Organizational Behaviour

Revision of Unit - 01

1. Define OB.

2. What is meant by OB?

3. Explain the importance of OB.

4. Elucidate foundations of OB.

5. Explain personal factors of Individual Behavior.

6. Explain environmental factors of Individual Behavior.

 Unit II
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN
ORGANIZATIONS

Personality-Definition and Meaning, Nature, Determinants and Traits

of Personality
Perception- Definition and Meaning, Factors influencing perception,
Perceptual Process and Perceptual Errors.
Learning-Nature, Theories of Learning-classical conditioning theory,
Operant conditioning theory, Cognitive learning theory, Social learning
theory and Principles of Learning.
Attitude - Nature, Formation, Barriers to change in attitude and ways
to overcome barriers.
Personality
 Introduction

Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of

thinking, feeling and behaving. Personality embraces moods, attitudes,
and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other
people. It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and
acquired, that distinguish one person from another and that can be
observed in people’s relations to the environment and to the social
group.
What is your personality
 Definition of Personality

• According to American Psychological Association, “Personality refers

to, individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling
and behaving.”
Murthy is much-admired for his simplicity and down-to-earth
nature, besides being respected for his strong leadership skills.

https://seeken.org/narayana-murthy-story/
You might fail, but get started

Think big. don't hesitate to start small

• When Infosys was set up, Murthy took a pay cut while salaries of other
co-founders were increased by 10 percent. According to Murthy, a
leader needs to show his or her sacrifice and commitment.
• After Murthy convinced seven of his colleagues, there was a problem.
Nandan's future in laws were not sure about him. Murthy met
Nandan's uncle and convinced him. This shows his down-to-earth
personality.
• After the IPO, Infosys decided to share a portion of its equity with
employees. This helped them retain talent and gave employees a
sense of ownership. Murthy is proud of having given away stocks
worth over Rs 50,000 crore to employees.
• Hire a good accountant, even if he is argumentative
A young, argumentative Indian, was asking too many questions at an
annual general body meeting of Infosys. More impressed than
irritated, he hired Mohandas Pai, who went on to help Infosys list on
Nasdaq.
NATURE OF PERSONALITY
 Nature of Personality
Introduction:
The nature of every individual is attributed to his personality. Generally, an
individual asserts through his behavioral characteristics. Matured persons
with their longstanding experience, take an objective attitude (a perspective
or approach characterized by a focus on facts, evidence, and logic, rather
than personal feelings, opinions, or biases) towards themselves and others.
They also introspect (examine one's own thoughts or feelings), so as to help
improve upon their nature and behaviour.
 Nature of Personality
i. Self consciousness:
There is a vast difference between human being and other species. The
special feature of his nature is ‘self-conscious’, which makes him aware
of his surroundings and self-identity.

A self-conscious person might worry about how he looks or whether

he's saying the right things.
 Nature of Personality
ii. Adaptability to Environment:
Personality, off and on, does make adjustments according to the
changes desired. Resistance to change, means a conflict with tension
and unpleasantness. Normally, people adapt to the changed situations
and challenges. Adaptation to new situations often follows a
modification in behavioural pattern leading to a smooth working
condition and a conducive environment.
 Nature of Personality
iii. Goal Oriented
Persons strive for achievement of goal. Individuals do have the drive to
achieve goals. Wants and needs lead to motive. The desire of an
individual directs the behaviour for the fulfilment of the same. Both the
physiological and social motives make behavioral changes.
 Nature of Personality
iv. Integration of Personality:
Personality works in consistency by integrating various activities (of
mental and also experiences of the individual) together. Personality
differs in the form of its integration. Persons with developed
personalities are highly integrated with values and experiences. This
depends on the standards of behaviour, which they have acquired right
from the childhood.
 Nature of Personality
v. Unique
Personality is unique and specific to the individual

vi. Dynamic

Personality is dynamic and get changed over the period of time. It is a

continuous process. