🧬 The Fundamental Unit of Life (Class 9–10) — Ultimate Notes
🔰 INTRODUCTION: What is Life Made of?
1. Cell
• The smallest unit of life, both structurally and functionally.
• All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
• First discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 in cork slices using a self-designed microscope.
2. Unicellular Organisms
• Organisms with only one cell (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium, Bacteria).
• One cell performs all life processes: digestion, excretion, reproduction, etc.
3. Multicellular Organisms
• Made up of many cells (e.g., Humans, Plants).
• Cells are specialized to perform different functions.
4. Cell Theory
• Proposed by Schleiden (botanist) and Schwann (zoologist):
a) All living organisms are composed of cells.
b) The cell is the basic unit of life.
• Later modified by Rudolf Virchow:
c) All cells arise from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e-cellula).
5. Microscope
• An instrument used to view cells.
• Electron microscopes give more detailed views than light microscopes.
6. Discovery of Cell Components
• Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in 1831.
• Purkinje coined the term 'protoplasm' for cell fluid.
• With improved microscopes, organelles were gradually identified.
🧱 TYPES OF CELLS
7. Prokaryotic Cells
• Simpler cells without a true nucleus (no nuclear membrane).
• DNA floats in cytoplasm in a region called nucleoid.
• No membrane-bound organelles.
• Divides by binary fission.
• Example: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria.
8. Eukaryotic Cells
• More complex cells with a well-defined nucleus.
• Have membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, ER, etc.
• Divide by mitosis or meiosis.
• Example: Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, protists.
🧬 BASIC STRUCTURE OF A CELL
1️PLASMA MEMBRANE / CELL MEMBRANE
9. Plasma Membrane
• The outermost flexible boundary of the cell.
• Made of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
• Selectively permeable: allows only certain substances to pass.
10.Functions
• Controls movement of substances (nutrients, gases, waste).
• Maintains homeostasis (internal balance).
• Helps in cell communication and recognition.
• Allows endocytosis and exocytosis.
11.Transport Mechanisms
• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration (O₂, CO₂).
• Osmosis: Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of low solute to
high solute concentration.
• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against concentration gradient.
12.Types of Osmosis
• Hypotonic solution – Water enters, cell swells (can burst in animal cells).
• Hypertonic solution – Water leaves, cell shrinks (plasmolysis in plant cells).
• Isotonic solution – No net water movement, cell stays normal.
2️CELL WALL (Only in Plant Cells)
13.Cell Wall
• Rigid outer covering found only in plant cells.
• Composed of cellulose (a complex carbohydrate).
• Also found in fungi (made of chitin) and some protists.
14.Functions
• Gives mechanical strength, rigidity, and protection.
• Prevents bursting in hypotonic solutions.
• Fully permeable to gases and water.
• Supports the shape and structure of the cell.
3️. CYTOPLASM
15.Cytoplasm
• Jelly-like fluid inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus.
• Contains cytosol (fluid) + all cell organelles.
16.Functions
• Site of various metabolic reactions.
• Supports and suspends organelles.
• Allows movement of materials inside the cell.
• Helps in cellular expansion and growth.
🧠 NUCLEUS — Control Center of the Cell
17.Nucleus
• Membrane-bound organelle present in eukaryotic cells.
• Controls all cell activities and contains genetic material (DNA).
18.Parts of Nucleus
• Nuclear envelope: Double membrane with nuclear pores (controls material entry/exit).
• Nucleoplasm: Viscous fluid inside the nucleus.
• Nucleolus: Dark body within nucleus; synthesizes ribosomes.
• Chromatin: Thread-like DNA structures which coil during division to form chromosomes.
19.Functions of Nucleus
• Controls metabolism, growth, reproduction.
• Carries hereditary information (genes).
• Directs protein synthesis.
• Coordinates all cell activities like an operating system.
🧪 CELL ORGANELLES (Membrane-Bound)
4️ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
20.Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Network of membranes forming channels in the cytoplasm.
• Continuous with the nuclear envelope.
21.Rough ER (RER)
• Studded with ribosomes.
