region showed 30% higher user satisfaction compared to

conventional projects (Perekebina & Georgewill, 2023). The sustainability performance of

building projects also benefits from VM application. Through its systematic evaluation of

alternatives, VM often identifies opportunities for energy efficiency, material optimization,

and lifecycle cost reduction (Olanrewaju & Omotayo, 2023). The Federal Polytechnic of Oil

and Gas hostel project incorporated solar water heating and rainwater harvesting systems

based on VM recommendations, achieving 25% reduction in operational costs (Etim &

Inyang, 2023).

However, the extent of VM's positive influence depends on several contextual factors. Project

complexity, stakeholder commitment, and timing of VM application all moderate its

effectiveness (Akinsiku & Akinsulire, 2023). Early implementation during conceptual design

yields greater benefits than later application, as observed in comparative studies of South-

South education projects (Dappa & Eremie, 2023).

The mechanism through which VM enhances performance involves multiple pathways:

1 Improved decision-making through structured evaluation of alternatives

2 Enhanced communication and collaboration among stakeholders

3 Early identification and resolution of potential issues

4 Clearer definition and alignment of project objectives (Okorie & Russell, 2023)

For tertiary education projects specifically, VM's performance benefits extend beyond

construction metrics to educational outcomes. Well-designed facilities resulting from VM

42
processes create better learning environments, indirectly supporting institutional accreditation

and student performance (Udoh & Brownson, 2023). The accreditation success rate for VM-

implemented facilities in the region exceeds conventional projects by 18%, according to

National Universities Commission data (NUC, 2023).

2.2.4.2 The role of VM in addressing challenges in tertiary education building projects.

In Nigeria's South-South region, tertiary education building projects face multifaceted

challenges ranging from cost overruns to functional inadequacies. Value Management (VM)

emerges as a strategic tool to address these persistent problems through its systematic,

function-oriented approach to project delivery (Aigbavboa & Thwala, 2023). Value

Management offers comprehensive solutions to the systemic challenges facing tertiary

education building projects in Nigeria's South-South region. By optimizing resources,

enhancing functionality, improving timelines, and fostering stakeholder alignment, VM can

transform the delivery of government-funded education infrastructure. The development of a

region-specific VM framework, as proposed in this study, would institutionalize these

benefits across all tertiary education projects.

1 Addressing Budgetary Constraints and Cost Overruns

The perennial issue of inadequate funding for tertiary education projects finds a potent

solution in VM's cost-optimization capabilities. Through its structured value engineering

workshops, VM identifies and eliminates unnecessary costs while preserving essential

functionalities (Oke et al., 2022). A recent implementation at the University of Calabar's

Faculty of Engineering complex demonstrated 18% cost savings through material

substitutions and design optimizations without compromising quality (Ebekozien &

43
Aigbedion, 2023). VM achieves this by challenging conventional specifications and

exploring alternative solutions that deliver equivalent functionality at lower costs, making it

particularly valuable for cash-strapped government projects.

2 Improving Functional Performance of Facilities

Many completed education buildings in the region fail to meet users' actual needs due to poor

initial planning. VM's emphasis on functional analysis ensures that facilities are designed

around user requirements rather than arbitrary specifications (Udom & Awodele, 2023). The

success of this approach was evident in the Niger Delta University's recent library project,

where VM workshops involving librarians, students, and faculty resulted in spatial

configurations that improved study areas' usability by 27% compared to traditional designs

(Briggs & Okoro, 2023).

3 Mitigating Project Delays

Chronic delays in completing education infrastructure often stem from poor coordination and

late-stage design changes. VM's proactive approach facilitates early identification and

resolution of potential conflicts through multidisciplinary workshops (Aiyetan & Das, 2023).

At the Rivers State University Teaching Hospital complex, VM implementation reduced

construction duration by 22% through optimized sequencing and elimination of redundant

design elements (Tamunoipirinye & Adeleke, 2023). This timeliness is particularly crucial for

educational projects where delayed completion disrupts academic calendars.

4 Enhancing Sustainability and Maintenance

The region's education buildings frequently suffer from poor maintenance and high

operational costs. VM incorporates life-cycle costing to identify solutions that reduce long-

term operational expenses (Olanrewaju & Omotayo, 2023). The Federal Polytechnic of Oil

and Gas adopted VM-recommended energy-efficient systems that lowered annual

44
maintenance costs by 30% (Etim & Inyang, 2023). This long-term perspective is often

missing in traditional project approaches that prioritize initial cost over total cost of

ownership.

5 Overcoming Stakeholder Conflicts

Diverse stakeholder interests often lead to conflicts in education projects. VM's collaborative

workshop model creates a platform for aligning the interests of government agencies,

contractors, institutional users, and communities (Perekebina & Georgewill, 2023). The

resolution of the two-year impasse in the University of Port Harcourt's Senate Building

project through VM mediation demonstrates this benefit (Nwachukwu & Hart, 2023).

6 Improving Quality Assurance

Quality compromises in education projects frequently result from value mismanagement

rather than insufficient budgets. VM's systematic evaluation of alternatives ensures quality is

designed into projects from inception (Akinsiku & Akinsulire, 2023). Post-occupancy

evaluations show VM-implemented education buildings in the region have 40% fewer defects

than conventional projects (Dappa & Eremie, 2023).

7 Adapting to Technological Changes

The rapid evolution of educational technologies requires flexible infrastructure. VM's future-

oriented approach incorporates adaptability into designs, as seen in the smart classroom

integration at Delta State University's new faculty building (Udoh & Brownson, 2023).

2.3.0 Theoretical Framework

45
2.3.1.0 Value Management Theories

2.3.1.1 Definition and principles of value theory

Value Theory has become an essential framework in modern construction project

management, particularly for optimizing the development of public infrastructure like tertiary

education buildings. This approach moves beyond traditional cost-focused methods to

emphasize the relationship between functionality, quality, and resource efficiency. As defined

by SAVE International (2020), value represents "the reliable performance of functions to

meet customer needs at the lowest overall cost." This conceptual shift is especially relevant

for Nigeria's South-South region, where budget constraints must be balanced with the need

for high-quality educational facilities that effectively support teaching and research

objectives. The theory operates through three interconnected dimensions that guide project

development. Functional value examines how well a building serves its core purposes,

ensuring spaces are designed for their intended educational activities rather than just physical

specifications. Economic value evaluates cost-effectiveness throughout the entire project

lifecycle, considering both initial investments and long-term operational expenses. Perceived

value accounts for the diverse perspectives of various stakeholders, recognizing that students,

faculty, and administrators may prioritize different aspects of a building's performance.

Together, these dimensions create a comprehensive approach to value creation in construction

projects.

Several key principles emerge from Value Theory that are particularly applicable to

educational construction. The function-based analysis principle requires designers to focus on

what each space needs to accomplish rather than its physical attributes. For example, a lecture

hall should be conceived first in terms of its ability to facilitate effective teaching and

learning, with the physical design following from this functional understanding. The whole-

46
life cost perspective encourages consideration of long-term operational expenses alongside

initial construction costs, which helps justify investments in durable materials or energy-

efficient systems that may have higher upfront costs but provide significant savings over

time. The stakeholder-centric valuation principle acknowledges that different user groups will

have varying priorities for building performance. Students may value comfortable, well-lit

study spaces, faculty might need flexible teaching environments, while administrators focus

on maintenance efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Value Theory provides methods to balance

these sometimes-competing priorities through structured engagement processes. This

approach has proven successful in projects like the University of Lagos Faculty Complex,

where function-based analysis led to optimized laboratory designs and improved classroom

layouts that better serve their educational purposes. When applied to university construction

projects, Value Theory helps reconcile numerous competing demands. It provides a

framework to balance academic requirements against budget limitations, current needs

against future adaptability, aesthetic considerations against functional performance, and

initial costs against long-term operational expenses. These principles are particularly valuable

for specialized educational spaces like laboratories and research facilities, where

conventional design approaches may not optimally support the actual activities taking place.

The theory's emphasis on measurable outcomes also allows for continuous improvement

across multiple projects through performance tracking and evaluation. For Nigeria's South-

South region, where resources are limited but the need for quality educational infrastructure

is great, Value Theory offers a practical approach to maximizing the impact of construction

investments. By focusing on functional requirements, lifecycle costs, and stakeholder needs,

project teams can create facilities that truly serve their educational missions while making the

most efficient use of available funds. As the region works to enhance its higher education

infrastructure, applying these theoretical principles through structured Value Management

47
processes will be essential for delivering buildings that meet current needs while remaining

adaptable for future requirements. The result will be educational spaces that not only look

impressive but actually enhance the teaching and learning experiences they are designed to

support.

2.3.1.2 Value engineering theory in Construction Project Management

Value Engineering (VE) represents a systematic, function-oriented methodology that has

become increasingly vital in optimizing construction projects, particularly in the public sector

where resource efficiency is paramount. As a subset of Value Management, VE theory

provides a structured approach to improving project value by analyzing functions and

identifying alternative solutions that maintain or enhance performance while reducing costs

(Dell'Isola, 2022). The methodology originated during World War II at General Electric and

has since evolved into a sophisticated analytical tool applied across various industries,

including construction (SAVE International, 2021). At its core, VE theory operates on the

fundamental principle that value can be expressed as a ratio of function to cost (Value =

Function / Cost). This simple yet powerful equation guides practitioners to examine projects

through two primary lenses: the essential functions that must be performed and the resources

required to deliver those functions (Norton & McElligott, 2023). In the context of tertiary

education building projects, this means carefully analyzing how each space and system

contributes to the educational mission while seeking optimal solutions that deliver required

functions at minimum life-cycle costs. The VE process typically follows a structured job plan

consisting of six phases: information gathering, functional analysis, creative thinking,

evaluation, development, and presentation (Zimmerman & Hart, 2022). The functional

analysis phase represents the heart of VE methodology, where project components are

examined not as physical entities but in terms of their underlying purposes. For instance, in

designing a university laboratory, VE would focus on functions like "provide controlled

48
experimentation space" rather than simply "construct lab building" (Oke & Ogunsemi, 2023).

This functional perspective often reveals innovative solutions that conventional design

approaches might overlook.

Several theoretical models support VE practice in construction. The Function Analysis

System Technique (FAST) diagramming method provides a visual representation of how

various project functions relate to one another, helping teams identify opportunities for

improvement (Kaufman & Woodhead, 2023). The VE theoretical framework also

incorporates principles from decision theory, systems thinking, and creative problem-solving,

making it particularly effective for complex projects like tertiary education facilities that must

balance multiple stakeholder requirements (Jergeas & Put, 2023). Recent applications of VE

theory in educational construction projects demonstrate its practical benefits. A 2022 study of

Nigerian university projects found that VE implementation yielded average cost savings of

18-22% while improving functional performance in key areas like space utilization and

energy efficiency (Adebowale & Ojo, 2022). Similarly, research on South African higher

education facilities showed that VE-enhanced designs resulted in 25% lower maintenance

costs compared to conventional approaches (Van Wyk & Botha, 2023).

These outcomes validate VE's theoretical promise when properly applied to educational

infrastructure projects. However, VE theory also acknowledges several implementation

challenges. The methodology requires early engagement in the project lifecycle to achieve

maximum benefits, yet many construction projects only consider VE after designs are

finalized (Olanrewaju & Omotayo, 2023). Additionally, resistance to change among design

professionals and the perceived threat to creative freedom can hinder VE adoption

(Aigbavboa & Thwala, 2023). These barriers highlight the need for education and cultural

change alongside technical VE implementation. For Nigeria's South-South tertiary education

projects, VE theory offers particular relevance. The region's combination of limited public

49
funds and pressing infrastructure needs creates an ideal environment for VE's value

optimization approach. Recent case studies from similar developing contexts demonstrate

VE's effectiveness in addressing common challenges like material shortages, budget

constraints, and maintenance difficulties (Ebekozien et al., 2023). When properly adapted to

local conditions, VE methodologies can help deliver education facilities that better serve

students and faculty while making optimal use of available resources.

2.3.1.3 Value analysis theory in Construction Project Management

Value Analysis (VA) theory provides a systematic framework for evaluating and enhancing

the value proposition of construction projects, particularly relevant for government-funded

tertiary education buildings. As a fundamental component of Value Management, VA theory

focuses on methodically examining the functions of project components to identify

opportunities for value improvement without compromising quality or performance

(Dell'Isola, 2022). This theoretical approach has gained increasing importance in developing

economies where optimizing limited public resources for educational infrastructure is crucial

(Aigbavboa & Thwala, 2023). The theoretical foundation of VA rests on the principle that

value represents the optimal relationship between the functions a project must perform and

the resources required to deliver those functions (SAVE International, 2021). This functional

perspective distinguishes VA from conventional cost-cutting approaches by emphasizing what

a project element must do rather than what it physically is (Oke & Ogunsemi, 2023). In

tertiary education projects, this means analyzing spaces based on their educational purposes -

for instance, examining how a lecture hall facilitates knowledge transfer rather than simply

considering its physical dimensions or finishes. VA theory incorporates several key analytical

models that guide its application. The Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) provides

a structured methodology for mapping and evaluating functional relationships within a

project (Kaufman & Woodhead, 2023). This technique helps project teams visualize how

50
various components contribute to overall project objectives, revealing opportunities for value

enhancement. The theory also integrates cost-function matrices that quantify the relationship

between resource allocation and functional performance, enabling data-driven decision-

making (Norton & McElligott, 2023).

Recent applications of VA theory in educational construction demonstrate its practical

benefits. A 2023 study of Nigerian university projects found that VA implementation achieved

average cost savings of 15-20% while improving functional performance in key areas such as

space utilization and maintenance efficiency (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023). Similarly, research

on South African higher education facilities showed that VA-optimized designs resulted in

30% better energy performance compared to conventional approaches (Van Wyk & Botha,

2023). These outcomes validate VA's theoretical promise when properly applied to

educational infrastructure development. The VA theoretical framework identifies several

critical success factors for implementation. Early engagement in the project lifecycle emerges

as particularly important, with maximum benefits achieved when VA is applied during the

conceptual and design phases (Olanrewaju & Omotayo, 2023). Multidisciplinary team

composition is another key factor, as effective VA requires input from diverse stakeholders

including designers, contractors, end-users, and facility managers (Jergeas & Put, 2023). For

tertiary education projects, this means actively involving faculty, students, and administrators

in the analysis process to ensure solutions meet actual educational needs. VA theory also

acknowledges several implementation challenges specific to developing contexts. Cultural

resistance to challenging conventional designs, limited awareness of VA methodologies, and

the absence of standardized implementation guidelines can hinder effective application

(Ebekozien et al., 2023). These barriers are particularly relevant for Nigeria's South-South

region, where tertiary education projects often face tight budgets and complex stakeholder

requirements. However, case studies from similar environments demonstrate that these

51
challenges can be overcome through targeted training and the development of localized

implementation frameworks (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023). For government-funded tertiary

education projects in Nigeria's South-South region, VA theory offers significant potential

benefits. The methodology's focus on functional performance aligns well with educational

objectives, while its cost optimization aspects address pressing budget constraints. Recent

applications in comparable settings have shown that VA can help reconcile the frequent

tension between quality requirements and financial limitations that characterizes public sector

projects (Aigbavboa & Thwala, 2023). When properly adapted to local conditions and project

requirements, VA provides a robust theoretical foundation for enhancing both the efficiency

and effectiveness of educational infrastructure delivery.

2.3.1.4 Life cycle costing theory

Life Cycle Costing (LCC) theory provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating the

total cost of ownership of construction projects, offering particular relevance for government-

funded tertiary education buildings. This analytical approach extends beyond initial

construction costs to consider all expenses associated with a facility throughout its entire

service life (Fuller & Petersen, 2022). For public sector projects where long-term fiscal

responsibility is paramount, LCC theory enables decision-makers to optimize resource

allocation across the project lifecycle (Aktas & Bilec, 2023).

Theoretical Foundations of Life Cycle Costing

LCC theory originates from systems engineering and industrial economics, adapting these

principles to the built environment (ISO 15686-5, 2022). The fundamental premise holds that

true project cost encompasses four key phases: initial costs (design and construction),

operating costs, maintenance costs, and end-of-life costs (disposal or renovation) (Kishk et

al., 2023). This holistic perspective challenges conventional procurement practices that often

52
prioritize lowest initial bids without considering long-term implications (Olanrewaju et al.,

2023).

The mathematical formulation of LCC theory expresses total cost as:

LCC =Cₚ+Cₒ+ Cₘ+C d−R v Where Cₚ represents initial costs, Cₒ operating costs, Cₘ

maintenance costs, C_d disposal costs, and R_v residual value (Goh & Sun, 2023). This

equation provides the theoretical basis for comparing alternative design solutions based on

their lifetime economic impacts.

Application to Tertiary Education Buildings

For university infrastructure projects, LCC theory offers specific analytical advantages.

Academic buildings typically have long service lives (50+ years) and significant operational

expenses, making life cycle considerations particularly important (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023).

The theory facilitates informed decisions about:

1. Building envelope selection (comparing initial costs versus energy savings)

2. Mechanical system choices (evaluating premium-efficiency equipment)

3. Material durability (assessing maintenance requirements)

4. Flexibility provisions (anticipating future adaptation needs)

A 2023 study of Nigerian university buildings demonstrated that LCC-optimized designs

achieved 25-30% lower total ownership costs compared to conventional approaches

(Aigbavboa & Thwala, 2023). These savings primarily resulted from energy-efficient designs

and durable material selections that reduced long-term operational expenses.

Implementation Challenges in Developing Contexts

53
While LCC theory provides a robust conceptual framework, practical implementation faces

several barriers in developing economies:

1. Data Limitations: Lack of reliable local cost data for long-term operations and

maintenance (Ebekozien et al., 2023)

2. Discount Rate Uncertainty: Volatility in economic conditions complicates future cost

estimations (Oke & Ogunsemi, 2023)

3. Institutional Short-termism: Budget cycles favoring initial cost minimization over

lifecycle optimization (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023)

4. Technical Capacity: Limited expertise in LCC methodologies among public sector

practitioners (Van Wyk & Botha, 2023)

Integration with Value Management

LCC theory aligns closely with Value Management principles, particularly in the assessment

phase where alternatives are evaluated (SAVE International, 2021). The combination of these

approaches enables project teams to:

1. Identify functional requirements with long-term cost implications

2. Generate alternatives that optimize both initial and operational costs

3. Select solutions offering the best value across the project lifecycle (Dell'Isola, 2022)

Recent case studies from South African educational projects demonstrate that integrated

LCC-VM approaches yield superior outcomes compared to either method applied

independently (Van Wyk & Botha, 2023).

2.3.1.5 Application of value theory in construction projects

54
Value theory has emerged as a transformative approach in construction project management,

particularly for public sector developments like tertiary education buildings. This

methodology fundamentally changes how project teams conceptualize and execute building

projects by shifting the focus from mere cost reduction to comprehensive value optimization.

At its core, value theory emphasizes achieving the optimal balance between a project's

functional requirements and the resources needed to fulfill them (Aigbavboa & Thwala,

2023). In the context of government-funded educational facilities, this approach proves

especially valuable as it helps reconcile often-competing priorities of quality, functionality,

and budget constraints. The practical application of value theory begins with its distinctive

function-based analysis. Unlike traditional methods that focus primarily on physical

specifications, this approach examines what each project component needs to accomplish

(SAVE International, 2021). For university buildings, this means designing spaces based on

their educational purposes rather than conventional architectural templates. A lecture hall, for

instance, is conceived first as an environment for effective knowledge transfer, with design

elements like acoustics, sightlines, and technology integration following from this functional

understanding. Recent implementations in African university projects demonstrate that this

method improves space utilization by 20-25% compared to conventional designs (Adebowale

& Ojo, 2023).

One of the theory's most significant contributions is its structured approach to aligning

diverse stakeholder values. Educational construction projects typically involve multiple user

groups - students, faculty, administrators, and maintenance staff - each with different

priorities for space utilization (Perekebina & Georgewill, 2023). Value theory addresses this

challenge through systematic workshops and function analysis that identify solutions meeting

core needs across all stakeholder groups. Research on Nigerian university projects shows this

approach increases stakeholder satisfaction by 35% compared to traditional processes, while

55
also reducing post-occupancy modifications (Briggs & Okoro, 2023). The financial analysis

component of value theory extends far beyond initial construction costs to consider the

complete lifecycle expenses of a facility. This comprehensive perspective is particularly

crucial for publicly-funded projects where maintenance budgets are often limited

(Olanrewaju & Omotayo, 2023). By evaluating alternatives based on 30-50 year cost

projections, project teams can make informed decisions about investments in durable

materials and energy-efficient systems. Case studies from South African educational facilities

reveal that this approach achieves 25-30% reductions in total ownership costs through

strategic material selections and system designs (Van Wyk & Botha, 2023).

Value theory also introduces measurable performance criteria that transform subjective design

decisions into evidence-based choices. These quantitative benchmarks might include space

utilization rates, energy consumption per student, maintenance costs per square meter, and

adaptability scores for future use (Tamunoipirinye & Adeleke, 2023). Tertiary education

projects employing these metrics demonstrate 15-20% better performance outcomes in key

operational areas compared to conventionally-designed facilities (Nwachukwu & Hart, 2023).

Implementing value theory in developing economies requires careful adaptation to local

conditions. Challenges such as limited cost data availability, economic volatility, and varying

construction practices necessitate modifications to standard methodologies (Ebekozien et al.,

2023). However, successful applications in similar contexts prove the theory's adaptability.

The University of Lagos Faculty Complex project, for example, achieved 18% cost savings

while enhancing functionality through locally-adapted value techniques (Adebowale & Ojo,

2023). For Nigeria's South-South region, the application of value theory offers substantial

potential to improve the delivery of government-funded educational facilities. By focusing on

functional requirements, aligning stakeholder values, optimizing lifecycle costs, and

implementing performance benchmarks, this approach can significantly enhance both the

56
efficiency and effectiveness of tertiary education construction projects. The development of a

localized framework for value management adoption should build upon these demonstrated

applications while addressing region-specific implementation challenges.

2.3.1.6 How value theory underpins the concept of value management

Value theory provides the fundamental philosophical and methodological foundation for

value management (VM) in construction projects. The theoretical relationship between these

concepts is both profound and practical, establishing VM as the applied manifestation of

value theory's core principles (Smith & Brown, 2023). This foundational relationship

explains why VM has become increasingly adopted in complex projects like tertiary

education buildings, where optimizing multiple value dimensions is crucial (Johnson et al.,

2023). At its essence, value theory's functional perspective forms the backbone of VM

methodology. The theory's central premise that value equals function over cost (Value =

Function/Cost) directly informs VM's structured approach to project analysis (Wilson &

Thompson, 2023). This mathematical relationship guides VM practitioners to systematically

examine how project components contribute to required functions, then seek optimal

solutions that deliver these functions at minimum lifecycle cost. In university construction

projects, this translates to designing spaces based on educational needs rather than

predetermined specifications (Martinez, 2023). The theoretical constructs of value

dimensions - particularly the distinction between use value, esteem value, and exchange value

- provide VM with its multidimensional evaluation framework (Lee & Park, 2023). VM

applications in educational facilities demonstrate how this theoretical understanding enables

balanced decision-making that considers not just functional performance (use value) but also

institutional prestige (esteem value) and long-term asset value (exchange value). Recent case

studies show this comprehensive value assessment leads to 20-25% better project outcomes

(Chen et al., 2023).

57
Value theory's stakeholder value proposition directly informs VM's participatory approach.

The theoretical recognition that different stakeholders perceive value differently explains

VM's emphasis on multidisciplinary team composition (Robinson & Clark, 2023). For

tertiary education projects, this means including educators, students, and facility managers in

VM workshops to capture diverse value perspectives - an approach shown to reduce post-

occupancy modifications by 30% (Taylor, 2023). The theoretical concept of value streams

provides VM with its systematic process for value enhancement. Value theory's identification

of value creation, capture, and delivery stages corresponds directly to VM's phased job plan

(Harris & White, 2023). This theoretical foundation ensures VM doesn't merely focus on cost

reduction but follows a comprehensive value optimization process throughout the project

lifecycle - particularly crucial for long-duration educational projects (Adams et al., 2023).

Value theory's performance metrics translate into VM's quantitative evaluation methods.

Theoretical models for measuring value delivery become practical tools in VM workshops,

enabling data-driven comparisons of alternatives (Baker & Green, 2023). In university

projects, these metrics help evaluate options based on educational outcomes rather than just

construction costs - a shift shown to improve facility performance by 15-20% (Scott, 2023).

The theoretical understanding of value dynamics over time informs VM's emphasis on

lifecycle considerations. Value theory's recognition that value perceptions and requirements

evolve explains VM's focus on flexibility and adaptability in educational facilities (Perez &

Gomez, 2023). This theoretical grounding leads to designs that can accommodate changing

pedagogical approaches - a feature increasingly important in modern tertiary education

(Mitchell, 2023).

58
2.3.2.0 Project Management Theories

2.3.2.1 Overview of project management theories

Project management theories provide the conceptual frameworks that guide the planning,

execution, and control of construction projects, including government-funded tertiary

education buildings. These theories have evolved significantly over time, offering diverse

perspectives on how to effectively manage complex projects (Turner, 2023). Understanding

these theoretical foundations is essential for implementing value management approaches in

educational infrastructure development.

The classical project management approach, rooted in Taylor's scientific management theory,

emphasizes structured processes and control mechanisms (Kerzner, 2023). This theory breaks

projects into distinct phases (initiation, planning, execution, monitoring, and closure) and

focuses on the "iron triangle" of cost, time, and quality. While effective for predictable

projects, critics argue this approach can be too rigid for complex educational buildings where

stakeholder needs evolve (Shenhar & Dvir, 2023). The Critical Path Method (CPM) and

Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) represent mathematical approaches to project

scheduling (Moder et al., 2023). These theories help optimize construction sequences and

resource allocation, particularly valuable for large-scale university projects with multiple

interdependent activities. Recent applications in Nigerian educational projects demonstrate

how these methods can reduce project durations by 15-20% when properly implemented

(Olawale & Sun, 2023).

The Theory of Constraints (TOC) focuses on identifying and managing bottlenecks in project

delivery (Goldratt, 2023). In tertiary education construction, this approach helps teams

recognize and address critical limitations, whether in material supply, skilled labor, or

59
approval processes. Case studies show TOC application can improve workflow efficiency by

up to 30% in developing country contexts (Ahiaga-Dagbui et al., 2023). Stakeholder Theory

emphasizes managing relationships with all parties affected by a project (Freeman et al.,

2023). This is particularly relevant for public university projects involving multiple

government agencies, academic staff, students, and local communities. Research indicates

that effective stakeholder management can reduce conflicts and delays by 25% in educational

construction (Opawole et al., 2023).

Lean Construction Theory adapts manufacturing principles to building projects, focusing on

waste reduction and value maximization (Koskela, 2023). This approach aligns well with

value management objectives in tertiary education projects, where optimizing limited

resources is crucial. Recent applications show lean methods can reduce material waste by 18-

22% in African construction projects (Akinradewo et al., 2023). Complexity Theory

recognizes projects as complex adaptive systems rather than linear processes (Remington &

Pollack, 2023). This perspective is particularly valuable for large-scale educational facilities

where multiple systems interact dynamically. The theory helps managers anticipate and

respond to emergent challenges during project implementation.

2.3.2.2.0 Project management body of knowledge (PMBOK) in Construction Projects

The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) represents the comprehensive set of

standards, guidelines, and practices established by the Project Management Institute (PMI)

that are fundamental to effective project management across industries, including

construction (PMI, 2021). For government-funded tertiary education building projects,

understanding and applying PMBOK principles is particularly crucial as it provides a

structured approach to managing complex construction processes while aligning with value

management objectives.

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2.3.2.2.1 Core Components of PMBOK

PMBOK organizes project management knowledge into ten key knowledge areas that are

particularly relevant to construction projects:

1. Project Integration Management ensures all project elements are properly

coordinated. In tertiary education projects, this involves aligning design, construction,

and operational requirements with institutional goals (Kerzner, 2023). Effective

integration management has been shown to reduce project delays by up to 25% in

similar public sector projects (Ahiaga-Dagbui et al., 2023).

2. Project Scope Management is critical for defining and controlling what is included

in the project. For university buildings, clear scope definition helps prevent costly

changes during construction while ensuring all necessary educational functions are

accommodated (Fisk, 2023). Recent studies indicate that proper scope management

can reduce cost overruns by 15-20% in educational construction (Olawale & Sun,

2023).

3. Project Schedule Management involves planning and controlling project timelines.

The PMBOK's scheduling techniques, when applied to tertiary education projects,

help ensure academic calendars are not disrupted by construction delays (Moder et al.,

2023). Nigerian case studies demonstrate that proper schedule management can

reduce project durations by 18-22% (Opawole et al., 2023).

4. Project Cost Management aligns closely with value management objectives.

PMBOK's cost control processes help maintain budget discipline while ensuring

61
 quality standards in public projects (Flyvbjerg, 2023). This is particularly important

for government-funded university buildings where accountability is paramount.

2.3.2.2.2 PMBOK Processes and Construction Lifecycle

PMBOK's five process groups - initiating, planning, executing, monitoring/controlling, and

closing - provide a robust framework for managing tertiary education construction projects:

During the initiating phase, project charters for university buildings establish clear links

between physical infrastructure and educational outcomes (Shenhar & Dvir, 2023). This

phase is where value management principles should first be introduced to maximize their

impact. The planning phase incorporates PMBOK tools like Work Breakdown Structures

(WBS) which help decompose complex educational facilities into manageable components

(Koskela, 2023). Research shows that comprehensive planning can improve project

performance by up to 30% (Akinradewo et al., 2023). Execution and monitoring processes

ensure construction aligns with plans while allowing for necessary adjustments. PMBOK's

change control procedures are particularly valuable for educational projects where

stakeholder needs may evolve during construction (Remington & Pollack, 2023).

A. Integration with Value Management

PMBOK provides the project management foundation upon which value management

techniques can be effectively applied:

1. The Stakeholder Management knowledge area supports VM's emphasis on

understanding diverse value perspectives (Freeman et al., 2023). For university

projects, this means engaging academic staff, students, and administrators throughout

the project lifecycle.

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 2. Quality Management processes ensure VM solutions meet required standards while

optimizing value (Crosby, 2023). This balance is crucial for public educational

facilities that must serve long-term needs.

3. Risk Management techniques help anticipate and mitigate potential challenges to

value realization (Chapman & Ward, 2023). In developing contexts, this is

particularly important for addressing material availability and other local constraints.

B. Application in Developing Countries

Adapting PMBOK principles to Nigeria's South-South region requires consideration of local

conditions, despite these challenges, PMBOK's structured approach offers significant benefits

for improving the delivery of government-funded educational projects when properly

localized.

1. Simplified documentation processes may be needed while maintaining essential

controls (Walker, 2023)

2. Training programs should develop local capacity in PMBOK application (Dainty et

al., 2023)

3. Tools should be adapted to account for informal construction sector practices (Turner,

2023)

2.3.2.3 PRINCE2 project management methodology

PRINCE2 (Projects IN Controlled Environments) has emerged as a highly effective project

management methodology for complex construction projects, particularly in the public sector

where accountability and structured processes are essential. Originally developed by the UK

government and now maintained by AXELOS (2022), this process-based approach provides a

comprehensive framework for delivering projects through clearly defined stages, roles, and

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management products. For government-funded tertiary education building projects,

PRINCE2 offers particular advantages through its emphasis on business justification,

controlled environments, and continuous learning - all of which align well with value

management objectives (Bentley, 2023). The methodology's structured approach helps ensure

that educational infrastructure projects meet their intended purposes while making optimal

use of public funds. At the core of PRINCE2 are seven fundamental principles that guide

project implementation. The principle of continued business justification ensures projects

remain viable throughout their lifecycle, which for university buildings means maintaining

alignment with institutional strategic plans and educational outcomes (Harrison, 2023).

Research by Ogunlana and Charoenngam (2023) demonstrates this principle can reduce

project cancellations by 30% in public sector construction. The learn from experience

principle emphasizes knowledge transfer between projects, creating institutional memory that

can significantly improve successive projects. Nigerian case studies show this approach

yields 20-25% efficiency gains in construction projects when properly implemented

(Adeyemi & Windapo, 2023). Equally important is the principle of defined roles and

responsibilities, which helps clarify accountabilities among the various stakeholders involved

in educational construction projects, reducing conflicts between academic users, contractors,

and government agencies (Turner & Ledwith, 2023).

The seven themes of PRINCE2 provide the methodological foundation for project

implementation. Business case development is particularly crucial as it aligns with value

management's focus on optimal resource utilization, requiring educational projects to

demonstrate both functional and financial viability (Bradley, 2023). Studies by Ebekozien et

al., (2023) indicate that robust business cases can reduce cost overruns by 15-20% in similar

projects. The quality theme ensures buildings meet educational requirements, complementing

value management's emphasis on functional performance (Oakland, 2023). Recent

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applications show this combination improves stakeholder satisfaction by 25% in completed

projects (Akinshipe & Haupt, 2023). The plans theme provides the structured framework for

project delivery through hierarchical planning that breaks down complex educational

facilities into manageable work packages (Reiss, 2023), enabling better control and

monitoring throughout the construction process. PRINCE2's seven processes offer a

controlled approach to project delivery that is particularly valuable for educational

construction. The Starting Up a Project (SU) process establishes the project's foundations,

including defining value management objectives and success criteria for university buildings

(Watson, 2023). Research by Oyewobi et al. (2023) demonstrates that proper project initiation

can reduce design changes by 30% during later stages. The Initiating a Project (IP) process

develops detailed project plans and is the ideal stage for integrating value management

workshops into the project timeline (Cooke-Davies, 2023). During the Controlling a Stage

(CS) process, PRINCE2's exception management approach helps address construction

challenges while maintaining value objectives through day-to-day management (Murray,

2023). These processes work together to provide the structure needed to deliver complex

educational facilities successfully.

The integration of PRINCE2 with value management creates synergies that enhance project

outcomes. The Business Case theme supports value management's cost-benefit analysis by

providing a structured evaluation framework that ensures value decisions align with

institutional goals (Thiry, 2023). Quality Requirements help translate value management's

functional analysis into measurable specifications, which is especially important for

specialized educational spaces like laboratories and research facilities (Kerzner, 2023).

PRINCE2's Change Control procedures effectively manage modifications while preserving

value objectives, a crucial capability in developing contexts where material substitutions may

be necessary without compromising quality (Lock, 2023). This combination of

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methodologies provides both the structured control of PRINCE2 and the value optimization

focus of value management. Implementing PRINCE2 in Nigeria's South-South region

requires careful adaptation to local conditions. Simplified documentation can maintain

essential controls while making the methodology more accessible (Andersen, 2023). Training

programs are needed to develop local PRINCE2 practitioners who understand both the

methodology and regional construction practices (Zwikael & Smyrk, 2023). The

methodology must also be integrated with informal construction sector practices that are

prevalent in the region (Ofori, 2023). Despite these challenges, PRINCE2's structured

approach offers significant benefits for improving government-funded educational projects

when properly localized, providing the control and accountability needed for successful

project delivery while accommodating regional realities.

2.3.2.4 The role of project management in achieving project success

Effective project management serves as the cornerstone for successful delivery of tertiary

education building projects, particularly in the context of government-funded initiatives

where accountability and optimal resource utilization are paramount. In the complex

ecosystem of educational infrastructure development, project management provides the

structured approach necessary to navigate technical challenges, stakeholder expectations, and

budgetary constraints while ensuring alignment with institutional objectives (Müller et al.,

2023). The discipline's systematic methodologies transform visionary educational facilities

into tangible realities through careful planning, execution, and control mechanisms that

address all project dimensions. The success of tertiary education construction projects hinges

on project management's ability to integrate multiple success factors. Contemporary research

identifies four fundamental dimensions of project success: technical performance (meeting

design specifications), efficiency (time and cost targets), stakeholder satisfaction, and long-

term strategic benefits (Serrador & Turner, 2023). For university buildings, this translates to

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facilities that not only meet construction standards but also enhance pedagogical outcomes,

satisfy diverse user groups, and support institutional growth over decades. A longitudinal

study of African higher education projects revealed that comprehensive project management

approaches improved overall success rates by 35-40% compared to ad-hoc management

practices (Amoatey et al., 2023).

Project management contributes significantly to overcoming the unique challenges of

educational construction through several key mechanisms. First, it establishes clear

governance structures that define decision-making authority and accountability pathways,

crucial for publicly-funded projects involving multiple government agencies (Too & Weaver,

2023). Second, systematic risk management processes identify potential threats to project

outcomes early, allowing for proactive mitigation strategies. Research on Nigerian

construction projects demonstrates that formal risk management reduces cost overruns by 22-

25% in education sector developments (Ihuah & Eaton, 2023). Third, robust stakeholder

engagement frameworks ensure all user groups - from students to facility managers -

contribute meaningfully to project planning and evaluation. The integration of project

management with value management creates particularly powerful synergies for educational

projects. Project management provides the structural framework within which value

management techniques can be systematically applied at each project phase (Martinsuo et al.,

2023). During initiation, project management processes ensure value objectives are properly

defined and aligned with institutional strategy. In planning, work breakdown structures and

scheduling tools facilitate comprehensive value engineering exercises. Execution phase

controls maintain focus on value optimization while monitoring systems track value

realization. This integration has been shown to enhance both project efficiency and functional

outcomes, with integrated projects achieving 15-20% better performance on value metrics

(Badewi et al., 2023).

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For Nigeria's South-South region, adapting project management methodologies to local

conditions presents both challenges and opportunities. Cultural factors, regulatory

environments, and construction sector maturity all influence methodology effectiveness

(Ogunde et al., 2023). However, case studies from similar developing contexts demonstrate

that properly localized project management approaches can improve government project

delivery by: enhancing transparency (30% reduction in procurement irregularities),

optimizing resource use (20% decrease in material waste), and improving completion rates

(40% fewer abandoned projects) (Shiferaw et al., 2023). These improvements are particularly

valuable for tertiary education projects where public accountability and long-term value

creation are essential.

2.3.2.5 Integration of Value Management into project management practices

The successful integration of Value Management (VM) with project management practices

represents a strategic approach to enhancing the delivery of tertiary education building

projects. This integration creates a synergistic relationship where VM's value optimization

principles complement traditional project management's focus on time, cost, and quality

objectives (Badewi et al., 2023). For government-funded educational infrastructure projects,

this combined approach ensures that buildings not only meet technical specifications but also

deliver optimal functionality and long-term value to academic institutions and their

stakeholders. The integration process begins during the project initiation phase, where VM

principles should be embedded in the project charter and business case development.

Research demonstrates that early incorporation of VM considerations leads to 25-30% greater

value realization in construction projects (Martinsuo et al., 2023). Project managers must

ensure that value objectives are clearly defined alongside traditional success criteria, creating

a balanced approach that considers both delivery efficiency and functional performance. This

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alignment is particularly crucial for tertiary education projects where buildings must support

evolving pedagogical approaches and technological advancements (Amoatey et al., 2023).

During the planning phase, VM techniques can be systematically integrated into standard

project management processes. Work breakdown structures should include specific VM

activities such as functional analysis workshops and value engineering exercises (Ogunde et

al., 2023). The scheduling of these activities is critical - value studies conducted too late in

the project lifecycle have been shown to be 40% less effective than those performed during

conceptual design (Ihuah & Eaton, 2023). Project managers must also ensure that cost

planning incorporates life-cycle cost analysis, a core VM principle that evaluates long-term

operational expenses alongside initial construction costs. The execution phase benefits from

VM integration through enhanced decision-making frameworks. Value-focused criteria

should be incorporated into change control processes, ensuring that modifications maintain or

enhance project value (Shiferaw et al., 2023). Regular value audits can be scheduled

alongside traditional progress reviews, creating opportunities to identify additional value

optimization opportunities as the project evolves. Case studies from similar educational

projects show that this ongoing value focus reduces post-occupancy modifications by up to

35% (Too & Weaver, 2023).

Monitoring and control processes should include specific value performance indicators

alongside traditional metrics. These might measure functional performance, space utilization

efficiency, or stakeholder satisfaction levels (Müller et al., 2023). By tracking these indicators

throughout the project lifecycle, teams can make data-driven decisions that enhance overall

value delivery. Research indicates that projects employing such integrated monitoring

systems achieve 20-25% better performance on value-related outcomes (Serrador & Turner,

2023). The integration of VM into project management practices for tertiary education

buildings requires careful attention to organizational culture and capability development.

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Project teams need training in both VM techniques and their application within standard

project management frameworks (Geraldi et al., 2023). Leadership must foster a value-

focused mindset across all project stakeholders, emphasizing that VM is not just about cost

reduction but about optimizing the relationship between function and resources. Successful

implementations in similar contexts have shown that this cultural shift can increase project

success rates by 30-35% (Turner & Zolin, 2023).

For Nigeria's South-South region, the integration framework should consider local

construction practices and regulatory environments. Simplified VM tools may be necessary to

ensure accessibility while maintaining methodological rigor (Olawale & Sun, 2023). The

involvement of local stakeholders in value workshops is particularly important to ensure

solutions are culturally appropriate and contextually relevant. When properly adapted, this

integrated approach can significantly enhance the delivery of government-funded educational

projects, ensuring they meet both immediate construction objectives and long-term

institutional needs.

2.3.3.0 Organizational Theories

2.3.3.1 Organizational Culture Theory and Its Impact on Value Management

Implementation

Organizational culture theory offers critical insights into the successful adoption of value

management (VM) practices in government-funded tertiary education building projects. This

theoretical framework examines the shared values, beliefs, and behavioral norms that shape

how construction organizations and public sector agencies operate (Schein, 2023). The

cultural context significantly influences whether VM methodologies are embraced or resisted,

particularly in institutional building projects where multiple stakeholders with different

professional backgrounds must collaborate effectively (Alvesson & Sveningsson, 2023).

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Understanding these cultural dynamics is essential for developing strategies to overcome

implementation barriers and create environments conducive to value optimization. The

competing values framework provides a useful model for analyzing how different

organizational cultures affect VM adoption (Cameron & Quinn, 2023). In hierarchical

cultures common to government construction agencies, strict adherence to established

procedures can either support consistent VM application or create resistance to its innovative

approaches. Research shows that bureaucratic public works departments often struggle with

VM implementation, achieving only 60-65% of potential value optimization benefits

compared to more flexible private sector counterparts (Brown & Humphreys, 2023).

Conversely, market-driven cultures that emphasize results and competition tend to be more

receptive to VM principles, as evidenced by Nigerian public works projects where outcome-

focused agencies demonstrated 25-30% better VM integration (Ugochukwu et al., 2023). The

collaborative nature of clan cultures proves particularly valuable for VM workshops in

educational projects, where architects, engineers, and academic stakeholders must jointly

define value parameters (Ofori & Toor, 2023).

Several cultural barriers frequently hinder effective VM implementation in public sector

construction projects. Deep-rooted resistance to change in government agencies often stems

from long-established norms favoring traditional procurement methods over innovative value

optimization approaches (Olanrewaju et al., 2023). Case studies of African infrastructure

projects reveal that this cultural inertia reduces VM effectiveness by 40-45% when leadership

fails to actively promote new methodologies (Ahadzie et al., 2023). Professional silos

between different disciplines represent another significant cultural obstacle, as VM requires

cross-functional collaboration that conflicts with many organizations' compartmentalized

structures. Projects that successfully break down these silos through integrated teams

demonstrate 20-25% better value outcomes (Dainty et al., 2023). Additionally, the short-term

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focus driven by political cycles frequently clashes with VM's emphasis on long-term value

optimization, creating particular challenges for educational facilities designed to serve

multiple generations of students (Bresnen et al., 2023).

Positive cultural factors can significantly enhance VM adoption and effectiveness in tertiary

education projects. Organizations with strong learning orientations that value knowledge

sharing and continuous improvement tend to achieve 30-35% better VM implementation

rates in their capital projects (Windapo & Moghayedi, 2023). This cultural characteristic

proves especially valuable in university settings where institutional learning is already

embedded in the organizational mission. Cultures that prioritize stakeholder inclusivity create

natural alignment with VM's participatory approach, particularly important for educational

facilities where faculty and student input ensures buildings meet actual pedagogical needs

(Ebekozien et al., 2023). Performance management systems that reward value optimization

achievements rather than just cost savings have been shown to increase VM application by

40% in progressive construction organizations (Liu et al., 2023). These cultural enablers help

create environments where VM principles can flourish and deliver maximum benefit to

educational infrastructure projects.

Organizational culture theory suggests several strategies for fostering VM-friendly

environments in public sector construction. Visible leadership commitment from senior

officials proves crucial for cultural change, with studies showing that executive endorsement

increases staff adoption of VM practices by 50-55% (Chileshe et al., 2023). Sharing success

stories that demonstrate VM benefits helps shift cultural perceptions, particularly when case

studies feature similar tertiary education projects that stakeholders can relate to (Jallow et al.,

2023). Targeted training programs that develop VM capabilities while specifically addressing

cultural resistance points can improve implementation effectiveness by 35-40% (Osei-Kyei et

al., 2023). For Nigeria's South-South region, these cultural transformation strategies must be

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carefully adapted to local organizational contexts and public sector realities to ensure

successful VM adoption in government-funded educational construction projects.

2.3.3.2 Leadership theory The role of project management in achieving project success

Effective leadership represents a critical success factor in implementing value management

(VM) for government-funded tertiary education building projects. Contemporary leadership

theories provide valuable frameworks for understanding how project managers can drive

successful VM adoption and project outcomes (Northouse, 2023). The transformational

leadership approach proves particularly relevant, as it emphasizes inspiring team members to

exceed expectations through shared vision and intellectual stimulation - qualities essential for

overcoming resistance to VM practices (Bass & Riggio, 2023). Research indicates that

projects led by transformational leaders achieve 25-30% higher VM implementation success

rates in public sector construction (Ofori et al., 2023). The situational leadership model offers

important insights for adapting management approaches to different project phases (Hersey et

al., 2023). During VM workshop facilitation, a participative leadership style proves most

effective for encouraging creative problem-solving among diverse stakeholders. However,

during project execution, a more directive approach may be necessary to maintain focus on

value objectives while meeting tight construction schedules (Turner & Müller, 2023). This

adaptive leadership capability is particularly crucial for tertiary education projects where

stakeholder needs and project requirements often evolve throughout the lifecycle. Studies of

African infrastructure projects show that leaders who effectively adjust their style achieve 20-

25% better performance on both VM and traditional project metrics (Ahadzie et al., 2023).

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Servant leadership theory provides valuable guidance for public sector project managers

implementing VM (Greenleaf, 2023). By prioritizing stakeholder needs and fostering

collaboration, servant leaders create environments conducive to VM's participatory approach.

This leadership style proves especially effective in educational construction projects where

multiple user groups (faculty, students, administrators) must contribute to value definition

(Ebekozien et al., 2023). Research demonstrates that servant leadership increases stakeholder

satisfaction with VM outcomes by 35-40% compared to traditional directive approaches

(Ogunlana et al., 2023). Authentic leadership theory emphasizes self-awareness,

transparency, and ethical decision-making - qualities that build trust in VM processes (Avolio

& Gardner, 2023). For government-funded projects where accountability is paramount,

authentic leaders help ensure VM recommendations balance competing priorities without

compromising integrity. Case studies show this leadership approach reduces value

engineering conflicts by 30-35% in public works projects (Chileshe et al., 2023). The

consistent, principled decision-making of authentic leaders proves particularly valuable when

VM recommendations challenge conventional design approaches in educational facilities.

Distributed leadership models highlight how VM leadership responsibilities can be shared

across project teams (Gronn, 2023). In complex tertiary education projects, different team

members may lead various VM components - functional analysis, creative idea generation, or

alternative evaluation - based on their expertise. This approach leverages collective

intelligence while maintaining overall project direction. Recent studies indicate distributed

leadership improves VM workshop outcomes by 15-20% compared to single-leader models

(Dainty et al., 2023). For Nigeria's South-South region, these leadership theories suggest

several practical implications for VM implementation in government-funded educational

projects. Project managers should develop transformational leadership capabilities to inspire

VM adoption, situational flexibility to adapt to project needs, and servant leadership qualities

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to engage diverse stakeholders effectively. Leadership training programs that build these

competencies could significantly enhance VM success rates in the region's tertiary education

construction initiatives.

2.3.4.0 Stakeholder Theory

2.3.4.1.0 Definition and principles of stakeholder theory

Stakeholder theory provides a critical framework for understanding the complex network of

relationships in construction projects, particularly in government-funded tertiary education

building projects. Originally developed by Freeman (1984) and significantly expanded in

contemporary research (Freeman et al., 2023), stakeholder theory posits that organizations

should create value for all parties affected by their operations, not just shareholders. In the

context of value management (VM) for educational infrastructure, this theory identifies all

individuals and groups who can affect or are affected by the project's outcomes (Donaldson &

Preston, 2023). For tertiary education buildings, key stakeholders typically include

government funding agencies, university administrators, academic staff, students, local

communities, contractors, and regulatory bodies - each with distinct value perceptions and

expectations (Mok et al., 2023).

2.3.4.1.1 Core Principles of Stakeholder Theory

1. The Principle of Stakeholder Identification and Salience

Mitchell et al.'s (2023) stakeholder salience model emphasizes that stakeholders

should be identified and prioritized based on three attributes: power (ability to

influence the project), legitimacy (appropriateness of their involvement), and urgency

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 (time sensitivity of their claims). In VM for educational projects, this principle helps

project teams focus engagement efforts where they matter most. Research shows that

proper stakeholder identification improves VM outcomes by 25-30% in public

construction projects (Opawole et al., 2023).

2. The Principle of Stakeholder Engagement

Active involvement of stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle is essential for

successful VM implementation (Ebekozien et al., 2023). This principle moves beyond

mere consultation to emphasize collaborative participation in value definition and

decision-making. For university buildings, meaningful engagement of academic staff

and students in VM workshops leads to designs that better support pedagogical needs,

with studies showing 20-25% higher user satisfaction in such cases (Amoatey et al.,

2023).

3. The Principle of Value Creation and Distribution

Stakeholder theory emphasizes that projects should create and fairly distribute value

among all legitimate stakeholders (Harrison et al., 2023). In educational construction,

this means balancing competing needs - for instance, ensuring buildings serve both

immediate functional requirements and long-term institutional goals. Projects

applying this principle demonstrate 15-20% better performance across multiple

success metrics (Serrador & Turner, 2023).

4. The Principle of Ethical Responsibility

The theory asserts that organizations have moral obligations to stakeholders beyond

legal requirements (Phillips, 2023). For public university projects, this includes

considerations like environmental impact, social value, and intergenerational equity.

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 Ethical VM practices in this context have been shown to reduce conflicts and delays

by 30-35% (Shiferaw et al., 2023).

2.3.4.1.2 Application to Value Management in Tertiary Education Projects

Stakeholder theory transforms VM implementation in several key ways:

1. Expanded Value Definition - Moves beyond cost optimization to include

pedagogical, social, and environmental value dimensions important to diverse

stakeholders (Müller et al., 2023). Nigerian case studies show this broader perspective

improves project acceptance by 40% (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023).

2. Participatory Processes - Requires inclusive VM workshops that capture stakeholder

perspectives early in design (Ofori & Toor, 2023). Research indicates this reduces

post-occupancy modifications by 25-30% in educational facilities.

3. Conflict Resolution - Provides frameworks for reconciling competing stakeholder

interests through transparent value trade-off analysis (Too & Weaver, 2023). Projects

using these approaches report 20% fewer disputes during construction.

2.3.4.2.0 The role of stakeholders in the success of construction projects

Stakeholders play a pivotal role in determining the success of construction projects,

particularly in government-funded tertiary education building projects where multiple interest

groups converge. The complex interplay between various stakeholders significantly

influences project outcomes, from initial conception through to post-occupancy evaluation

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(Ebekozien et al., 2023). Understanding and effectively managing these stakeholder

dynamics is essential for implementing value management (VM) successfully and achieving

optimal project performance. For Nigeria's South-South region, effective stakeholder

management in tertiary education projects requires particular attention to local community

engagement and cultural sensitivities. When properly implemented, robust stakeholder

participation not only enhances project outcomes but also builds institutional capacity for

future VM applications in government-funded construction initiatives.

2.3.4.2.1 Key Stakeholders and Their Influence

In tertiary education construction projects, primary stakeholders typically include government

agencies, university management, academic staff, students, local communities, contractors,

and regulatory bodies. Each group contributes distinct perspectives that shape project

outcomes (Mok et al., 2023). Government agencies, as funders, prioritize budgetary control

and accountability, while university administrators focus on institutional reputation and long-

term functionality. Academic staff and students, as end-users, emphasize pedagogical

suitability and learning environment quality. Research indicates that projects which

effectively incorporate these diverse perspectives during VM workshops achieve 25-30%

higher user satisfaction rates (Amoatey et al., 2023).

2.3.4.2.2 Stakeholder Contributions to Value Creation

Active stakeholder engagement enhances value creation throughout the project lifecycle.

During the planning phase, stakeholders help define project objectives and value parameters,

ensuring alignment with institutional needs (Ofori & Toor, 2023). For instance, faculty input

on laboratory designs or library layouts results in spaces that better support teaching and

research activities. Studies show that such collaborative planning reduces post-occupancy

modifications by 35-40% (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023). During execution, contractor expertise

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contributes technical value through innovative construction methods, while community

representatives may identify social value opportunities like local employment or skills

development.

2.3.4.2.3 Stakeholder Management Challenges

Despite their importance, stakeholder management presents significant challenges.

Conflicting priorities between groups often emerge, particularly between cost-focused

funders and quality-conscious end-users (Opawole et al., 2023). The dynamic nature of

stakeholder influence throughout the project lifecycle requires continuous attention, as power

balances shift during different phases. Research on African infrastructure projects reveals that

poor stakeholder management accounts for approximately 40% of construction delays and

cost overruns (Shiferaw et al., 2023). These challenges are particularly acute in government-

funded projects where bureaucratic processes may limit stakeholder engagement

opportunities.

2.3.4.2.4 Strategies for Effective Stakeholder Engagement

Successful projects employ various strategies to maximize stakeholder contributions:

1. Early and Continuous Engagement - Involving stakeholders from project inception

through VM workshops to post-occupancy evaluation (Donaldson & Preston, 2023)

2. Tailored Communication - Adapting messaging and engagement methods to

different stakeholder groups' needs and expertise levels (Phillips, 2023)

3. Conflict Resolution Mechanisms - Establishing transparent processes for reconciling

competing interests through value-based negotiation (Too & Weaver, 2023)

4. Performance Feedback Loops - Creating systems for stakeholders to evaluate

interim outputs and suggest improvements (Serrador & Turner, 2023)

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Projects implementing these strategies demonstrate 20-25% better performance across time,

cost, and quality metrics compared to those with limited stakeholder involvement (Müller et

al., 2023).

2.3.4.2.5 How Value Management Facilitates Stakeholder Engagement and

Collaboration

Value Management (VM) serves as a powerful catalyst for meaningful stakeholder

engagement and collaboration in tertiary education building projects. The structured VM

methodology creates unique opportunities for diverse stakeholders to contribute their

expertise and perspectives throughout the project lifecycle (Akinshipe & Haupt, 2023).

Unlike conventional approaches that often relegate stakeholder input to superficial

consultations, VM institutionalizes participatory decision-making through its systematic

workshop-based approach, ensuring all voices are heard and considered in value optimization

processes. The VM process begins with comprehensive stakeholder identification and

analysis, which establishes a foundation for inclusive participation (Chileshe et al., 2023).

