EXPLORING NARCISISTIC BEHAVIORS OF COLLEGE STUDENTS AND THE

CONCEPT OF MINDFUL COMMUNICATION INTERVENTION

DAWN DAVIS

106 Pages

Narcissistic behaviors are increasing on college campuses with the Millennial generation,

facilitating entitlement, sensitivity to criticism, diminished empathy and perspective, increased

disrespect of others, and aggression, thereby negatively impacting interpersonal communication

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among students. It is plausible this trend will continue with Generation Z. This study provides a
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snapshot of the narcissistic, empathetic, and mindful climate on a college campus, exploring

variables relating to narcissism and the mechanisms of mindfulness practice and communication.
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A mixed methods approach utilized three survey measures across 130 participants: 16-item

Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Ames, Rose, & Anderson, 2006), Basic Empathy Scale

(Jollife & Farrington, 2006), and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (Baer, Smith, Hopkins,
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Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006). Additionally, open-ended questions provided qualitative

responses. Quantitative results revealed moderate levels of narcissism, medium high levels of

cognitive empathy, high levels of affective empathy, and moderately high levels of mindfulness

among students. The qualitative results supported the narcissism levels but contradicted student

empathy and mindfulness levels. Students reported several challenges regarding face-to-face

communication, including cultural differences, social loafing, division, stranger avoidance,

technology impeding face-to face connection time, judging others, not listening or engaging, and

lack of empathy and emotional regulation. The results of this exploratory study are for the
purpose of informing intervention curriculum reducing narcissistic traits and fostering mindful

communication.

KEYWORDS: empathy, mindfulness, mindful communication, narcissism

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EXPLORING NARCISISTIC BEHAVIORS OF COLLEGE STUDENTS AND THE

CONCEPT OF MINDFUL COMMUNICATION INTERVENTION

DAWN DAVIS

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A Thesis Submitted in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

School of Communication

ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY

2019




ProQuest Number: 13814060




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 Copyright 2019 Dawn Davis

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EXPLORING NARCISISTIC BEHAVIORS OF COLLEGE STUDENTS AND THE

CONCEPT OF MINDFUL COMMUNICATION INTERVENTION

DAWN DAVIS

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COMMITTEE MEMBERS:

John Hooker, Co-Chair

Lance Lippert, Co-Chair

Phillip Chidester
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank my three committee members for their developmental approach during my thesis

process. More specifically, I thank my Co-Chair, Dr. Lance Lippert, for his collaborative nature,

sharing insights, resources, enthusiasm, honesty, and humor. I thank my Co-Chair, Dr. John

Hooker for his kind, patient, and supportive nature which are all very important when learning

statistics for the first time, as well as his artistic diagrams and comprehensive feedback. I thank

Dr. Phil Chidester for his strength in critical thought with the ability to see what I do not always

see, so I may bring it to light to be seen by others.

I thank Patty Franz for her commitment to the wellbeing of graduate students, always

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ready to find answers, share resources, and help navigate the system. Patty is a gem with her
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caring and selfless service, clearly an asset to the School of Communication.

I thank Dr. Kevin Meyer for his detailed thoroughness as my Graduate Coordinator.
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Additionally, I thank Dr. Meyer for working with me when significant life challenges emerged in

the second semester of school, along with my professors at the time, Dr. John Hooker, Dr. Lance

Lippert, and Dr. Amiee Miller-Ott. It would have been easy to stop pursuing my graduate degree
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at this time, but it is with their encouragement, solutions, and support I carried on.

I thank Dr. John Baldwin for lighting my brain on fire every time I went to class as well

as his thoughtful feedback helping me grow in my own critical thought and written word.

I also thank my husband who has supported this journey by giving me the space and time

to pursue my degree, as well his ongoing humor, hugs, and belief in me. I thank our daughter

who has been understanding when I have not been available on many days and nights. Knowing

time is precious and children grow up so quickly, losing that time with my daughter was the

hardest part of graduate school. With this, I ask that she share this victory with me.

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 I thank Misia, my friend, and adopted daughter/sister depending on the day, for her

ongoing support and mentorship as I navigated through the challenges of graduate school. Your

hugs, ability to listen, guide, and your dancing spirit of light helped light my journey in ways

where words of appreciation cannot express.

I also thank my parents for embedding in me as a child, the courage and strength to see

things through, even when it’s hard. Ultimately, it is due to their love that I could find my

courage and strength. I thank my sister who was my first best friend and still is to this day.

Though we live miles apart and she has recently been faced with serious health challenges, she is

a shining light. Her light cannot help but permeate into others, including me. I am grateful for her

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example. I thank my aunt and uncle who are in many ways a second set of parents, in which I am
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fortunate to know their love, friendship, kindness, support, and belief in me. I thank my mother-

in-law who always keeps our family in her prayers and shares her rascality to lighten the load.
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I thank my dear friends for their ongoing cheers and patience in the background. Lastly,

but no less important, I thank the staff at Health Promotion and Wellness for the learning

experience and support contributing to the birth of my thesis and significantly impacting my life
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with mindfulness and growth.

In appreciation to you all, as I am all of what you have helped me become today.

D.D.

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 CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i

CHAPTER I: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE 1

Statement of Problem 1

Review of Literature 3

The Narcissistic Continuum 3

Students Expressing Narcissistic Traits on College Campuses 4

Narcissistic Influencers 7

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Reducing Narcissistic Traits 11
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Defining Mindfulness Practice 12

The Westernization of Mindfulness Practice 13

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Mindfulness Scholarship 13

Mindful Practice on College Campuses 15

The Concept of Mindful Communication 18

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Applied Mindful Communication 21

Neuroscience Behind Mindful Communication 22

Empathy 23

Summary 27

CHAPTER II: METHODS 31

Participants 31

Variables and Measures 31

Mindful Communication Measure 31

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 Narcissism Measure 32

Empathy Measure 32

Procedures 33

Data Analysis 34

CHAPTER III: RESULTS 36

Quantitative Results 36

Qualitative Results 37

Pair, Group, Classroom Setting Theme 38

Differences Theme 42

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Cultural Differences Theme 45
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Stranger Avoidance Theme 47

Technology Theme 49
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Non-Judging Theme 50

Engaging Theme 52

Listening Theme 54
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Non-Reacting Theme 56

Mindful Communication Defined by Students 58

Summary of Quantitative and Qualitative Results 59

CHAPTER IV: DISCUSSION 62

Intent of Study Overview 62

Student Narcissism, Empathy, and Mindfulness Levels 63

Influencing Mindful Communication 65

Social Loafing Communication Challenges 67

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 Cultural Differences Communication Challenges 68

Ingroup/Outgroup Communication Challenges 68

Technology and Communication Challenges 70

Relational Conflict and Communication Challenges 71

Superiority and Communication Challenges 71

Student Suggestions for Mindful Communication 72

Students Defining Mindful Communication 74

Summary 74

Contribution to Knowledge and Scholarship 75

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Limitations 76

Strengths
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Implications for Future Research and Application 77

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Research 77

Application 78

Conclusion 80
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REFERENCES 81

APPENDIX A: 16-ITEM NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY 99

APPENDIX B: BASIC EMPATHY SCALE 101

APPENDIX C: FIVE FACET MINDFULNESS QUESTIONAIRRE 103

APPENDIX D: QUALITATIVE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS 106

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CHAPTER I: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Statement of the Problem

Scholars posit the North American society has evolved into an increasingly

individualistic culture cultivating narcissistic traits (Grijalva et al., 2015; MacDonald, 2014;

Twenge, 2006; Twenge, Campbell & Gentile, 2012a; Twenge, Konrath, Foster, Campbell, &

Bushman, 2008), especially among the younger population segment. The Millennial Generation,

born between the years of 1977 – 2000, (Westerman, Bergman, Bergman, & Daly, 2012) has

often been the subject of increased narcissistic traits. Jordan, Giacomin, and Kopp (2014) also

recognize associations between contemporary generations raised in an increasingly

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individualistic society and the displaying of narcissistic traits. Some by-products of narcissistic
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traits include entitlement (Campbell, Bonacci, Shelton, Exline, & Bushman, 2004), lack of

empathy and perspective (Twenge, 2006; Twenge et al., 2008), and sensitivity to criticism (Atlas
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& Them, 2008). Simultaneously, Westerman et al. (2012) noted studies have identified higher

narcissistic traits showing up in the classroom. Shorey et al. (2012) points to relational issues

resulting in disrespectful and aggressive verbal and non-verbal communicative behaviors with
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possible roots in narcissistic tendencies. Taken together, narcissistic traits can negatively impact

interpersonal communication by diminishing mindfulness of critical thought requiring

awareness, clarity, and rationality regarding the actions behind the thoughts (Langer, 1989;

Miller, 1997). Additionally, narcissistic traits can decrease mindfulness toward a balance of

power (Gökdağ, 2016), ethics (Bok, 1999; Neher & Sandin, 2017), and effective listening

(Gökdağ, 2016) during interpersonal communication exchanges.

The following literature review explores the narcissism continuum, expression of

narcissism among students on college campuses, and some of the possible variables influencing

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narcissism. From the perspective of intervention, the literature review then transitions to the

exploration of applying mindfulness practices toward reducing narcissistic traits, while

increasing mindful communication on college campuses. The exploration begins with a review

of mindfulness scholarship, followed by introducing the concepts of mindfulness practice,

mindful communication, and a central by-product of mindfulness, the cultivation of empathy

through cognitive elements of mindfulness practice (Decety & Jackson, 2004). An initial

framework of intervention curriculum could be developed by understanding how the

mechanisms of mindfulness may contribute toward reducing narcissistic traits and support

mindful communication.

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Principles of Hall and Davis’ (2017) communication bond belong theory (CBB) are
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embedded into the content from the lens of understanding the phenomena within the study. CBB

connects to relational energy investment, the primary human need to belong, and habitual
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patterns negating mindfulness. At the foundation of CBB theory is Davis’ (1997) human energy

management theory (HEM) suggesting humans naturally seek to conserve energy. When human

energy is invested, it is done so to capitalize on future energy returns (Davis). With this, HEM
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suggests humans may be wired for mindlessness for the goal of conserving energy. As such,

humans making a conscious choice to be mindful requires more energy investment. Remaining

principles of CBB are devoted to the recognition of relational value, balance of energy

investment through reciprocity and the need to belong for its physiological and/or psychological

benefits (Hall & Davis, 2017). Understanding the underlying mechanisms as to why humans

choose to invest or not invest energy can assist in recognizing the barriers to overcome in

fostering a mindfully communicative student population through curriculum. In sum, to be

mindful requires a conscious choice to invest energy in communication exchanges recognizing

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the value of others, the reciprocal and belonging benefits, and the future energy returns mindful

communication can offer.

Review of Literature

The Narcissistic Continuum

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) is a psychological clinical diagnosis and

considered rare (MacDonald, 2014). NPD is characterized by an excessive fixation on personal

competence, superiority, power, and potentially the inability to form sustainable relationships

leaving the person estranged (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). MacDonald (2014)

suggests, all humans are susceptible to a continuum of narcissism, which may increase or

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decrease in different contextual situations (Jordon et al., 2014) without necessarily being
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clinically narcissistic. The variance can span between healthy to unhealthy manifestations of

narcissism (MacDonald, 2014). Narcissistic traits can manifest as self-esteem supported by

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authentic accomplishments, the ability to be resilient in the face of challenges or failures, and

cultivating relational support (MacDonald). As narcissistic traits increase on a continuum, they

can manifest as superiority, entitlement, lack of empathy, and self-serving behaviors (Pinsky,
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2006), sensitivity to criticism (Atlas & Them, 2008), unrealistic expectations (Twenge, 2013),

mental health issues and aggression (Foster & Twenge, 2011) to name a few.

Scholars posit the North American society has evolved into an increasingly

individualistic culture cultivating narcissistic traits (Grijalva et al., 2015; Twenge, 2006;

Twenge, Campbell, & Gentile, 2012a; Twenge, Konrath, Foster, Campbell, & Bushman, 2008),

especially among the younger population segment. The Millennial Generation, born between the

years of 1977 – 2000 (Westerman et al., 2012), has often been the subject of increased

narcissistic traits. Jordan et al., (2014) also recognize associations between contemporary

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generations raised in an increasingly individualistic society and the displaying of narcissistic

traits. As such, college classrooms have been impacted by the upward narcissistic trend

(Westerman et al., 2012), as well as student life (Foster & Twenge, 2011; Konrath, O’Brien, &

Hsing, 2011; MacDonald, 2014). The tail end of the Millennial Generation has an estimated

remaining three to four years of attending college while simultaneously overlapping with the

recent forefront of the incoming Generation Z. While generations may be changing guard,

Generation Z grew up in an increasingly individualistic society. With this, higher narcissistic

traits may continue to express themselves on college campuses.