• Helps in protein synthesis and transport.
• Especially abundant in cells producing enzymes or hormones.
22.Smooth ER (SER)
• No ribosomes.
• Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies harmful substances (especially in liver cells).
• Helps in calcium ion storage in muscle cells.
• Also involved in steroid hormone production.
5️GOLGI APPARATUS
23.Golgi Apparatus (or Golgi body / Golgi complex)
• Stack of membrane-bound sacs called cisternae.
• Works closely with ER.
24.Functions
• Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids from ER.
• Forms lysosomes.
• Secretes materials via vesicles.
• Involved in the formation of cell wall materials (in plants).
6️LYSOSOMES
25.Lysosomes
• Small, membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes.
• Formed from Golgi apparatus.
26.Functions
• Digest damaged organelles, food particles, and invading pathogens.
• Also known as suicidal bags (they can burst and destroy the cell if needed).
• Help during development (e.g., removal of webbing between fingers in embryo).
7️MITOCHONDRIA
27.Mitochondria
• Double membrane-bound organelle.
• Inner membrane has folds called cristae (increase surface area).
• Matrix: fluid-filled space inside.
• Has its own DNA and ribosomes.
28.Functions
• Site of cellular respiration.
• Produces ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) — the energy currency.
• Helps regulate cell metabolism.
• Plays a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death).
8️PLASTIDS (Only in Plant Cells)
29.Plastids – Double membrane organelles found only in plant cells.
30.Types of Plastids
• Chloroplasts: Green; contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
• Chromoplasts: Colored (yellow, orange, red pigments).
• Leucoplasts: Colorless; store starch, proteins, or oils.
31.Chloroplast Structure
• Contains thylakoids (stacked like coins = grana).
• Fluid part is called stroma.
• Has own DNA and ribosomes — can self-replicate.
• Site of light and dark reactions of photosynthesis.
9️VACUOLES
32.Vacuoles
• Storage sacs in the cell surrounded by a membrane.
• Larger and permanent in plant cells.
• Smaller and temporary in animal cells.
33.Functions
• Store water, sugars, ions, and waste.
• Maintains turgor pressure in plant cells.
• Provides rigidity by pressing against the cell wall.
• Stores pigments and toxic compounds for defense.
🔟 RIBOSOMES
34.Ribosomes
• Tiny, non-membrane-bound organelles made of RNA and proteins.
• Found freely in cytoplasm or on RER.
35.Function
• Site of protein synthesis.
• Translate genetic code (mRNA) into amino acid chains.
🔄 CELL ORGANELLES COMPARISON CHART
Organelle Present in Membrane Function
Nucleus Both Double Controls cell, holds DNA
ER (R/S) Both Single Transport, protein/lipid synthesis
Golgi Apparatus Both Single Modifies, packages materials
Lysosome Animal Single Digestion, waste removal
Mitochondria Both Double Energy production (ATP)
Plastids Plant Double Photosynthesis, storage
Vacuoles Both Single Storage
Ribosomes Both None Protein synthesis
⚖️KEY DIFFERENCES
🔹 Plant Cell vs Animal Cell
Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell wall Present Absent
Chloroplast Present (photosynthesis) Absent
Vacuole Large, central Small or absent
Shape Rectangular Irregular/Round
Centrioles Absent Present
Energy Source Sunlight (Photosynthesis) Food only
🧠 ADDITIONAL TERMS & CONCEPT
36.ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) – Molecule that stores and transports energy.
37.Endocytosis – Cell engulfs food or foreign particles (e.g., Amoeba).
38.Exocytosis – Cell expels waste by vesicle fusion with membrane.
39.Turgidity – Swelling due to water intake in plant cells.
40.Plasmolysis – Cytoplasm shrinks due to water loss in hypertonic solution.
41.Homeostasis – Stable internal environment maintained by the cell.
42.Semi-autonomous organelles – Mitochondria and chloroplasts (have DNA and replicate independently).
43.Organelle inheritance – Mitochondrial DNA is passed from mother to offspring (maternal inheritance).