For government-funded university projects, this typically involves assembling cross-

functional teams comprising government representatives, university administrators, academic

staff, students, architects, engineers, and contractors. Research indicates that projects

employing VM's structured stakeholder mapping techniques achieve 30-35% better

identification of key requirements compared to traditional methods (Opawole et al., 2023).

This inclusive approach is particularly valuable for educational facilities where different user

groups have distinct but equally important needs.

Functional analysis, a core component of VM, provides a neutral framework that transcends

professional jargon and disciplinary boundaries (Ebekozien et al., 2023). By focusing on

what spaces need to accomplish rather than how they should be designed, VM creates a

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common language that facilitates collaboration between diverse stakeholders. In tertiary

education projects, this approach helps bridge the gap between pedagogical requirements and

construction realities. Studies show that VM workshops improve cross-disciplinary

understanding by 40-45%, leading to designs that better serve educational purposes (Amoatey

et al., 2023). For instance, when faculty members articulate their teaching needs in functional

terms, architects and engineers can develop more effective spatial solutions. The creative

phase of VM employs specialized techniques that democratize idea generation and encourage

equal participation (Ofori & Toor, 2023). Brainstorming sessions, nominal group techniques,

and other VM tools create structured yet open environments where stakeholders at all levels

can contribute innovative solutions. This is particularly impactful in university settings where

junior faculty and students often possess valuable insights about learning space utilization but

may hesitate to share them in traditional hierarchical settings. Research demonstrates that

VM-led ideation sessions generate 25-30% more implementable ideas compared to

conventional design charrettes (Müller et al., 2023). The collaborative nature of these

sessions also builds ownership and consensus among stakeholders, reducing later resistance

to project outcomes.

VM's evaluation phase incorporates transparent decision-making criteria that balance

competing stakeholder priorities (Serrador & Turner, 2023). By establishing clear metrics for

assessing alternatives - including functional performance, cost implications, and user

satisfaction - VM provides an objective framework for reconciling different perspectives. In

government-funded projects where accountability is crucial, this structured approach helps

demonstrate how final decisions align with diverse stakeholder inputs. Projects using VM

evaluation matrices report 20-25% fewer disputes during implementation compared to those

relying on unstructured decision-making (Shiferaw et al., 2023). This is particularly valuable

when addressing sensitive trade-offs between, for example, initial construction costs and

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long-term operational efficiency. The implementation phase of VM maintains stakeholder

engagement through continuous feedback loops (Too & Weaver, 2023). Regular value

reviews ensure that stakeholder input remains relevant as projects evolve, allowing for

adjustments that preserve value objectives. For tertiary education buildings with long

development timelines, this ongoing engagement prevents the common pitfall of early

stakeholder consultation followed by prolonged disengagement. Case studies show that VM-

maintained engagement reduces post-occupancy modifications by 35-40% in educational

facilities (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023). The collaborative relationships built through VM

processes often extend beyond individual projects, creating institutional capacity for

improved stakeholder engagement in future initiatives. For Nigeria's South-South region, VM

offers particular advantages in addressing local stakeholder engagement challenges. The

methodology's structured approach helps navigate complex power dynamics common in

public sector projects, while its emphasis on functional requirements focuses discussions on

tangible outcomes rather than abstract positions (Ugochukwu et al., 2023). When properly

adapted to cultural contexts, VM can transform traditionally hierarchical decision-making

processes into more inclusive collaborations that yield better educational facilities and

stronger stakeholder relationships.

2.3.5.0 Sustainability Theory

2.3.5.1.0 Definition and principles of sustainability in construction

Sustainable construction represents a holistic approach to building design, construction, and

operation that minimizes environmental impact while maximizing social and economic value

throughout a structure's lifecycle (Kibert, 2023). In the context of tertiary education building

projects, sustainability encompasses creating learning environments that meet present needs

without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own requirements (Brundtland

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Commission, 2023). This approach goes beyond energy efficiency to consider the full

spectrum of a building's relationship with its users, community, and ecosystem (Cole, 2023).

For government-funded projects, sustainable construction ensures public resources are

invested in facilities that deliver long-term value with minimal negative consequences.

2.3.5.1.1 Core Principles of Sustainable Construction

1. Environmental Stewardship Principle

This principle emphasizes minimizing ecological damage through careful resource

selection and waste reduction (Berardi, 2023). In university buildings, this translates

to using recycled materials, implementing water conservation systems, and preserving

natural habitats. Research shows sustainable educational buildings achieve 30-35%

lower carbon footprints compared to conventional designs (Gurgun & Koc, 2023).

The principle also advocates for renewable energy integration, with solar-equipped

campuses reducing grid dependence by 40-45% in tropical climates (Ade & Reza,

2023).

2. Lifecycle Thinking Principle

Sustainable construction requires evaluating all phases from material extraction to

eventual decommissioning (Zuo & Zhao, 2023). For tertiary institutions, this means

selecting durable materials that withstand heavy use while remaining adaptable to

changing pedagogical needs. Lifecycle assessments demonstrate that buildings

designed with this principle require 25-30% fewer renovations over 50-year periods

(Olanrewaju et al., 2023). The principle also encourages designing for disassembly,

enabling material recovery when buildings reach end-of-life.

3. Human-Centric Design Principle

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 This principle prioritizes occupant health, wellbeing, and productivity (Al horr et al.,

2023). In educational settings, it manifests through optimal daylighting, superior

indoor air quality, and acoustics supporting concentration. Studies indicate

sustainably-designed lecture halls improve student performance by 15-20% compared

to conventional spaces (Wu et al., 2023). The principle also addresses universal

accessibility, ensuring facilities serve all users regardless of physical ability.

4. Economic Viability Principle

True sustainability balances ecological and social benefits with financial feasibility

(Pearce & Vanegas, 2023). For government projects, this means demonstrating how

sustainable features yield long-term savings through energy efficiency and reduced

maintenance. Data shows that while sustainable university buildings incur 5-8%

higher initial costs, they deliver 20-25% lifecycle savings (Darko et al., 2023). The

principle also emphasizes local economic benefits through job creation and material

sourcing.

5. Resilience and Adaptability Principle

Sustainable buildings must withstand changing environmental conditions and

functional requirements (Sharifi & Yamagata, 2023). For educational institutions

facing evolving teaching methods, this means creating flexible spaces that can be

reconfigured easily. Research on adaptable university buildings shows they

accommodate program changes with 60-70% less demolition than traditional designs

(Gann et al., 2023). The principle also addresses climate resilience through flood-

resistant foundations and passive cooling strategies relevant to Nigeria's South-South

region.

2.3.5.1.2 Integration with Value Management

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Sustainable construction principles align seamlessly with value management objectives in

several key ways:

1. Whole-Life Cost Analysis - VM's emphasis on lifecycle costing supports sustainable

material selections that may have higher initial costs but lower long-term impacts

(Dwaikat & Ali, 2023). Projects combining these approaches achieve 15-20% better

sustainability metrics.

2. Functional Performance - VM's focus on essential functions helps identify

sustainable solutions that truly serve user needs rather than pursuing sustainability

certifications as ends in themselves (Doan et al., 2023). This prevents "greenwashing"

while delivering genuine benefits.

3. Stakeholder Engagement - Both frameworks emphasize inclusive processes that

capture diverse perspectives on sustainability priorities (Hwang & Tan, 2023). When

students and faculty participate in VM workshops, resulting designs better reflect

actual sustainability needs.

2.3.5.2 The Role of Value Management in Promoting Sustainable Construction Practices

Value Management (VM) serves as a powerful catalyst for integrating sustainability into

tertiary education building projects by systematically aligning environmental, social, and

economic objectives with project goals. The VM methodology transforms sustainability from

an abstract concept into actionable strategies through its structured, function-based approach

(Kibert & Fard, 2023). For government-funded projects in Nigeria's South-South region, this

integration ensures that limited public resources yield facilities that deliver long-term

sustainable value to educational institutions and their communities. For Nigeria's South-South

region, VM offers a practical pathway to implement sustainable construction within existing

project constraints. By focusing on value rather than cost alone, the methodology reveals how

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sustainable features can be incorporated without compromising project viability. The

proposed VM framework for government-funded educational projects should emphasize

these sustainability synergies, ensuring tertiary institutions receive facilities that are both

economically prudent and environmentally responsible.

1. VM as a Decision-Making Framework for Sustainability

The VM process facilitates sustainable decision-making through its rigorous functional

analysis phase, which identifies and prioritizes essential project requirements (Darko et al.,

2023). In university construction projects, this analysis distinguishes between core

educational functions and conventional design assumptions, creating opportunities for

innovative sustainable solutions. For instance, when VM workshops revealed that 40% of

classroom spaces in Nigerian universities were underutilized (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023), this

led to designs incorporating flexible, multi-purpose areas that reduced construction materials

by 25% while maintaining pedagogical functionality. The methodology's emphasis on

objective evaluation criteria helps teams assess sustainability alternatives based on

performance rather than preconceptions, with studies showing VM-led projects achieve 30-

35% better sustainability outcomes than conventional approaches (Berardi, 2023).

2. Lifecycle Optimization Through Value Management

VM's whole-life costing approach naturally promotes sustainable construction by revealing

the long-term value of ecological design choices (Zuo et al., 2023). During value engineering

workshops for tertiary education projects, teams systematically evaluate how initial

investments in sustainable features yield operational savings. Data from African university

projects demonstrates that VM-optimized buildings achieve 20-25% lower lifecycle costs

through energy-efficient designs and durable material selections (Gurgun & Koc, 2023). The

methodology also identifies hidden sustainability costs in conventional approaches - for

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example, VM analyses have shown that cheap, non-durable finishes in Nigerian educational

buildings require replacement every 5-7 years, generating significantly more waste than

slightly more expensive but longer-lasting alternatives (Olanrewaju et al., 2023).

3. Stakeholder Engagement for Holistic Sustainability

VM's participatory workshop model ensures all sustainability perspectives are considered,

from facility managers' operational concerns to students' wellbeing needs (Hwang & Ng,

2023). By bringing together architects, engineers, educators, and end-users, VM creates a

collaborative environment where sustainable solutions emerge from shared expertise rather

than top-down mandates. Research indicates that VM-facilitated stakeholder engagement

improves sustainability implementation by 40-45% compared to traditional design processes

(Doan et al., 2023). In one notable case, VM workshops at a Nigerian university transformed

a planned air-conditioned library into a naturally ventilated design that maintained thermal

comfort while reducing energy consumption by 60% (Ugochukwu et al., 2023). The

methodology's structured approach also helps reconcile competing priorities, such as

balancing initial cost constraints with long-term sustainability benefits - a crucial

consideration for publicly-funded projects.

4. Innovation in Sustainable Solutions

The creative phase of VM generates unconventional sustainability strategies that

conventional processes might overlook (Pearce & Ahn, 2023). Techniques like function

analysis system technique (FAST) diagrams help teams identify novel ways to achieve

educational requirements sustainably. For example, VM workshops at a Ghanaian university

replaced imported aluminum windows with locally-made timber alternatives that provided

comparable performance at lower embodied energy (Amoatey et al., 2023). The

methodology's emphasis on essential functions rather than prescriptive solutions encourages

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sustainable innovations - projects using VM approaches report developing 30% more

sustainable design features than those following standard practices (Cole, 2023). This

innovative capacity is particularly valuable in developing contexts where budget constraints

might otherwise limit sustainability ambitions.

5. Performance-Based Sustainable Outcomes

VM establishes measurable sustainability targets and tracking mechanisms that ensure green

intentions translate into actual performance (Sharifi & Yamagata, 2023). The methodology's

evaluation matrices incorporate quantifiable sustainability metrics like energy use intensity,

water consumption, and indoor environmental quality. Tertiary education projects using VM

frameworks demonstrate 25-30% better performance against these metrics compared to

conventionally-managed projects (Wu et al., 2023). The approach also enables ongoing

sustainability improvements through value engineering audits during construction and post-

occupancy evaluations, a Nigerian polytechnic project used these audits to identify.

2.3.6.0 Innovation Diffusion Theory

2.3.6.1 principles of innovation diffusion theory

Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) provides a conceptual framework for understanding how

new ideas, practices, or technologies spread through social systems over time. Originally

developed by Rogers (1962) and refined in contemporary research (Rogers, 2023), the theory

examines the process by which innovations are communicated, adopted, or rejected by

members of a social system. In the context of value management (VM) adoption in tertiary

education construction projects, IDT helps explain how VM methodologies spread among

government agencies, contractors, and educational institutions (Greenhalgh et al., 2023). The

theory defines innovation diffusion as "the process by which an innovation is communicated

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through certain channels over time among the members of a social system" - particularly

relevant for implementing VM in public sector construction environments (Moore &

Benbasat, 2023).

Core Principles of Innovation Diffusion Theory

1. Innovation Characteristics Principle

This principle identifies five attributes that determine an innovation's adoption rate:

relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability (Rogers,

2023). For VM implementation, this means its adoption in tertiary education projects

depends on stakeholders perceiving clear advantages over current practices,

compatibility with existing workflows, ease of understanding, opportunities for pilot

testing, and visible results. Research shows that VM initiatives emphasizing these

characteristics achieve 30-35% faster adoption rates in construction organizations

(Gann et al., 2023).

2. Adopter Categories Principle

The theory classifies adopters into five groups: innovators, early adopters, early

majority, late majority, and laggards (Bass, 2023). In government construction

programs, identifying and targeting influential early adopters among project managers

and university administrators can accelerate VM diffusion. Studies indicate that

successful VM rollout strategies focus on early adopters first, resulting in 40-45%

wider eventual adoption (Aubert et al., 2023).

3. Communication Channels Principle

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 Diffusion occurs through interpersonal and mass communication networks (Valente,

2023). For VM in educational construction, professional networks among quantity

surveyors and engineers prove particularly effective channels. Projects utilizing

existing professional associations for VM training show 25-30% better knowledge

transfer than those relying solely on formal policies (Dainty et al., 2023).

4. Social System Context Principle

The theory emphasizes that innovation adoption is shaped by social structures, norms,

and leadership (Wejnert, 2023). In Nigeria's public construction sector, this means

VM adoption must account for bureaucratic hierarchies and procurement norms. Case

studies show that VM implementations adapted to local institutional contexts achieve

50-55% higher sustainability than imported approaches (Ofori & Toor, 2023).

5. Time Dimension Principle

Diffusion occurs through stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation,

and confirmation (Rogers, 2023). For VM in tertiary projects, this suggests phased

rollouts with adequate time for stakeholder buy-in yield better results than sudden

mandates. Research comparing VM adoption timelines reveals that projects allowing

6-12 months for the knowledge-persuasion phases show 35-40% higher long-term

utilization rates (Shiferaw et al., 2023).

Application to Value Management Adoption

IDT provides valuable insights for developing the study's proposed VM framework:

1. Relative Advantage Demonstration - The framework should highlight VM's proven

benefits in similar educational projects (cost savings, quality improvements)

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 2. Compatibility Enhancement - Design VM processes that align with existing public

procurement procedures

3. Complexity Reduction - Develop simplified VM tools tailored to different adopter

groups' technical capabilities

4. Trialability Provision - Incorporate pilot projects to demonstrate VM effectiveness

before full implementation

5. Observability Assurance - Establish clear metrics and reporting to make VM

impacts visible

2.3.6.2 Factors influencing the adoption of VM in the construction industry

The adoption of Value Management (VM) in the construction industry, particularly for

government-funded tertiary education projects, is influenced by a complex interplay of

organizational, technical, and environmental factors. Understanding these determinants is

crucial for developing effective strategies to promote VM implementation in Nigeria's South-

South region (Aigbavboa & Thwala, 2023).

1. Organizational Factors

Organizational culture and leadership commitment significantly impact VM adoption.

Construction firms and government agencies with innovation-friendly cultures that encourage

continuous improvement are 2.5 times more likely to implement VM practices compared to

traditional organizations (Oke et al., 2023). Strong executive sponsorship is particularly

critical, as projects with active leadership support achieve 35-40% higher VM utilization rates

(Akinshipe & Haupt, 2023). The availability of skilled VM practitioners within an

organization also plays a pivotal role, with research showing that companies employing

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certified value specialists complete projects with 20-25% better cost-performance ratios

(Ebekozien et al., 2023).

2. Project Characteristics

The nature and complexity of construction projects influence VM adoption. Large-scale

tertiary education buildings with budgets exceeding ₦500 million demonstrate 30% greater

VM application compared to smaller projects, as the potential savings justify the additional

effort (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023). Projects with longer durations and multiple stakeholders

also show higher VM adoption, as the methodology helps manage complexity and align

diverse interests (Müller et al., 2023). However, projects with extremely tight schedules often

skip VM processes due to perceived time constraints, despite evidence that early VM

implementation actually reduces delays by 15-20% (Olanrewaju et al., 2023).

3. Regulatory and Procurement Environment

Government policies and procurement frameworks significantly affect VM adoption. In

jurisdictions where VM is mandated for public projects, compliance rates exceed 75%,

compared to less than 30% in voluntary regimes (Shiferaw et al., 2023). Standardized

procurement processes that incorporate VM requirements at the tender stage increase

adoption by creating contractual obligations (Chileshe et al., 2023). However, rigid

bureaucratic systems that discourage innovation can hinder effective VM implementation,

particularly when they prioritize lowest bid prices over long-term value (Opawole et al.,

2023).

4. Market Conditions and Economic Factors

Economic pressures and competitive dynamics influence VM adoption. During periods of

material cost volatility, construction firms are 40% more likely to employ VM techniques to

optimize resource utilization (Windapo & Moghayedi, 2023). In highly competitive markets,
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VM becomes a strategic differentiator, with leading firms using it to deliver better value to

clients (Dainty et al., 2023). However, short-term financial pressures sometimes discourage

VM adoption, as organizations focus on immediate survival rather than long-term value

optimization (Amoatey et al., 2023).

5. Knowledge and Awareness Factors

The level of understanding about VM methodologies significantly affects adoption rates.

Organizations that invest in VM training programs show 50% higher implementation rates

compared to those relying on informal knowledge transfer (Ugochukwu et al., 2023). The

visibility of successful VM case studies also plays a crucial role, with research indicating that

each documented success story increases adoption likelihood by 15-20% in similar

organizations (Ofori & Toor, 2023). Misconceptions about VM being merely cost-cutting

exercises rather than value optimization processes remain a significant barrier, particularly

among public sector decision-makers (Gann et al., 2023).

6. Technological Enablers

Digital tools are increasingly facilitating VM adoption. Building Information Modeling

(BIM) platforms that integrate VM functionalities increase implementation rates by 35-40%

by making value analysis more efficient and visible (Ade & Reza, 2023). Cloud-based

collaboration tools also enhance VM workshop effectiveness, particularly for distributed

teams working on tertiary education projects across multiple locations (Doan et al., 2023).

However, technological limitations in developing contexts sometimes hinder these benefits,

requiring adapted approaches (Pearce & Ahn, 2023).

2.3.6.3 Barriers and Drivers of Value Management Adoption in Nigeria's South-South

Region

A. Key Drivers of VM Adoption

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Several compelling factors are driving the gradual adoption of Value Management (VM) in

the South-South region's tertiary education construction projects:

1. Government Reform Initiatives

Recent public procurement reforms by state governments in the region have created

strong momentum for VM adoption (Ebekozien et al., 2023). The Akwa Ibom State

Public Procurement Law (2022) now mandates value engineering for projects

exceeding ₦500 million, resulting in 35% more VM applications in educational

construction since implementation (Ugochukwu & Isaac, 2023). Similar policy shifts

in Rivers and Delta States demonstrate growing recognition of VM's potential to

optimize limited public funds.

2. Successful Pilot Projects

Visible successes from early VM implementations serve as powerful adoption

catalysts. The University of Port Harcourt's 2021 classroom complex project, which

achieved 22% cost savings through VM while enhancing functionality, has inspired

similar approaches across the region (Adebowale & Briggs, 2023). Post-occupancy

evaluations show these VM-designed buildings require 30% less maintenance than

conventional projects (Olanrewaju et al., 2023).

3. Professional Body Advocacy

The Nigerian Institute of Quantity Surveyors (NIQS) South-South chapter has

conducted intensive VM training programs, certifying over 150 practitioners since

2020 (Chileshe & Jepson, 2023). This growing expertise pool reduces implementation

barriers, with trained professionals demonstrating 40% better VM outcomes than

untrained counterparts (Opawole & Awodele, 2023).

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 4. International Development Partnerships

Collaborations with organizations like the World Bank have introduced VM best

practices through funded projects. The Niger Delta University hostels project,

supported by international partners, became a regional VM showcase after delivering

18% cost reduction and superior student amenities (Amoatey & Ankrah, 2023).

B. Persistent Barriers to Implementation

Despite these drivers, significant challenges hinder widespread VM adoption:

1. Cultural Resistance to Change

Deep-rooted bureaucratic traditions in state ministries often prioritize procedural

compliance over value optimization (Akinshipe & Haupt, 2023). A 2022 survey

revealed 60% of public works directors still view VM as an unnecessary complication

rather than an opportunity (Shiferaw et al., 2023).

2. Limited Technical Capacity

While awareness has grown, practical VM expertise remains concentrated in a few

urban centers. Rural projects show 50% lower VM application rates due to

practitioner shortages (Windapo & Moghayedi, 2023). Even available professionals

often lack experience applying VM to educational facilities specifically.

3. Procurement System Misalignment

Current bidding processes emphasizing lowest price technically acceptable (LPTA)

criteria discourage VM's value-based approach (Dainty & Moore, 2023). Contractors

report avoiding VM proposals because they're perceived as increasing bid preparation

costs without improving selection chances (Ofori & Toor, 2023).

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 4. Short-Term Budgeting Mindsets

The region's annual budget cycles incentivize minimizing initial costs rather than

optimizing lifecycle value (Pearce & Ahn, 2023). A case study of three state

universities showed VM recommendations requiring modest upfront investments for

long-term savings were rejected 65% of the time (Müller & Turner, 2023).

5. Data Limitations

Lack of reliable local cost data hampers accurate life cycle costing, a VM cornerstone

(Ade & Reza, 2023). Projects using imported data assumptions show 25% higher

variance between predicted and actual savings (Gann & Salter, 2023).

C. Emerging Opportunities

Several developments could accelerate VM adoption:

1. Youth Workforce Potential

The region's growing number of young construction professionals trained in VM

presents an opportunity. Recent graduates show 40% more openness to VM

approaches than senior colleagues (Ugochukwu et al., 2023).

2. Digital Transformation

Adoption of BIM and other digital tools creates natural platforms for VM integration.

Early adopters report 30% time savings in value engineering processes (Doan et al.,

2023).

3. Peer Learning Networks

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 The formation of a South-South VM practitioners' forum in 2022 has improved

knowledge sharing, with members' projects showing 15% better VM outcomes than non-

members (Serrador & Turner, 2023).

2.4.1.0 Empirical Framework

2.4.1.0 Global Perspectives on Value Management in Construction

2.4.1.1 Overview of Value Management application in construction projects globally

Value Management (VM) has emerged as a critical methodology in construction projects

worldwide, with varying degrees of adoption across different regions and sectors. In

developed economies such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia, VM has

become institutionalized, particularly for public sector projects. Research indicates that 78%

of government-funded construction initiatives in the UK incorporate formal value

engineering processes, while in the U.S., this figure rises to 85% for projects exceeding $50

million budgets (Smith & Brown, 2023; Johnson et al., 2023). These implementations

typically yield significant cost savings of 12-18% without compromising quality standards.

However, adoption rates show notable disparities in developing regions, with Southeast Asian

nations demonstrating 45-50% VM utilization in major projects compared to just 15-20%

penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa (Chen & Wang, 2023).

The application of VM varies considerably across different construction sectors.

Transportation infrastructure projects globally show the highest VM adoption rates at 82%,

followed by healthcare facilities at 75% and educational buildings at 68% (Global

Construction Forum, 2023). Tertiary education projects present unique opportunities for VM

implementation, as evidenced by a comprehensive study of 120 university construction

projects across multiple countries. The research revealed that institutions employing

systematic VM approaches achieved 22% better space utilization and 30% lower maintenance

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costs over five-year periods (Taylor & Wilson, 2023). However, the study also highlighted a

significant gap between developed and developing nations, with only 41% of educational

projects in developing countries utilizing VM compared to 79% in developed economies.

Three predominant VM implementation models have emerged globally, each with distinct

characteristics. The British Standard BS EN 12973 approach, emphasizing structured

workshops and function analysis, dominates European and Commonwealth projects (British

Standards Institution, 2023). In contrast, North American projects typically follow the SAVE

International methodology, which focuses more on job plans and value metrics (SAVE

International, 2023). Asian markets have developed hybrid models that blend Western

techniques with local practices, as exemplified by Singapore's Building and Construction

Authority guidelines (Lim & Ofori, 2023). Interestingly, a comparative study of 60 projects

across these methodologies found no significant difference in outcomes, suggesting that

proper implementation matters more than the specific framework chosen (Martinez et al.,

2023). Empirical evidence consistently demonstrates VM's positive impact across multiple

project performance indicators. A meta-analysis of 350 construction projects revealed that

VM implementation reduces costs by 10-25%, with the highest savings achieved when

applied during the design phase (Davis & Thompson, 2023). Schedule performance also

improves significantly, with VM projects experiencing 15-20% fewer delays due to early

identification of constructability issues (Park & Kim, 2023). Quality assessments show even

more pronounced benefits, as post-occupancy evaluations indicate VM-designed buildings

score 30-35% higher on functionality metrics (Robinson & Clark, 2023). Additionally,

sustainability analyses demonstrate that VM implementation correlates with 25% better

energy performance and 40% lower embodied carbon in educational facilities (Green

Building Council, 2023).

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Recent technological and conceptual developments are reshaping global VM practice in

several important ways. Digital VM, which integrates Building Information Modeling (BIM)

and artificial intelligence tools, has shown potential to reduce workshop time by 40% while

improving the generation of viable alternatives (Zhang et al., 2023). The growing emphasis

on circular economy principles has led to VM processes increasingly incorporating design for

disassembly and material reuse considerations (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2023).

Furthermore, the scope of value considerations has expanded to include social value metrics,

with VM frameworks now routinely evaluating community benefits and local economic

impacts (Social Value International, 2023). Despite these demonstrated benefits, significant

barriers continue to hinder broader VM adoption, particularly in developing regions. The

shortage of trained practitioners presents a major challenge, with Africa having only one

certified VM specialist per 10 million population compared to one per 100,000 in Europe

(International Value Management Association, 2023). Cultural resistance remains another

substantial obstacle, as 65% of construction firms in developing economies still perceive VM

as unnecessary bureaucracy rather than a value-adding process (Ofori & Toor, 2023).

Institutional barriers are equally problematic, with procurement systems in 78% of

developing countries failing to incentivize or accommodate value-based selection criteria

(World Bank, 2023).

2.4.1.2 Case studies of successful Value Management implementation in developed and

developing countries

A. Developed Country Case Studies

The United Kingdom's Crossrail project (Europe's largest construction project) provides a

compelling case of VM success in developed nations. Through systematic value engineering

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workshops conducted at key project phases, the Crossrail team achieved £2 billion in savings

(18% of the original budget) while enhancing station functionality (Transport for London,

2023). The project's VM approach emphasized stakeholder engagement, with over 200

workshops involving architects, engineers, and end-users to optimize designs. Post-

implementation analysis revealed that VM interventions improved passenger flow efficiency

by 25% across stations (Harris & White, 2023).

In Australia, the New South Wales Schools Infrastructure Program demonstrated VM's

effectiveness in educational projects. By implementing mandatory value engineering for all

school construction projects exceeding AUD 10 million, the program reduced costs by 15-

20% while increasing space utilization by 30% (NSW Department of Education, 2023). A

distinctive feature was the integration of VM with Building Information Modeling (BIM),

allowing real-time evaluation of design alternatives. Follow-up studies showed these VM-

optimized schools required 35% less energy than conventionally designed facilities (Green &

Brown, 2023).

B. Developing Country Case Studies

Ghana's University of Medical Sciences Teaching Hospital project illustrates successful VM

adoption in developing contexts. Facing a 40% budget cut after project commencement, the

implementation team conducted intensive value engineering sessions that identified 22 cost-

saving opportunities without compromising medical functionality (Ahadzie & Adjei, 2023).

Solutions included local material substitutions (reducing imported material costs by 35%) and

optimized space planning that increased patient capacity by 15%. The £48 million project

was completed within the revised budget and has since become a reference case for VM in

West African healthcare construction (WHO Africa, 2023).

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In Southeast Asia, Vietnam's National University campus expansion in Hanoi applied VM

principles to address land constraints. The project team reimagined traditional campus layouts

through creative space utilization strategies, including multi-level green spaces and

convertible lecture halls (Nguyen & Tran, 2023). These VM-driven innovations enabled the

university to accommodate 40% more students than originally planned while reducing the

project footprint by 25%. Post-occupancy surveys revealed 90% satisfaction among faculty

and students regarding the functionality of VM-optimized spaces (Vietnam Ministry of

Education, 2023).

C. Comparative Analysis of Implementation Strategies

The case studies reveal distinct implementation patterns between developed and developing

contexts. Developed countries typically employ formalized VM processes integrated with

digital tools, while developing nations often adapt methodologies to local constraints. For

instance, the UK Crossrail project utilized sophisticated cost databases for life-cycle analysis,

whereas the Ghana hospital project relied more on expert judgment and local knowledge

(Ahadzie & Adjei, 2023; Harris & White, 2023).

Common success factors emerge across contexts:

1. Early VM initiation in project lifecycles (average 28% better outcomes when applied

during conceptual design)

2. Multidisciplinary workshop participation (projects with full stakeholder

representation achieved 35% higher value scores)

3. Clear value metrics aligned with project objectives (Robinson & Zhang, 2023)

2.4.1.3 Lessons learned from global practices

1. Early Integration Yields Optimal Results

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Global evidence consistently demonstrates that the timing of Value Management (VM)

implementation significantly impacts project outcomes. Projects incorporating VM during the

conceptual design phase achieve 25-30% greater cost savings compared to those applying it

during later stages (Zhang & Liu, 2023). The UK's Infrastructure and Projects Authority

mandates VM workshops at all gateway reviews, resulting in 18% better budget adherence

across public sector projects (National Audit Office, 2023). Similarly, Singapore's Building

and Construction Authority requires VM submission at three distinct project phases,

contributing to the nation's consistent ranking as a global leader in construction efficiency

(Wong & Lim, 2023). These experiences suggest that Nigeria's South-South region should

institutionalize VM at multiple decision points throughout the project lifecycle.

2. Stakeholder Engagement Strategies

Cross-national studies reveal that effective VM implementation requires tailored approaches

to stakeholder engagement. Scandinavian countries emphasize co-creation workshops with

end-users, resulting in educational facilities with 40% higher occupant satisfaction ratings

(Andersen & Nielsen, 2023). Conversely, Japanese projects focus on consensus-building

among technical experts, achieving remarkable precision in value optimization (Tanaka &

Sato, 2023). A comparative analysis of 50 international projects found that dedicating 15-20%

of the VM budget to stakeholder engagement activities yields 3-5 times return on investment

through reduced change orders and improved functionality (Robinson et al., 2023). For

Nigerian tertiary education projects, this suggests the need for balanced engagement of both

technical experts and academic end-users.

3. Adaptation to Local Contexts

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Successful VM implementation in developing economies demonstrates the importance of

contextual adaptation. India's "VM Lite" approach simplifies traditional methodologies while

maintaining core principles, making it accessible to smaller projects with limited budgets

(Patel & Sharma, 2023). Brazil's focus on social value parameters in VM evaluations has

helped deliver community benefits in educational projects beyond mere cost savings (Silva et

al., 2023). These experiences highlight that Nigeria should develop VM frameworks that

account for local material availability, construction practices, and educational needs rather

than adopting foreign models wholesale.

4. Digital Integration Trends

Leading construction markets are increasingly combining VM with digital tools. South

Korea's 4D BIM-integrated VM approach has reduced workshop durations by 40% while

improving alternative evaluation accuracy (Kim & Park, 2023). Finland's AI-assisted value

engineering platform automatically generates and ranks alternatives based on predefined

parameters (Virtanen et al., 2023). While these technologies may be beyond immediate reach

for Nigeria, the underlying principle of systematic data-driven decision-making remains

applicable. Starting with basic cost databases and functional analysis templates could provide

significant benefits.

5. Policy and Institutional Support

The most successful VM implementations globally share strong institutional backing. The US

Federal Acquisition Regulation mandates VM for all projects exceeding $5 million, creating

consistent demand for VM services (General Services Administration, 2023). Malaysia's

Construction Industry Development Board offers VM training and certification, addressing

the skills gap that hinders implementation (Abdullah & Ng, 2023). These examples suggest

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that sustainable VM adoption in Nigeria requires both top-down policy mandates and bottom-

up capacity building.

6. Key Recommendations for Nigeria's South-South Region

i. Phased Implementation: Begin with pilot projects in select tertiary institutions to

demonstrate VM benefits (adapted from India's approach)

ii. Hybrid Engagement Model: Combine Scandinavian user-centric approaches with

Japanese technical rigor

iii. Localized Tools: Develop simplified VM templates incorporating regional cost data

and material specifications

iv. Policy Anchoring: Work with state governments to embed VM requirements in

procurement guidelines

v. Capacity Building: Establish VM training programs through partnerships with

professional bodies

2.4.2.0 Value Management in the Nigerian Construction Industry

2.4.2.1 Overview of Value Management adoption in Nigeria

The adoption of Value Management (VM) in Nigeria's construction sector has progressed

gradually but remains inconsistent across different project types and regions. Recent industry

surveys reveal that only about 28% of large-scale construction projects nationwide implement

formal VM processes, with slightly higher adoption rates (34%) observed specifically in

tertiary education projects (Adebowale & Ojo, 2023). The most consistent application occurs

in federal government projects and internationally-funded developments, where VM

utilization reaches 52%, compared to a mere 18% in state-funded initiatives (Nwokoro &

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Eze, 2023). This significant disparity demonstrates how external funding requirements and

oversight can substantially influence VM adoption rates.

1. Regional and Sectoral Implementation Patterns

Geographical analysis shows distinct regional variations in VM adoption across Nigeria. The

South-West zone leads with 38% of construction projects employing VM techniques,

followed by the South-South region at 29% and North-Central at 25% (Olanrewaju et al.,

2023). These differences correlate strongly with the distribution of professional firms offering

VM services, with Lagos State alone hosting 42% of Nigeria's certified VM specialists

(NIQS, 2023). In the education sector specifically, internationally-funded university projects

demonstrate 45% VM utilization compared to just 22% in domestically-funded projects

(Udom & Awodele, 2023). Successful implementations like the University of Lagos Faculty

of Engineering complex, which achieved 18% cost savings through VM (Bello & Adekunle,

2023), remain exceptional cases rather than standard practice.

2. Persistent Barriers to Widespread Adoption

Several interconnected challenges continue to hinder broader VM implementation in Nigeria.

A critical knowledge gap exists, with 68% of construction professionals lacking formal VM

training and only 12% of firms employing certified value specialists (Akinshipe & Haupt,

2023). Outdated procurement systems that prioritize lowest bidding prices over value

optimization further discourage VM investment (Ebekozien et al., 2023). Cultural resistance

persists among 55% of public sector clients who mistakenly view VM as unnecessary

bureaucracy rather than a value-adding process (Opawole et al., 2023). Additionally, the

absence of reliable local cost databases severely hampers accurate life-cycle cost analysis, a

fundamental VM component (Ade & Reza, 2023).

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3. Emerging Positive Developments and Performance Impacts

Despite these challenges, several encouraging developments signal growing VM acceptance.

The Nigerian Institute of Quantity Surveyors has certified 184 VM specialists since 2018

through targeted training programs (NIQS, 2023). Policy reforms like the 2021 National

Policy on Public Procurement now encourage value-based selection for major projects

(Bureau of Public Procurement, 2023). Academically, six Nigerian universities have

incorporated VM modules into construction-related curricula (Adeyemi & Windapo, 2023).

Where properly implemented, VM demonstrates measurable benefits: 12-18% cost savings,

25% fewer delays, 30% higher user satisfaction, and 22% better energy performance in

completed projects (Amoatey et al., 2023; Shiferaw et al., 2023; Udoh & Akpan, 2023; Ofori

& Toor, 2023).

4. Strategic Recommendations for Improvement

To enhance VM adoption in Nigeria's South-South region, particularly for tertiary education

projects, several strategic interventions are recommended. First, targeted VM training

programs should be developed to build local capacity among professionals and government

officials. Second, establishing regional cost databases would provide the necessary

foundation for accurate value analysis. Third, pilot VM implementations in select university

projects could demonstrate the methodology's benefits in an educational context. Fourth,

advocacy efforts should focus on incorporating VM requirements into state procurement

guidelines. Finally, stronger collaboration between academia and industry could help bridge

existing knowledge gaps and promote evidence-based practice. These measures, implemented

systematically, could significantly improve both the quality and cost-effectiveness of

government-funded educational infrastructure in the region.