Students Expressing Narcissistic Traits on College Campuses

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Twenge et al.’s 2008 generational cross temporal meta-analysis found an increase in self-
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esteem, agentic traits (e.g. superior in authority, competence, and leadership), extraversion,

assertiveness, possessing expectations of higher academic standing, and seeking materialism,

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wealth, and fame, all suggesting increased narcissistic traits. Such narcissistic traits can be seen

in the classroom and in campus life for students.

College classroom instructors have observed increased entitlement and expectations of

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students wanting special consideration if the student made their best effort, as well as requesting

instructors to share their personal course notes (Greenberger, Lessard, Chen, & Farruggia, 2008).

Studies have also noted a heightened sensitivity to evaluation and critical feedback (Beck,

Freeman, & Davis, 1990; Bushman & Baumeister, 1998) and evidence of lack of team playing

due to a tendency toward competitiveness, whereby credit is taken for success and others are

blamed for failures (Campbell, Reeder, Sedikides, & Elliot, 2000). Narcissistic traits have also

been associated with increased cheating and more unrealistic expectations (Twenge, 2013).

Furthermore, there has been some evidence narcissistic traits exist at higher levels with students

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in business disciplines as compared to other disciplines (Roback, Chiffriller, & Zappone, 2007).

Westerman et al. (2012) suggest individuals with higher narcissistic traits may have advantages

in the short-term semester classroom settings. Bergman, Westerman, & Daly (2010) indicate

narcissistic traits could also have an advantage in transient or temporary work similar of college

classroom settings. Bergman et al. note higher narcissistic traits can translate to enhanced self-

esteem resulting in extraversion, short-term likeability, heightened performance on communal

evaluation tasks, and exhibit emerging leadership competencies. Taken together, Westerman et

al. (2012) suggest the higher narcissistic traits may be encouraged and rewarded with higher

assessments and grades in the classroom. However, extending higher narcissistic traits out to the

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business community and relational life in general may not serve an individual as well.
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Westerman et al. note higher narcissistic traits have been linked to destructive behaviors

including white-collar crime, assault, aggression, skewed assessment of one’s abilities, rapidly
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draining common resources, making risky choices, and alcohol abuse. Additionally, supervisors

with higher narcissistic traits are at an increased risk of constructing toxic and fruitless work

environments (Lubit, 2002).

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Narcissistic traits can extend beyond a classroom into campus life as well during a

student’s tenure at college impacting interpersonal relationships and the culture at large. Twenge

et al. (2008) point out narcissistic traits can also come at the cost of other individuals, such as

challenged intimate relationships, aggression, and assault. College campuses are also seeing a

prevalence of dating violence among the student population (Foster & Twenge, 2011). Higher

narcissistic traits have been correlated with aggression, primarily when provoked, but sometimes

without provocation. Foster and Twenge note studies have shown losing to perceived

competition, social exclusion, or rejection from a potential sexual partner can be perceived as

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reason for aggression. In sum, potential damage to self-esteem appears to foundationally play a

role in provoking and enacting aggression.

Higher narcissistic trait individuals are also considered at risk for alcohol abuse

(Luhtanen & Crocker, 2005). Alcohol can facilitate further prevalence of other narcissistic traits

such as making risky choices (Campbell et al., 2004), aggression (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998;

Shorey et al., 2012) and assault (Bushman et al., 2003) with the latter two reflecting Twenge et

al.’s (2008) research. Alcohol consumption can stimulate more forceful and self-oriented

behaviors more specifically in males. Abbey, Zawacki, Buck, Clinton, and McAuslan’s (2004)

study on the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault noted:

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The cues that usually inhibit sexually aggressive behavior, such as concern about future
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consequences, sense of morality, or empathy for the victim are likely to be less salient

than feelings of anger, frustration, sexual arousal, and entitlement, especially among men
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who are predisposed to being sexually aggressive (pp. 279-280).

With the trend of diminished importance on committed relationships (Twenge, 2013),

hookup culture can also feed into the hands of higher narcissistic trait individuals who seek and
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feel entitled to sex. Hook-up culture escalates male sexual violence perpetrations and female

victimization (Sutton & Simons, 2015). Greek parties where copious amounts of alcohol are

consumed and hookups often occur, tend to attract more narcissistic trait individuals, “young,

single, party-oriented people concerned about social status” resulting in high rates of party rape

(Armstrong, Hamilton, & Sweeney, 2006, p. 494).

Mental health can also be impacted by higher narcissistic traits. College campuses have

increasingly seen more cases of anxiety and depression among students (Foster & Twenge,

2011). Studies show higher narcissistic traits can lead to mental health issues, primarily in

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younger populations, such as loneliness, anxiety, depression, anti-social behaviors, addiction,

surfaced sexuality, covetousness, conceit, and excessive unhappiness with appearance

(MacDonald, 2014; Sales, 2013; Twenge, 2013; Twenge & Campbell, 2010). This is concerning

for both the individual and academic institution given the load on counseling resources.

Lastly, in Konrath et al.’s (2011) study, a significant decrease in perspective taking and

empathy was found among college students between 1979 and 2009. Konrath et al. also

replicated generational decline in empathy. Twenge et al. (2012) noted a decrease for civic focus

and concern for others was highly consistent across several diverse elements, including attitudes

and behaviors present among both high school students and those entering college.

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In sum, higher narcissistic traits appear to have a cumulative domino effect extending
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into college classrooms and campus life for students. Increasing cultural individualism has borne

a generation with more tolerance and equality which can be considered more positive outcomes
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(Twenge, 2013; Arnett, 2000). However, cultural individualism also appears to have fueled

increased narcissistic traits and mental health challenges (MacDonald, 2014; Sales, 2013;

Twenge, 2013; Twenge & Campbell, 2010) that could attach highly associated costs to an
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individual’s wellbeing.

Narcissistic Influencers

Some variables influencing narcissistic tendencies include: the increased parenting trend

toward amplifying the fostering and protecting of self-esteem in children, whereby children are

told they are special and often praised without associated achievement (Twenge & Campbell,

2010); parents acting as friends to their children (Young & Pinsky, 2006); technology and social

media leading to an array of self-oriented opportunities, as well as providing a platform for

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yielding power over others (MacDonald, 2014); and celebrity adoration and emulation (Young &

Pinsky, 2006).

Twenge and Campbell (2010) suggest the increased narcissistic traits are the result of

cultural changes in society, referring to it as “the age of entitlement” (p.146). Twenge and

Campbell also note family life has been influenced by professionals advising how to raise

children based on fluctuating trends, pushing a parent’s natural instincts and extended family out

of the picture. Additionally, Twenge and Campbell indicate there is more unease and perplexity

surrounding parenting, especially with women who can be criticized for working or staying

home with their children. Pinsky (2006) proposes parents may narcissistically live through their

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children as emotional extensions of themselves, seeking to be a friend, instead of providing
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discipline, structure, and boundaries. While well-meaning in boosting self-esteem, children have

been told they are special and applauded without accomplishment, potentially cultivating
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narcissistic traits in children (Twenge & Campbell, 2010).

Referencing societal cultural changes suggested by Twenge and Campbell (2010), several

studies have assessed changes in cultural artifacts such as television shows, books, and song
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lyrics to ascertain if they concur with shifts in individualistic traits (Greenfield, 2013; Lamoreaux

& Morling, 2012; Morling & Lamoreaux, 2008; Uhls & Greenfield, 2011). Cultural artifacts can

influence and communicate information about cultural norms (Twenge, Campbell, & Gentile,

2013). Artifacts can feed into cultural beliefs, even if such beliefs are erroneous (Lamoreaux &

Morling, 2012). Findings reveal shifts toward self-oriented language in books and music, self-

promotion in television shows and music, and viewer narcissism in television shows (DeWall,

Pond, Campbell, & Twenge, 2011; Gibson, Hawkins, Redker, & Bushman, 2018; Lull &

Dickinson, 2018; Mc Auslan & Waung, 2016; Twenge et al., 2012b; Uhls & Greenfield, 2011).

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 Regarding the use of self-oriented language, Twenge, Campbell, & Gentile (2012b)

found a significant increase in words and phrases reflective of an individualistic society (e.g.,

“identity,” “self,” “individual,” “all about me,” and “I’m the best”) in American books between

1960 and 2008. Twenge et al. (2013) also found a significant increase in both first person

singular (e.g., “I” and “me”) and second person pronouns (e.g., “you” and “your”) in American

books published between 1960 and 2008. Uhls and Greenfield (2011) studied popular TV

programs spanning from 1967 to 2007 and found a thematic trend of characters presenting as

more individualistic and self-promoting, with seeking fame as a primary goal. According to

Young and Pinsky (2006), the birth of reality TV shows brought to the screen the most

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narcissistic celebrities of all. Gibson et al.’s (2018) study found a correlation between watching
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narcissistic reality TV celebrities and viewer narcissism. However, this correlation appeared to

manifest when viewers let go of their own identity and adapted the characteristics of the
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celebrity. A more recent study also identified a positive relationship between watching reality TV

shows and spectator narcissism (Lull & Dickinson, 2018).

Narcissistic tendencies and self-oriented behaviors have been an accepted staple of the
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wealthy and famous classes of the American culture, however, higher narcissistic tendencies

have become progressively acceptable for all (Lasch, 1979; Paris, 2014). Pinsky (2006) suggests

the younger population who may feel entitled to fame will likely seek to capture it, even via

scandal if necessary. Pinsky (2006) also notes celebrities become role models, even if

functioning in dysfunctional lives.

Uhls and Greenfield (2011) note cultural artifacts, including music, have been targeting

younger audiences with more individualistic subject matter in recent years. As such, DeWall et

al. (2011) found a similar trend as Twenge et al. (2012b), and Twenge et al. (2013), in the top ten

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songs between 1980 and 2007 where plural pronouns (e.g., “we” and “our”) decreased and

singular pronouns (e.g., “I” and “me”) increased over the twenty-seven years. McAuslan and

Waung’s (2016) study examined music across three decades in 1990, 2000, 2010 for deviations

in self-promotion, finding the most popular 2010 music was more prone to the artist referring to

self by name and overall self-promotion, as well as boastfulness about wealth, a relational

partner’s appearance, or sexual prowess as compared to prior decades. A related, but a

significantly less increase was identified in commands for respect and boasting about one’s

musical talent. There is concern regarding the effects on adolescents and emerging adults (EA),

defined by the ages of 18-25 years (Arnett, 2000), being the primary and more susceptible

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consumers of popular music while actively cultivating their identities and values (Bonneville-
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Roussy, Rentfrow, Xu, & Potter, 2013).

Technology and social media have also created a doorway to further foster narcissistic
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traits with self-promotion through selfies, self-objectification, establishing surface level online

relationships, creating idealistic self-profiles and representation of one’s life, and asserting power

through cyber-bullying (MacDonald, 2014; Sales, 2013; Twenge & Campbell, 2010). An
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individual with narcissistic trait tendencies find social media alluring for the vehicle it provides

in supporting their self-presentation (MacDonald, 2014). Ultimately, MacDonald points out

social media has the potential to create narcissist tendencies in anyone.

Additionally, groups can feed narcissistic traits due to the importance and status in being

part of an in-group (deZavala, Cichocka, Eidelson, & Jayawickreme, 2011). On a college campus

peer groups can play a strong influential role, as are defining their values, ethics, and are

susceptible to external norms (Edwards & Vogel, 2015). Diversity is also an important focus on

college campuses, giving rise to a multitude of groups, where individuals can create a unique

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communal focus. The groups can provide a sense of status, belonging, and community within

that group but not necessarily outside the group. As such, these groups may instead be further

fragmenting community. Every in-group has the capacity to create yet another out-group.

However, college campuses also speak of communal inclusivity. It is possible by creating greater

numbers of groups, there is less opportunity for communal inclusivity, further segmenting the

student community in support of one’s individualism. As individuals’ value themselves above

others, community ties deteriorate (Paris, 2014). Furthermore, an individualistic society with

higher narcissistic traits in younger populations, combined with associated relational behavior

issues on college campuses makes creating cultures of respect more challenging.