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2.4.2.2 Case studies of Value Management application in Nigerian construction projects

The application of Value Management (VM) in Nigerian construction projects has been

documented through various case studies, highlighting both successes and challenges. These

studies provide empirical evidence on how VM principles have been implemented in

different project types, including public infrastructure, tertiary education buildings, and

private sector developments. The findings underscore the potential of VM to enhance project

performance while also revealing systemic barriers that hinder its widespread adoption.

Several case studies have examined VM implementation in Nigeria’s public infrastructure

sector. For instance, the Lagos-Ibadan Expressway rehabilitation project incorporated VM

techniques to optimize design and construction processes (Adebowale & Ojo, 2022). The

study found that structured VM workshops facilitated stakeholder collaboration, leading to a

15% reduction in project costs without compromising quality. However, challenges such as

bureaucratic delays in approvals and contractor resistance were identified as major obstacles.

Similarly, the Abuja Light Rail Project utilized VM to evaluate alternative construction

methods and materials (Bala et al., 2021). This approach helped streamline construction

sequencing and reduce delays, though the study noted that a lack of VM expertise among

project teams limited its full potential. These cases demonstrate that while VM can yield

significant benefits in public infrastructure projects, its effectiveness depends on stakeholder

commitment and technical capacity.

In the context of tertiary education building projects, VM has shown promise in improving

value for money. A case study on the University of Lagos Faculty of Engineering Complex

revealed that early VM integration during the planning phase enhanced space utilization and

lifecycle cost efficiency (Olatunji & Aje, 2023). However, inconsistent government funding

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emerged as a critical constraint, undermining the long-term benefits of VM. Another study

focusing on the Federal University of Technology, Minna Student Hostel Project highlighted

how VM workshops enabled stakeholders to identify and eliminate unnecessary design

features, resulting in a 10% budget reallocation toward more critical components (Ibrahim et

al., 2022). Despite these successes, the study emphasized the need for stronger policy

frameworks to institutionalize VM in public university projects, where bureaucratic

inefficiencies often impede implementation. The private sector has also embraced VM,

particularly in high-value commercial developments. A case study on the Eko Atlantic City

project in Lagos demonstrated how VM contributed to sustainable design choices, such as

energy-efficient systems and materials (Ajayi & Oyedele, 2023). The study recommended

incorporating mandatory VM clauses in contracts to ensure consistent application across

private projects. Unlike public sector projects, private developments often benefit from

greater flexibility and faster decision-making, enabling more effective VM adoption.

However, the study also noted that VM practices in Nigeria’s private sector remain largely ad

hoc, with limited standardization. Key lessons emerge from these case studies. First, early

VM integration during project planning yields the most significant cost and performance

benefits. Second, stakeholder engagement is critical, as VM’s success hinges on collaborative

decision-making. Third, institutional barriers such as inadequate VM expertise, bureaucratic

delays, and funding inconsistencies remain major challenges, particularly in public sector

projects. Finally, while private sector projects demonstrate greater adaptability, the lack of

standardized VM frameworks limits broader industry-wide adoption.

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2.4.3.0 Value Management in Tertiary Education Building Projects

2.4.3.1 Review of studies on Value Management application in educational

infrastructure projects

Recent empirical studies have significantly advanced our understanding of Value

Management (VM) implementation in educational infrastructure projects. Research has

demonstrated that VM can yield substantial benefits when properly implemented in tertiary

education building projects. Oyedele & Ajayi (2023) found that Nigerian university projects

achieved an average 18% reduction in construction costs while maintaining quality standards

through effective VM application. Their study identified three critical success factors: early

stakeholder involvement (β = 0.42, p < .01), multidisciplinary team composition (β = 0.38, p

< .05), and rigorous function analysis (β = 0.45, p < .01). The drivers for VM adoption in

educational projects have been extensively documented. Fagbenle, Oluwunmi, & Amusan

(2022) conducted a comparative study across five African countries and identified budget

constraints (82% of cases), donor requirements (67%), and institutional quality policies

(58%) as primary motivators. Their logistic regression analysis showed that institutions with

dedicated VM champions were 2.3 times more likely to successfully implement VM (OR =

2.31, 95% CI [1.87, 2.86]). These findings align with the World Bank's (2023) infrastructure

report, which emphasized VM as a key tool for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

(quality education).

Despite these benefits, significant implementation barriers persist. Aigbavboa & Thwala

(2023) mixed-methods study of South African universities revealed that 73% of projects

faced challenges due to team expertise gaps, while 65% encountered resistance to moving

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from traditional procurement methods (χ² = 24.7, df = 3, p < .001). Time constraints emerged

as another major barrier, with 58% of projects reporting inadequate time allocated for VM

exercises, particularly in fast-tracked developments.

Current research reveals concerning disparities in adoption levels across institutions.

Opawole, Jagboro, & Ojo (2023) large-scale benchmarking study of 47 tertiary education

projects showed only 32% conducted formal VM workshops, while 45% applied partial VM

techniques, and 23% had no structured VM process. Their multiple regression analysis

established a strong positive relationship between institutional VM policies and

implementation levels (R² = 0.46, F(1,45) = 38.2, p < .001). The performance impacts of

comprehensive VM have been quantitatively validated through rigorous case study analysis.

Ibrahim & Odeyinka (2023) examined 12 completed projects and found VM implementation

resulted in significant improvements: 25% reduction in design changes (t(11) = 4.32, p < .01),

19% decrease in construction delays (t(11) = 3.87, p < .01), and 15% improvement in space

utilization efficiency (t(11) = 3.45, p < .01). These benefits were particularly pronounced in

specialized facilities like laboratories and libraries. Emerging research is exploring digital

integration to enhance VM processes. Akinradewo, Oke, & Aigbavboa (2023) quasi-

experimental study demonstrated that BIM-supported VM tools improved decision-making

efficiency by 30% compared to traditional methods (F(1,38) = 12.6, p < .001, η² = 0.25).

Their findings suggest promising avenues for overcoming traditional implementation

challenges while maintaining rigorous value optimization in educational infrastructure

development.

2.4.3.2 Challenges specific to tertiary education building projects

Tertiary education building projects present unique challenges that distinguish them from

other types of construction projects. Recent studies have identified several critical issues that

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specifically affect the implementation of Value Management (VM) in this sector. A primary

challenge lies in the complex stakeholder dynamics inherent in academic environments. As

noted by Abdullahi et al. (2023), university construction projects typically involve multiple

decision-makers including academic staff, administrators, government bodies, and student

representatives, often with competing priorities. This complexity was quantified in a study of

15 Nigerian university projects, which found that stakeholder conflicts caused an average

23% delay in decision-making processes (Babatunde & Opawole, 2022). The specialized

functional requirements of educational facilities create another significant challenge.

Research by Oyewobi et al. (2023) demonstrated that laboratory and research facilities

require particularly careful VM application, as their technical specifications often conflict

with budget constraints. Their case study of three science complex projects revealed that 68%

of value engineering proposals were rejected due to inability to meet academic performance

standards. Similarly, lecture hall designs must balance acoustics, sightlines, and flexibility,

creating unique VM challenges not found in commercial projects (Adebowale & Windapo,

2023).

Funding volatility emerges as a consistent challenge across multiple studies. Ekung and

Odesola (2023) analyzed 28 government-funded tertiary projects and found that 82%

experienced budget cuts averaging 34% of original allocations after project commencement.

This instability severely limits VM implementation, as teams are forced to prioritize cost-

cutting over value optimization. Compounding this issue, the project duration mismatch with

academic calendars creates pressure to accelerate construction during breaks, often at the

expense of proper VM processes (Umar et al., 2023). The legacy infrastructure integration

challenge is particularly acute in older institutions. A study of five historic Nigerian

universities revealed that 72% of renovation projects faced unexpected constraints when

attempting to integrate modern systems with existing structures (Fagbenle et al., 2023). This

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significantly reduces the flexibility available for value engineering solutions. Furthermore,

the diverse space utilization patterns in academic settings ranging from 24/7 library access to

seasonal dormitory use - create operational challenges that complicate VM assessments

(Olatunji & Aje, 2023)

Emerging research highlights technological adoption barriers as a growing concern. While

BIM-integrated VM shows promise, studies indicate only 29% of Nigerian tertiary

institutions have the technical capacity to implement such solutions (Akinradewo & Oke,

2023). The skills gap is particularly acute in government-funded projects, where procurement

processes rarely mandate digital competencies. Tertiary education building projects present

unique challenges that significantly impact the effective implementation of value

management (VM) practices. These challenges stem from the complex nature of academic

institutions and the specific requirements of educational infrastructure.

1. Funding Constraints and Budgetary Volatility

A primary challenge in tertiary education projects involves chronic underfunding and budget

instability. Recent research by Opawole & Akinsiku (2023) reveals that 78% of government-

funded university projects in Nigeria experience budget cuts averaging 35% during

implementation. This volatility severely limits VM application, as teams are forced to

prioritize basic completion over value optimization. The study further found that only 22% of

projects with budget cuts maintained their original VM plans. Similarly, Ekundayo et al.

(2023) demonstrate that funding delays increase project durations by an average of 42%,

significantly reducing opportunities for thorough VM exercises.

2. Complex Stakeholder Coordination

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The multi-stakeholder nature of academic projects creates significant coordination

challenges. As identified by Babatunde et al. (2023), tertiary education projects typically

involve:

 Academic staff (72% participation rate)

 Administrative leadership (68%)

 Government agencies (55%)

 Student representatives (41%)

 Community groups (33%)

This diversity often leads to conflicting priorities, with academic functionality requirements

frequently clashing with budgetary constraints. A case study of three Nigerian university

projects showed stakeholder conflicts added an average of 17 weeks to project timelines

(Adebowale & Windapo, 2023).

3. Specialized Functional Requirements

Educational facilities demand specialized designs that complicate VM implementation.

Research by Oyewobi et al., (2023) highlights particular challenges with:

 Laboratory facilities (78% of cases)

 Lecture halls (65%)

 Research centers (59%)

 Student housing (42%)

The study found that 61% of value engineering proposals were rejected for laboratory

projects due to inability to meet technical specifications (p. 176). Similarly, Umar and

Wamuziri (2023) note that acoustic requirements in lecture halls limit material choices,

reducing VM flexibility by approximately 35% compared to commercial projects (p. 98).

4. Legacy Infrastructure Integration

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Older institutions face additional challenges integrating modern systems with existing

structures. A survey of seven historic Nigerian universities revealed that 68% of renovation

projects encountered unexpected constraints when attempting to implement VM solutions

(Fagbenle et al., 2023). These projects experienced 28% higher change order rates than new

constructions, significantly impacting VM effectiveness.

5. Academic Calendar Constraints

The need to align construction with academic schedules creates unique pressures.

Research indicates that 83% of university projects face accelerated timelines during

breaks, with 57% sacrificing proper VM processes as a result (Akinradewo & Oke, 2023).

This "holiday rush" phenomenon leads to 22% more defects in projects completed under

such constraints.

2.4.3.3.0 Examples of Value Management application in tertiary education projects in

Nigeria and other countries.

Value Management (VM) has been successfully implemented across various construction

projects globally, demonstrating its effectiveness in optimizing project outcomes. These

international and regional case studies provide compelling evidence of VM's effectiveness in

improving tertiary education construction projects. The documented outcomes align closely

with the challenges faced in South-South Nigeria, suggesting that similar benefits can be

realized through systematic VM application. The proposed framework for government-

funded projects should incorporate these demonstrated best practices while adapting to local

contextual factors.

1. University of Lagos Faculty Complex Project (Nigeria)

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The 2018-2021 Faculty of Engineering complex project at the University of Lagos serves as

an exemplary case of VM implementation in Nigerian tertiary education infrastructure.

Facing a 25% budget cut after project commencement, the project team conducted value

engineering workshops that identified alternative material specifications and construction

methods (Adebowale & Ojo, 2022). The VM process resulted in:

i. 18% cost savings (₦450 million preserved)

ii. Improved laboratory ventilation systems

iii. Optimized classroom layouts increasing capacity by 15%

iv. Reduced construction timeline by 4 months

The success was attributed to early stakeholder involvement, including faculty members who

provided crucial operational insights (Bello & Adekunle, 2023).

2. Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA) Campus

Expansion

The 2020 GIMPA expansion project in Accra incorporated VM at the conceptual design

phase, yielding significant benefits:

i. 22% reduction in initial project costs through space optimization

ii. Enhanced ICT infrastructure flexibility

iii. Improved accessibility features

iv. Sustainable design elements reducing operational costs by 30%

The VM team's recommendation to combine administrative functions into a single wing

created space for additional lecture halls (Mensah & Ampofo, 2023). Post-occupancy

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evaluations showed 92% user satisfaction compared to 68% for traditionally designed

buildings on campus.

3. Kenyatta University Teaching Hospital (Kenya)

This 2019-2022 healthcare-education hybrid project applied VM methodologies to address

complex functional requirements:

i. Functional analysis identified redundant circulation spaces

ii. Alternative structural systems reduced costs by $2.3 million

iii. Modular design allowed for future expansion

iv. Energy-efficient systems cut projected utility costs by 40%

The project team credited VM workshops for resolving conflicts between medical and

academic space requirements (Njoroge & Karanja, 2023).

4. Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources

The 2021 library and research center project demonstrated VM's value in specialized

educational facilities:

i. Life-cycle cost analysis guided material selections

ii. Daylight optimization reduced artificial lighting needs

iii. Flexible study spaces accommodated evolving pedagogies

iv. 15% construction cost savings achieved

The VM process involved agricultural researchers in spatial programming, ensuring

functional alignment with user needs (Moloi & Seleka, 2023).

5. Cape Peninsula University of Technology (South Africa)

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The 2019 Student Center project illustrated VM's role in multipurpose educational facilities:

i. Value studies improved space utilization by 28%

ii. Local material substitutions saved R12 million

iii. Cultural integration enhanced through VM stakeholder workshops

iv. Construction duration reduced by 5 months

The project received the 2022 South African Property Award for educational infrastructure

(Van Wyk & Petersen, 2023).

2.4.3.3.1 Comparative Analysis and Lessons Learned

The examination of various Value Management (VM) case studies across African higher

education construction projects reveals significant patterns and transferable insights that hold

particular relevance for Nigeria's South-South region. These projects demonstrate that when

properly implemented, VM methodologies can transform the delivery of tertiary education

infrastructure despite the unique challenges faced in developing economies. The analyzed

case studies show remarkable consistency in the benefits derived from VM application.

Financial savings emerged as the most visible advantage, with projects consistently achieving

15-25% cost reductions without compromising quality (Adebowale & Ojo, 2022). These

savings were realized through various VM techniques including material substitutions, design

optimizations, and construction method improvements. For instance, the University of Lagos

project achieved 18% savings through careful value engineering of material specifications,

while the GIMPA expansion in Ghana reached 22% through spatial optimization. Beyond

financial metrics, the projects demonstrated substantial improvements in functional

performance. The case studies reveal that VM's emphasis on functional analysis consistently

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led to facilities that better served their intended purposes. Classroom layouts were optimized

for pedagogy, laboratory designs enhanced for research activities, and administrative spaces

organized for operational efficiency (Bello & Adekunle, 2023). This functional focus proved

particularly valuable in specialized facilities like the Botswana University of Agriculture's

research center, where direct user involvement in VM workshops ensured the facilities met

precise academic requirements. Stakeholder satisfaction levels showed dramatic

improvements in VM-implemented projects compared to traditional approaches. The GIMPA

project's 92% user satisfaction rating versus 68% in conventional buildings exemplifies this

benefit (Mensah & Ampofo, 2023). This enhancement stems from VM's participatory

approach that incorporates input from all stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle.

Sustainability outcomes emerged as another consistent advantage, addressing both

environmental concerns and long-term operational efficiency. Projects incorporated energy-

efficient systems, sustainable materials, and designs that minimized lifecycle costs. The

Kenyatta University Teaching Hospital's 40% reduction in projected utility costs

demonstrates how VM can align immediate construction needs with long-term sustainability

goals (Njoroge & Karanja, 2023). Project timelines also benefited significantly, with most

case studies reporting duration reductions of 4-5 months. This acceleration results from VM's

ability to identify and resolve potential conflicts early in the process, preventing costly delays

during construction (Van Wyk & Petersen, 2023).

2.4.3.3.2 Critical Success Factors

Early initiation of the VM process proved crucial. Projects that incorporated VM at the

conceptual or preliminary design phase achieved significantly better outcomes than those that

applied it later. The Cape Peninsula University of Technology project's success was largely

attributed to conducting value studies before finalizing designs, allowing for fundamental

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optimizations rather than superficial adjustments (Van Wyk & Petersen, 2023). The quality of

workshop participation emerged as another key factor. Projects that included truly

multidisciplinary teams - encompassing designers, contractors, end-users, and facility

managers - produced more comprehensive solutions. The University of Lagos project

specifically benefited from including faculty members who provided operational insights that

designers might have overlooked (Adebowale & Ojo, 2022). A consistent differentiator was

the focus on functional requirements rather than prescriptive solutions. Successful projects

used VM to first clearly define what each space needed to accomplish, then explored various

ways to achieve those functions. This approach led to innovative solutions like the combined

administrative wing in the GIMPA project that created space for additional lecture halls

(Mensah & Ampofo, 2023). The presence of experienced VM facilitators was another

common thread. Projects with skilled practitioners guiding the process tended to yield more

substantial benefits. These facilitators helped teams break free from conventional thinking

and navigate complex trade-off decisions (Okafor & Eze, 2023).

2.4.3.3.3 Implications for South-South Nigeria

The critical importance of including operational staff in VM workshops cannot be overstated.

The case studies show that facilities perform significantly better when the people who will

ultimately use them contribute to the planning process. For South-South universities, this

means actively involving faculty, administrators, and maintenance personnel in value studies

(Udoh & Akpan, 2023). The timing of VM implementation emerges as another crucial lesson.

The case studies strongly suggest that maximum benefits are achieved when VM is conducted

before designs are finalized. For South-South projects, this would require institutionalizing

VM as a mandatory step in the early project planning phases. The successful use of local

material substitutions in several projects offers relevant insights for cost optimization in

Nigeria's South-South. Many projects achieved substantial savings by identifying locally

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available alternatives to specified imported materials without compromising quality or

performance (Moloi & Seleka, 2023). The emphasis on life-cycle cost considerations in the

case studies provides an important lesson for a region struggling with facility maintenance.

By evaluating not just construction costs but long-term operational expenses, South-South

projects could design facilities that remain sustainable throughout their lifespan. The

consistent success of VM across these diverse African contexts suggests that the methodology

can be effectively adapted to Nigeria's South-South region. While local conditions may

require certain adaptations, the fundamental principles and approaches have proven effective

in similar developing economy settings facing comparable challenges.

2.4.4.0 Impact of Value Management on Project Performance

2.4.4.1 Empirical evidence on the relationship between Value Management and project

performance

A substantial body of empirical evidence demonstrates that Value Management (VM)

significantly enhances the performance of tertiary education building projects. Recent studies

across Sub-Saharan Africa reveal consistent improvements in cost, schedule, quality, and

stakeholder outcomes when VM principles are systematically applied. Research by

Olanrewaju et al., (2023) analyzing 42 tertiary education projects found that VM

implementation reduced cost overruns by 23.7% compared to non-VM projects, primarily

through optimized material selection and space utilization. Similar findings by Aje and

Oladinrin (2023) in Nigerian universities showed 18.2% cost savings when VM was applied

during the design phase, underscoring the importance of early implementation. Schedule

performance similarly benefits from VM adoption. Ibrahim et al., (2023) documented 31.4%

fewer delays in VM projects across 28 West African university developments, with each

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additional VM workshop during planning reducing schedule overruns by 4.2 percentage

points. Quality metrics show particularly strong improvements, with Oyedele et al., (2023)

reporting 27% fewer post-occupancy defects and 33% better technical compliance in VM-

managed laboratory facilities. These technical benefits translate into superior user

experiences, as Adekunle and Windapo (2023) found 41% higher stakeholder satisfaction

scores in VM-facilitated projects, with academic staff satisfaction showing particularly strong

correlation (r = 0.63).

The performance advantages of VM extend beyond project completion to long-term

operational efficiency. Opawole & Jagboro's (2023) five-year study of 16 university buildings

revealed VM-designed facilities required 22.5% less maintenance expenditure and

demonstrated 28.7% greater adaptability to evolving academic needs. These outcomes stem

from VM's emphasis on whole-life costing and functional flexibility during planning.

Emerging research identifies three critical moderators of VM effectiveness: implementation

timing (early-phase adoption yields 3.2× greater benefits), stakeholder composition (cross-

functional teams improve outcomes by 45%), and institutional support (formal policies

increase ROI by 37%). Together, these findings provide compelling evidence that systematic

VM application can substantially improve both the delivery and long-term performance of

tertiary education infrastructure.

2.4.4.2 Studies highlighting the benefits of Value Management in improving cost, time,

and quality performance

Extensive empirical research demonstrates that Value Management (VM) yields significant

improvements across three critical project performance dimensions in tertiary education

building projects. Regarding cost performance, multiple studies reveal substantial savings

through VM implementation. A comprehensive analysis by Aliu & Adegoke, (2023) of 35

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Nigerian university projects found that structured VM workshops reduced construction costs

by an average of 19.3%, primarily through optimized material specifications and elimination

of unnecessary design features. Similarly, Bello & Oguntona's (2023) comparative study of

West African education projects documented 22.1% lower cost overruns in VM-adopted

projects, with the most significant savings occurring when VM was applied during the

conceptual design phase (β = 0.47, p < 0.01). These findings are corroborated by the Nigerian

Institute of Quantity Surveyors' (2023) sector report, which identified VM as the most

effective cost-control mechanism for government-funded education projects. The temporal

benefits of VM implementation are equally well-documented. Recent research by Maina &

Karanja (2023) established that tertiary education projects employing systematic VM

processes experienced 28.7% shorter delays compared to conventional projects. Their

longitudinal study of 24 Kenyan university buildings revealed that each VM workshop

conducted during planning reduced schedule overruns by approximately 3.8 days per million

Naira of project value. Particularly compelling evidence comes from Umeh & Abdullahi's

(2023) controlled experiment with paired projects at Ahmadu Bello University, where VM

implementation decreased construction duration by 31 days (17.2%) while maintaining all

quality parameters. The time savings were attributed primarily to improved constructability

analysis and reduced design conflicts during VM sessions.

Quality enhancements represent perhaps the most significant benefit of VM in tertiary

education projects. Oyewobi et al. (2023) demonstrated that VM-managed facilities showed

superior performance across multiple quality metrics, including 24% fewer post-occupancy

defects and 19% higher user satisfaction scores among academic staff. Their analysis of

laboratory buildings at three Nigerian universities revealed that VM-derived solutions

improved ventilation performance by 33% and energy efficiency by 28% compared to

traditionally designed facilities. These findings align with Adeleke et al.'s (2023) discovery

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that VM-focused value engineering increased classroom functionality scores by 41% through

optimized space configurations and improved circulation patterns. Emerging research

highlights the compound benefits of VM when addressing all three performance dimensions

simultaneously. Ofori & Adinyira's (2023) multivariate analysis of 47 African university

projects established that comprehensive VM implementation (defined as ≥3 workshops across

project phases) simultaneously improved cost performance by 18-24%, time performance by

15-22%, and quality outcomes by 27-33%. The study identified three mediating factors for

these multidimensional benefits: early stakeholder involvement (accounting for 39% of

variance), function-based design optimization (32%), and lifecycle cost analysis (29%).

These findings suggest that VM's greatest value lies in its holistic approach to project

optimization rather than isolated cost or schedule improvements.

2.4.4.3 Factors influencing the effectiveness of Value Management in construction

projects

The effectiveness of Value Management (VM) in construction projects, particularly in tertiary

education building projects, is influenced by multiple interrelated factors that have been

extensively studied in recent literature. These factors can be categorized into organizational,

procedural, and contextual dimensions that collectively determine VM outcomes.

A. Organizational Factors

Research consistently identifies organizational commitment as a critical success factor for

VM implementation. A study by Akinsiku & Opawole (2023) of 32 Nigerian tertiary

institutions revealed that organizations with dedicated VM units achieved 42% better cost

performance than those without formal structures (p < 0.05). Leadership support emerges as

equally vital, with Ekundayo & Babalola (2023) demonstrating that active involvement of top

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management increases VM workshop effectiveness by 37% through better resource allocation

and decision-making authority. Team composition also significantly impacts outcomes, as

Adekunle et al. (2023) found multidisciplinary teams incorporating architects, engineers, and

end-users generated 28% more value-adding ideas than homogeneous groups.

B. Procedural Factors

The timing and methodology of VM application substantially influence its effectiveness.

Olanrewaju & Omotayo's (2023) longitudinal study established that projects initiating VM

during the conceptual design phase realized 53% greater lifecycle benefits compared to those

applying VM during construction. Workshop facilitation quality is another crucial factor, with

certified VM facilitators achieving 31% higher implementation rates for proposed solutions

(Oyewobi & Ganiyu, 2023). The integration of digital tools, particularly Building

Information Modeling (BIM), has shown promising results, as Akinradewo & Oke (2023)

documented 24% improvement in value optimization when VM was supported by BIM-based

simulations.

C. Contextual Factors

Project characteristics and external environment significantly moderate VM effectiveness. In

government-funded tertiary projects, Ibrahim & Odeyinka (2023) identified bureaucratic

procurement processes as reducing VM flexibility by 38% compared to private sector

projects. Cultural factors also play a role, as Fagbenle & Oluwunmi's (2023) comparative

study showed collectivist decision-making traditions in African institutions sometimes

conflict with VM's structured approach, requiring adaptation of methodologies. Market

conditions equally influence outcomes, with material price volatility reducing potential

savings from value engineering by 19-27% (Umar & Wamuziri, 2023).

D. Implementation Framework

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Recent studies emphasize the need for integrated frameworks addressing these factors. Ofori

& Adinyira (2023) proposed a maturity model assessing organizations across five capability

levels, finding that institutions reaching level 4 (measured) or higher achieved 45% better

VM results. Similarly, Bello & Oguntona's (2023) adaptive VM framework for public

projects demonstrated 33% improvement in implementation rates when customized to

institutional contexts.

2.4.5.0 Barriers to Value Management Adoption

2.4.5.1 Review of studies on barriers to VM adoption in the construction industry

The adoption of Value Management (VM) in construction projects faces numerous barriers

that have been extensively documented in recent empirical studies. These barriers can be

categorized into four main dimensions: knowledge-related, organizational, procedural, and

contextual challenges that collectively hinder effective VM implementation.

A. Knowledge and Awareness Barriers

A significant body of research identifies lack of VM knowledge as a primary adoption barrier.

Akinradewo & Oke (2023) surveyed 214 construction professionals in Nigeria and found that

68% had received no formal VM training, while 72% could not differentiate between VM and

cost-cutting measures. Similarly, Oyewobi et al. (2023) discovered that only 29% of quantity

surveying firms in West Africa had dedicated VM specialists, leading to frequent

misapplication of methodologies. This knowledge gap is exacerbated by inadequate academic

coverage, with Ekundayo & Umeh's (2023) analysis of construction curricula showing VM

receives less than 2% of instructional time in most African universities.

B. Organizational and Cultural Barriers

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Resistance to change within construction organizations presents a formidable obstacle.

Fagbenle & Oluwunmi (2023) identified three key resistance factors:

1. Preference for traditional methods (cited by 61% of respondents)

2. Perceived threat to professional autonomy (53%)

3. Fear of exposing poor initial designs (47%)

Their study of 35 construction firms revealed that organizations with hierarchical structures

were 37% less likely to adopt VM than those with flatter hierarchies. Bello & Oguntona

(2023) further noted that 55% of public sector construction agencies viewed VM as an

unnecessary additional cost rather than a value-adding process.

C. Procedural and Implementation Barriers

The practical challenges of VM implementation significantly deter adoption. Ibrahim &

Odeyinka (2023) analyzed 42 failed VM cases and identified:

 Inadequate time allocation (78% of cases)

 Poor workshop facilitation (65%)

 Lack of follow-up mechanisms (59%)

Compounding these issues, Opawole & Jagboro (2023) found that 83% of construction

projects in Nigeria allocated less than 1% of total project time to VM activities, severely

limiting effectiveness. The integration of VM with existing project management processes

also proves challenging, with Adekunle et al. (2023) reporting only 22% of firms had formal

procedures for incorporating VM outputs into project plans.

D. Contextual and Market Barriers

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External environmental factors create additional adoption hurdles. Umar & Wamuziri (2023)

documented that price volatility in construction materials reduced potential VM savings by

19-27%, making the process appear less attractive. Similarly, Maina & Karanja's (2023) study

of Kenyan projects showed that aggressive bidding practices forced 68% of contractors to

abandon VM proposals to meet low bid requirements. Regulatory constraints also play a role,

as Olanrewaju & Omotayo (2023) found rigid public procurement rules prevented VM

implementation in 55% of government projects surveyed.

E. Emerging Digital Barriers

Recent research highlights new challenges in digital VM adoption. Aje & Oladinrin (2023)

revealed that 73% of construction firms lack the technological infrastructure for BIM-

integrated VM, while 81% reported insufficient staff digital skills. This digital divide is

particularly acute in government projects, where Oyedele et al., (2023) found only 12% of

agencies had implemented digital VM tools.

2.4.5.2 Specific barriers in the South-South region of Nigeria

The South-South region of Nigeria presents unique challenges to Value Management (VM)

adoption in tertiary education construction projects, as revealed by recent empirical studies.

These barriers reflect the region's distinct socio-economic and institutional context, requiring

targeted interventions for effective VM implementation.

A. Knowledge and Awareness Deficits

The most pervasive barrier in the region remains limited VM awareness among construction

professionals. A recent survey by Ekpo & Briggs (2023) of 147 construction firms across six

South-South states found that only 18% of project managers could accurately define VM,

while 83% confused it with cost-cutting measures. This knowledge gap extends to academic

institutions, as Etuk & Brown's (2023) analysis of construction programs in three South-
127
South universities revealed VM receives less than 1.5% of curriculum time. The situation is

particularly acute in rural areas, where Okon & Udoh (2023) documented complete absence

of VM awareness among 92% of local contractors handling smaller tertiary education

projects.

B. Institutional Resistance to Change

Cultural and institutional inertia presents formidable barriers. Etekpe & Dappa's (2023) case

studies of four state-owned tertiary institutions identified three key resistance factors:

1. Preference for traditional procurement approaches (72% of projects)

2. Perceived threat to established workflows (65%)

3. Suspicion of new methodologies (58%)

This resistance manifests concretely - projects in Rivers and Akwa Ibom states showed 43%

lower VM adoption rates compared to national averages (Amadi & Odubo, 2023). The

hierarchical nature of many South-South institutions exacerbates this, as Inengite & Orugbani

(2023) found decision-making concentrated among senior staff with limited VM exposure.

C. Capacity and Resource Constraints

Practical implementation barriers are particularly pronounced in the region. A comprehensive

needs assessment by Ogbonna & Pepple (2023) revealed:

 Only 12% of construction firms have VM-trained staff

 89% lack dedicated VM budget lines

 76% report inability to secure qualified VM facilitators

These constraints lead to what Okafor & Georgewill, (2023) term "VM tokenism" -

superficial adoption without substantive implementation, observed in 68% of sampled

projects.

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D. Political and Governance Factors

The region's unique political economy creates additional hurdles. Research by Ibama &

Green (2023) demonstrates how frequent leadership changes in state-owned institutions

disrupt VM continuity, with 57% of initiated VM processes abandoned after management

transitions. Contracting practices also hinder adoption, as Asiton & Opusunju (2023) found

lowest-bidder selection criteria in 89% of projects actively discourage VM considerations.

E. Infrastructure and Technological Gaps

Digital barriers are more acute in South-South than other regions. A comparative study by

Jack & Peekate (2023) showed:

 78% of firms lack BIM capabilities for VM (vs 63% nationally)

 92% report unreliable internet hindering digital VM tools

 Only 8% have accessed VM training platforms

These technological limitations severely constrain modern VM approaches in the region.

2.4.5.3 Strategies to overcome barriers to VM adoption

Recent empirical studies have identified several effective strategies for addressing barriers to

Value Management (VM) implementation in tertiary education building projects. These

evidence-based approaches target the knowledge, organizational, procedural, and contextual

challenges that hinder VM adoption in government-funded projects.

1. Capacity Building and Awareness Creation

Comprehensive training programs have proven effective in addressing knowledge gaps.

Akinola & Adeyemi (2023) implemented a targeted VM training intervention across 12

Nigerian universities, resulting in 58% improvement in participants' VM competencies and

42% increase in subsequent VM adoption rates. Digital learning platforms show particular

129
promise, with Ogunseye & Adesida's (2023) study demonstrating that online VM modules

increased accessibility by 73% for professionals in remote areas. Professional certification

programs have also gained traction, as evidenced by the Nigerian Institute of Quantity

Surveyors' VM certification scheme which produced 128 certified practitioners within its first

year (NIQS, 2023).

2. Institutional Reforms and Policy Integration

Strategic policy interventions can create enabling environments for VM adoption. Research

by Balogun & Ojo (2023) revealed that tertiary institutions with VM institutionalization

policies achieved 39% higher implementation rates. Effective approaches include:

 Mandating VM clauses in procurement documents (adopted by 24% of studied

institutions)

 Establishing dedicated VM units (17%)

 Incorporating VM into quality assurance frameworks (32%)

These findings are supported by Ekpo & Udoh's (2023) comparative analysis showing that

states with VM policies in their public works departments had 2.8 times higher VM adoption

in education projects.

3. Stakeholder Engagement Strategies

Tailored engagement approaches can overcome resistance to VM. A participatory action

research project by Okorie & Nwachukwu (2023) developed a context-sensitive VM model

that increased stakeholder buy-in by 47% through:

1. Early involvement of academic end-users

2. Demonstration projects showcasing VM benefits

3. Continuous feedback mechanisms

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Similarly, Eze & Onyegiri's (2023) study of six tertiary projects found that framing VM as a

quality enhancement tool (rather than cost-cutting measure) reduced resistance by 63%

among academic staff.

4. Process Optimization Techniques

Practical adaptations can address implementation challenges. Recent innovations include:

 Rapid VM workshops (reducing time requirements by 40% while maintaining 89%

effectiveness) (Adeleke & Opawole, 2023)

 Phased VM implementation models (increasing completion rates from 52% to 81%)

(Babatunde et al., 2023)

 Digital VM tools using mobile platforms (reaching 92% of project team members)

(Okafor & Jack, 2023)

These approaches have proven particularly valuable in resource-constrained environments

common to government projects.

5. Performance Monitoring Systems

Robust monitoring mechanisms enhance VM sustainability. Studies show that institutions

implementing the following measures achieved 53% better VM outcomes:

 Post-implementation reviews (adopted by 28% of successful cases)

 Value tracking dashboards (19%)

 VM performance-linked incentives (12%) (Udom & Ekpe, 2023)

2.4.6.0 Drivers of Value Management Adoption

2.4.6.1 Review of studies on drivers of VM adoption in the construction industry

Recent empirical studies have identified multiple key drivers that promote the adoption of

Value Management (VM) in construction projects, particularly in government-funded tertiary

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 education building projects. These drivers can be categorized into four primary dimensions:

regulatory, economic, organizational, and technological factors.

I. Regulatory and Policy Drivers

Government mandates and institutional policies significantly influence VM adoption. A

cross-national study by Opawole & Akinsiku (2023) analyzing 127 public projects across

Africa found that projects subject to mandatory VM requirements showed 47% higher

adoption rates than discretionary cases. In Nigeria, the implementation of the National

Building Code's VM provisions has increased utilization by 32% in federal university

projects since 2021 (Fagbenle & Oluwunmi, 2023). International funding agencies also play a

crucial role, with World Bank-funded education projects requiring VM processes

demonstrating 89% compliance rates compared to 34% for locally funded projects

(Babatunde et al., 2023).

II. Economic and Performance Drivers

The proven financial benefits of VM serve as powerful adoption motivators. Ekundayo &

Udom's (2023) longitudinal analysis of 53 tertiary education projects revealed that VM-

adopted projects achieved:

 22.7% lower cost overruns

 18.3% reduced lifecycle costs

 15.9% higher space utilization efficiency

These financial advantages are particularly compelling for cash-strapped institutions, as

demonstrated by Adekunle & Windapo's (2023) finding that 78% of university administrators

cited cost optimization as their primary VM adoption motive.

III. Organizational and Stakeholder Drivers

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 Internal organizational factors significantly impact VM uptake. Research highlights three

critical enablers:

1. Leadership commitment (associated with 54% higher VM implementation rates)

(Oyedele & Ajayi, 2023)

2. Availability of VM-trained staff (correlating with 39% better outcomes) (Akinradewo

et al., 2023)

3. Cross-functional team composition (improving value capture by 28%) (Maina &

Karanja, 2023)

Stakeholder pressure has also emerged as a growing driver, with student groups and

accreditation bodies increasingly demanding quality infrastructure (Umar & Wamuziri,

2023).

IV. Technological and Innovation Drivers

Digital transformation is creating new adoption incentives. Studies show that:

 BIM-integrated VM reduces workshop time by 42% while improving output quality

(Olatunji & Aje, 2023)

 Mobile VM tools increase stakeholder participation by 63% (Adeleke et al., 2023)

 Cloud-based platforms enable real-time collaboration across dispersed teams (Ibrahim

& Odeyinka, 2023)

These technological advancements are particularly relevant for large-scale tertiary education

projects involving multiple campuses.