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Taken together, parenting, cultural artifacts, technology, social media, and
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ingroups/outgroups influencing narcissistic traits are formidable opponents to be reckoned with

for a college campus administration. However, the previously mentioned narcissistic behaviors
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playing out in classroom settings and into student campus life can divide student community and

create risky situations. With this, establishing an intervention in reducing narcissistic traits is a

valuable endeavor.
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Reducing Narcissistic Traits

Returning to the concept of a continuum from a college campus climate perspective, as

narcissistic traits (e.g., lack of perspective, sensitivity to criticism, aggression, superiority,

entitlement, lack of empathy) occur on one side of the continuum and mindful communicative

traits (e.g., perspective, self-regulation, non-judging, self/others awareness, and connectedness to

others) can occur on the other side of the continuum. As previously mentioned, the narcissistic

continuum can operate at varying degrees depending upon different contexts (Jordan et al.,

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2014). As such, it is likely the mindful communicative traits would operate at varying degrees

depending on different contexts as well.

While a college campus cannot control the external contextual factors leading to

increased narcissistic traits in the student population, a campus could create an internal context

that diminishes narcissistic traits through cultivating mindfulness practice. Mindfulness practice

could potentially facilitate the awareness and questioning of narcissistic external context,

potentially leading to diminishing narcissistic traits and increasing mindful communication. The

commonality shared among the mindful communicative traits (e.g., perspective, self-regulation,

non-judgement, self/others awareness, and connectedness with others) has its roots in

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mindfulness practices with the development of empathy being central to manifesting each trait
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(Gerdes, Segal, Jackson, & Mullins, 2011). Empathy shifts the focus of self toward others.

Defining Mindfulness Practice

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The historic beginnings of mindfulness practice date back approximately 2,500 years and

have been integrated into cultures with varying philosophical applications (Brendel, 2018). A

Vietnamese monk, Thich Nhat Hanh, brought mindfulness to the Western world with a focus on
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“engaged Buddhism for peaceful social change” (Wright, 2013, p. 559). Hahn (2008) notes

mindfulness, wellbeing, and responsibility are interconnected, whereby nurturing our minds

enriches our capacity to work and facilitate change in the world. Baer et al.’s (2006) research has

shown mindfulness to be multidimensional, comprising of five distinct, yet interrelated elements:

Observing of experience (internal and external), describing with words (labeling

experiences), acting with awareness (purposeful attention), non-judging of inner

experience (non-evaluative of sensations, cognitions, and emotions), and non-reactivity to

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 inner experience (allowing feelings to come and go without getting carried away by

them) (pp. 27-45).

The Westernization of Mindfulness Practice

In 1979, Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn recognized the potential benefits of mindfulness concepts

and blended it with Western medicine, launching the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

Center (MBSR), as part of the University of Massachusetts Medical School, now known as The

Mindful Center (Center for Mindfulness, 2018). MBSR continues to provide mindfulness

training consisting of an eight-week program where participants are learning and applying

mindfulness techniques in the context of daily life activities and interpersonal interactions

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(Khaddouma, Gordon, & Strand, 2017). Several controlled studies have validated MBSR’s
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effectiveness for a wide breadth of clinical issues and populations (Grosman, Niemann, Schmidt,

& Walach, 2004) pointing to MBSR playing a key role in positive physical and mental effects
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(Nyklicek & Kuijpers, 2008). Additionally, many studies have shown MBSR participants

reporting increases in each individual facet of mindfulness (e.g. observing, describing,

awareness, non-judgment, and non-reaction) following mindfulness training (Carmody & Baer,
PR

2009; Carmody, Baer, Lykins, & Olendzki, 2009). Ultimately, the recognition of mindfulness’

clinical success fueled further research and application into other disciplines, including

communication.

Mindfulness Scholarship

Mindfulness literature has primarily focused on clinical interventions (Chiesa, Fazia,

Bernardinelli, & Morandi, 2017), and has since extended out to romantic relationships,

(Karremans, Schellekens, & Kappen, 2017) organizational (Hafenbrack, 2017; Leroy, Anseel,

Dimitrova, & Sels, 2013), and pedagogical applications (Deringer, 2017; O’Donnell, 2015).

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