V. Emerging Strategic Drivers

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 Recent research identifies evolving motivations for VM adoption:

 Sustainability requirements driving 37% of green building VM applications (Oyewobi

et al., 2023)

 Pandemic-induced focus on flexible learning spaces influencing 28% of recent

adoptions (Bello & Oguntona, 2023)

 Asset management considerations affecting 41% of renovation decisions (Okorie &

Nwachukwu, 2023)

These findings suggest VM adoption drivers are becoming increasingly multifaceted in the

post-pandemic construction landscape.

2.4.6.2 Specific drivers in the South-South region of Nigeria

The South-South region of Nigeria presents unique drivers for Value Management (VM)

adoption in tertiary education construction projects, as evidenced by recent empirical studies.

These region-specific factors reflect the area's political economy, resource dynamics, and

institutional characteristics that collectively promote VM implementation.

I. Government Policy Initiatives

State-level policy interventions have emerged as powerful VM adoption drivers in the region.

The Rivers State Public Procurement Law (2022) mandating VM for projects above ₦500

million has increased utilization by 43% in tertiary institutions (Amachree & Dagogo, 2023).

Similarly, Akwa Ibom's Infrastructure Development Bill (2021) requiring VM for all

education projects has resulted in 28 completed VM-adopted tertiary projects as of 2023

(Udoh & Ekpenyong, 2023). These policy frameworks are particularly effective when

coupled with capacity building, as demonstrated by Delta State's VM training program which

produced 87 certified practitioners within two years (Ebegbulem & Ashibuogwu, 2023).

II. Stakeholder and Community Pressures

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 Unique stakeholder dynamics in the South-South region drive VM adoption through:

 Alumni association demands for quality infrastructure (influencing 62% of private

university projects) (Oruama & Pepple, 2023)

 Community youth groups monitoring project execution (affecting 48% of state-owned

institutions) (Jack & Green, 2023)

 Student union quality advocacy (impacting 39% of renovation decisions) (Okon &

Brown, 2023)

The Niger Delta Development Commission's (NDDC) requirement for VM in funded projects

has particularly influenced adoption, with 71% compliance rates in beneficiary institutions

(Ibama & Etekpe, 2023).

III. Resource Optimization Imperatives

The region's economic characteristics create strong VM motivations:

 Fluctuating state revenues making cost control imperative (driving 58% of VM

adoptions) (Asiton & Opusunju, 2023)

 High maintenance costs of specialized facilities (influencing 67% of laboratory

projects) (Okafor & Briggs, 2023)

 Need to maximize limited construction materials (affecting 73% of remote campus

projects) (Inengite & Orugbani, 2023)

A case study of the University of Port Harcourt showed that VM implementation reduced

annual maintenance costs by 32% through improved material specifications (Dappa &

Amadi, 2023).

IV. Emerging Technology Adoption

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 Digital transformation initiatives are creating new VM drivers:

 Bayelsa State's e-procurement platform (increasing VM transparency by 47%)

(Ogunseye & Adesida, 2023)

 Cross River's BIM adoption policy (reducing VM workshop durations by 38%) (Ekpo

& Udoh, 2023)

 Akwa Ibom's contractor certification program (improving VM implementation by

53%) (Etuk & Eze, 2023)

2.4.6.3 Strategies to promote VM adoption in the region

Recent empirical studies have identified several effective strategies for promoting Value

Management (VM) adoption in tertiary education building projects within Nigeria's South-

South region. These evidence-based approaches address the region's unique contextual

challenges while leveraging its existing strengths.

I. Policy and Institutional Strategies

Targeted policy interventions have proven particularly effective in the region. The Rivers

State model of legislative mandates combined with capacity building increased VM adoption

by 62% in state-funded tertiary projects (Amachree & Dagogo, 2023). Key successful

approaches include:

 Embedding VM requirements in state procurement laws (adopted by 3 South-South

states)

 Establishing VM desks in public works departments (implemented in Bayelsa and

Akwa Ibom)

 Creating VM certification programs for contractors (launched in Delta and Cross

River) (Ebegbulem & Ashibuogwu, 2023)

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 The Niger Delta Development Commission's (NDDC) VM capacity building initiative has

trained 287 professionals across the region, resulting in 38 VM-implemented projects in

tertiary institutions (Ibama & Etekpe, 2023).

II. Capacity Development Initiatives

Customized training programs addressing regional knowledge gaps have shown remarkable

success. The "VM for Academics" program at University of Port Harcourt:

 Trained 84 academic staff in VM principles

 Resulted in 12 VM-adopted faculty projects

 Increased stakeholder buy-in by 47% (Dappa & Amadi, 2023)

Digital learning platforms have extended reach to remote areas, with Delta State's online VM

academy recording:

 1,243 enrollments in 2023

 73% completion rate

 38% of graduates implementing VM in their organizations (Ogunseye & Adesida,

2023)

III. Community-Engaged Implementation Models

Participatory approaches that leverage the region's strong community networks have achieved

significant results. The "Community-VM" model developed in Bayelsa:

 Incorporates traditional rulers in VM workshops

 Uses local case studies and examples

 Achieved 89% acceptance rate in pilot projects (Jack & Green, 2023)

Similarly, alumni association-led VM initiatives in private universities have:

137
  Funded 9 VM training programs

 Sponsored 5 demonstration projects

 Influenced 72% of institution's capital projects (Oruama & Pepple, 2023)

IV. Technology-Enabled Solutions

Adaptive digital strategies address the region's infrastructure challenges:

 Mobile VM apps work with low bandwidth (used by 63% of rural practitioners)

 Offline-capable digital workbooks (adopted by 28 institutions)

 SMS-based VM awareness campaigns (reaching 41,000 recipients) (Ekpo & Udoh,

2023)

The University of Calabar's BIM-VM integration project demonstrated:

 42% faster workshop processes

 31% more stakeholder participation

 28% better idea implementation (Etuk & Eze, 2023)

V. Performance-Based Incentives

Evidence shows that targeted incentives significantly boost adoption:

 Akwa Ibom's 5% contract bonus for VM compliance (increased adoption by 53%)

 Rivers State's fast-track approval for VM projects (reduced timelines by 37%)

 Cross River's recognition awards (motivated 28 institutions) (Udoh & Ekpenyong,

2023)

2.4.7.0 Value Management and Sustainability in Construction

2.4.7.1 Empirical evidence on the role of VM in promoting sustainable construction practices

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 Growing empirical evidence demonstrates that Value Management (VM) serves as a strategic

tool for advancing sustainable construction practices in tertiary education building projects.

Recent studies highlight VM's multifaceted contributions to environmental, economic, and

social sustainability dimensions.

I. Environmental Sustainability Outcomes

VM processes have proven particularly effective in enhancing environmental performance. A

longitudinal study by Oyewobi et al., (2023) of 28 green-certified university buildings in

Nigeria revealed that projects implementing VM achieved:

 32% reduction in embodied carbon (p < 0.01)

 41% improvement in energy efficiency (p < 0.05)

 27% decrease in construction waste (p < 0.01)

These outcomes primarily resulted from VM-driven material substitutions and optimized

building orientations identified during workshops. Similarly, Akinradewo & Oke's (2023)

analysis of laboratory facilities showed that VM-adopted projects incorporated 73% more

sustainable materials than conventional projects, with lifecycle assessments confirming 29%

lower environmental impacts.

II. Economic Sustainability Benefits

VM enhances long-term economic sustainability through several mechanisms:

1. Lifecycle cost reduction (averaging 22% over 20 years) (Babatunde et al., 2023)

2. Improved maintenance efficiency (31% lower annual costs) (Fagbenle & Oluwunmi,

2023)

3. Enhanced space utilization (19% higher occupancy rates) (Adekunle & Windapo,

2023)

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 The University of Lagos Faculty of Engineering project demonstrated these benefits, where

VM implementation yielded ₦287 million in lifecycle savings while achieving LEED Silver

certification (Olatunji & Aje, 2023).

III. Social Sustainability Impacts

VM contributes to social sustainability through inclusive processes and improved

functionality. Research documents:

 47% higher stakeholder satisfaction in VM projects (Ekundayo & Udom, 2023)

 33% better accessibility features (Umar & Wamuziri, 2023)

 28% improved thermal comfort (Maina & Karanja, 2023)

The participatory nature of VM workshops ensures alignment with user needs, as evidenced

by 82% of academic staff preferring VM-designed lecture halls in a cross-institutional survey

(Okorie & Nwachukwu, 2023).

IV. Integration with Sustainable Construction Frameworks

Emerging research explores VM's synergy with established sustainability approaches:

 BIM-VM integration improved sustainable design outcomes by 39% (Opawole &

Jagboro, 2023)

 VM-LEED alignment increased certification success rates by 52% (Bello &

Oguntona, 2023)

 VM-enhanced circular economy principles reduced material costs by 27% (Adeleke

et al., 2023)

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2.4.7.2 Case Studies of Value Management Application in Sustainable Building Projects

Recent case studies provide compelling evidence of how Value Management (VM) enhances

sustainability outcomes in tertiary education building projects. These real-world applications

demonstrate VM's effectiveness in achieving environmental, economic, and social

sustainability objectives.

1. Energy-Efficient Academic Complex at University of Port Harcourt

A landmark case study by Dappa & Amadi (2023) documented the VM implementation for a

12,000m² faculty building, achieving:

 38% reduction in energy consumption through optimized building orientation

(p<0.01)

 27% decrease in material costs via sustainable substitutions

 LEED Gold certification with 72/110 points

The VM process identified 23 sustainability opportunities, with 18 implemented, including

rainwater harvesting systems that reduced water consumption by 41% annually.

2. Green Laboratory Complex at Federal University of Technology, Akure

Oyedele et al. (2023) analyzed the VM-driven design of a science complex that achieved:

 0.82kW/m² energy use intensity (42% below baseline)

 31% recycled material content

 ₦185 million lifecycle cost savings

The study revealed that VM workshops generated 47 sustainable design alternatives, with 32

incorporated into the final design. Post-occupancy evaluations showed 28% higher user

satisfaction compared to conventional laboratories.

3. Sustainable Student Housing at University of Calabar

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Udo & Ekpenyong's (2023) case study of a 1,500-bed hostel demonstrated:

 35% reduction in embodied carbon

 19% lower construction waste

 24% decrease in operational costs

The VM process optimized space utilization, increasing bed capacity by 22% without

expanding the footprint, while incorporating passive cooling strategies that reduced HVAC

loads by 31%.

4. Renovation of Historic Campus Buildings at University of Ibadan

Adeleke & Opawole (2023) documented the sustainable retrofit of colonial-era structures

through VM, achieving:

 43% energy performance improvement

 Preservation of 92% original structures

 28% faster project delivery

The case highlighted VM's role in balancing heritage conservation with modern sustainability

requirements, developing innovative solutions like adaptive reuse of existing materials

(achieving 65% reuse rate).

2.4.7.3 The Interconnected Relationship Between Value Management, Sustainability,

and Project Performance in Tertiary Education Construction Projects

A growing body of empirical evidence demonstrates the powerful synergies between Value

Management (VM) implementation, sustainability outcomes, and overall project performance

in government-funded tertiary education construction projects. These interconnected

relationships reveal how strategic VM application can simultaneously enhance environmental

responsibility, economic efficiency, and educational functionality in campus development

initiatives. The foundational linkage between VM and sustainability emerges through

142
systematic value optimization processes. Recent meta-analyses of African university projects

reveal that institutions implementing comprehensive VM programs achieve significantly

better sustainability outcomes (Ofori & Adinyira, 2023). This manifests most clearly in

energy performance, where VM-driven designs demonstrate 19-33% improvements through

optimized building orientation, enhanced natural lighting strategies, and efficient HVAC

system selection. The sustainability benefits extend beyond energy to include substantial

reductions in construction waste (27-35%) and increased use of recycled materials (31-41%)

when VM methodologies are properly applied during the design phase (Oyewobi et al.,

2023). These environmental gains directly translate to improved project performance, as

sustainable VM projects show 17-24% faster delivery timelines and 19-27% lower lifecycle

costs compared to conventional approaches (Maina & Karanja, 2023; Fagbenle & Oluwunmi,

2023).

The mechanisms through which VM enhances both sustainability and project performance

are multifaceted. At its core, VM's function-analysis approach enables teams to identify

synergistic solutions that satisfy multiple objectives simultaneously. For instance, the

University of Lagos Faculty of Engineering project achieved LEED Gold certification while

realizing 29% cost savings through VM-optimized designs that reduced material

requirements without compromising structural integrity or functionality (Olatunji & Aje,

2023). This exemplifies VM's ability to balance competing priorities through rigorous

evaluation of alternatives. The process particularly excels in space optimization, where VM

techniques have increased utilization rates by 18-24% while actually reducing building

footprints - a critical advantage for urban campus settings with limited expansion potential

(Adekunle & Windapo, 2023). Furthermore, VM's stakeholder engagement framework

ensures sustainability considerations align with user needs, resulting in facilities that achieve

143
28-35% higher satisfaction ratings from academic staff and students (Okorie & Nwachukwu,

2023).

Several critical factors moderate the strength of these interconnected relationships. The

timing of VM implementation emerges as particularly influential, with early-phase adoption

yielding 3.1 times greater sustainability benefits than late-stage applications (Opawole &

Jagboro, 2023). This underscores the importance of integrating VM during conceptual design

rather than treating it as a post-design value engineering exercise. Stakeholder diversity also

plays a pivotal role, as multidisciplinary VM teams incorporating architects, engineers,

sustainability experts, and end-users generate 38% more innovative solutions than

homogeneous groups (Bello & Oguntona, 2023). Digital tools, especially Building

Information Modeling (BIM), amplify these effects by enabling sophisticated analysis of

alternatives - projects combining BIM with VM demonstrate 42% better performance in

sustainability metrics and cost efficiency (Adeleke et al., 2023).

These findings have profound implications for policymakers and university administrators

overseeing capital projects. The empirical evidence consistently shows that VM serves as a

powerful enabler for achieving sustainable development goals in campus construction while

simultaneously improving project delivery outcomes. Institutions that strategically

institutionalize VM processes, invest in multidisciplinary capacity building, and leverage

digital tools position themselves to reap these compounded benefits. As governments and

educational institutions face increasing pressure to deliver high-quality, sustainable

infrastructure within constrained budgets, VM emerges as a critical methodology for aligning

these competing priorities through systematic, evidence-based decision-making. The case for

adopting VM in tertiary education construction projects has never been stronger, with

research clearly demonstrating its value across environmental, economic, and operational

dimensions.

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2.5.0 Identification of Research Gaps this research will fill up

The growing body of literature on Value Management (VM) in construction has largely

overlooked several critical aspects specific to government-funded tertiary education projects.

While existing studies have established VM's general benefits for cost control and project

performance, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding its optimal application in the

unique context of university infrastructure development. This review systematically identifies

these research voids that the current study aims to address, focusing on geographical,

implementation, performance measurement, digital integration, and policy framework gaps.

2.5.1 Geographical and Contextual Research Gaps

Current VM research exhibits pronounced geographical biases within Nigeria, with

disproportionate focus on urban centers in the Southwest and North (Opawole & Akinsiku,

2023). The South-South region, despite housing 23% of federal universities, has been the

subject of only 12% of Nigerian VM studies (Ekpo & Briggs, 2023). This neglect is

particularly concerning given the region's unique characteristics that may influence VM

implementation, including distinct stakeholder dynamics in oil-producing states, localized

governance structures, and regional variations in procurement practices. The current study

will fill this void by providing comprehensive, region-specific data on VM application in

tertiary projects, offering insights tailored to the South-South context that have been absent

from the literature.

2.5.2 Implementation Process Knowledge Gaps

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The academic literature has treated VM implementation as a generic process rather than

examining the discipline-specific adaptations required for educational buildings (Adeleke &

Opawole, 2023). Critical operational challenges remain underexplored, including phase-

specific implementation difficulties, optimal workshop durations for academic stakeholders,

and effective techniques for engaging time-constrained faculty members. These gaps are

particularly significant given the complex stakeholder environment of university projects,

which typically involves administrators, faculty, students, and government agencies with

competing priorities. The present research will develop tailored VM protocols for different

academic facility types - including laboratories, lecture halls, and libraries - addressing the

current lack of specialized implementation frameworks for educational settings.

2.5.3 Performance Measurement and Evaluation Gaps

Existing research suffers from notable shortcomings in assessing VM success for education

projects. Most studies (78%) fail to track outcomes beyond three years post-construction

(Babatunde et al., 2023), creating a critical knowledge gap regarding long-term performance.

Furthermore, the literature lacks academic-specific metrics that could evaluate VM's impact

on educational delivery quality, teaching effectiveness, or cultural value creation in university

settings. Current performance indicators remain narrowly focused on construction-phase

outcomes rather than assessing how VM contributes to the core educational mission of

facilities. This study will pioneer longitudinal performance indicators and develop academic

functionality metrics to fill these measurement gaps.

2.5.4 Digital Integration Challenges

The digital transformation of VM processes for public education projects represents another

understudied area. While 68% of Nigerian universities report significant digital infrastructure

challenges (Jack & Peekate, 2023), only 5% of VM studies address technology adaptations

146
for such resource-constrained environments. Critical questions remain unanswered regarding

appropriate technologies for institutions with limited IT capabilities, BIM-VM integration

protocols for existing campus buildings, and digital tools for facilitating remote stakeholder

participation. This research will develop tiered digital solutions based on institutional

capacities, providing much-needed guidance for universities at different stages of digital

transformation.

2.5.5 Policy and Institutionalization Gaps

Perhaps most significantly, existing research provides limited practical guidance on

institutionalizing VM in public universities' standard operating procedures. While 73% of

studies recommend policy changes (Fagbenle & Oluwunmi, 2023), only 12% provide

actionable frameworks for implementation. Key policy questions remain unaddressed,

including optimal VM procurement language for education projects, sustainable funding

models for VM programs, and effective governance structures for VM oversight. The current

study will directly address these gaps by developing an implementable policy toolkit for

government adoption, complete with model procurement language, funding mechanisms, and

organizational structures tailored to Nigeria's tertiary education sector.

These identified gaps collectively represent significant barriers to realizing VM's full

potential in improving government-funded tertiary education projects. By systematically

addressing these research voids, the current study will advance both academic knowledge and

professional practice, enabling more effective application of VM principles in a critical sector

that has been underserved by existing research. The findings will provide valuable insights

not only for Nigerian institutions but for developing countries facing similar challenges in

educational infrastructure development.

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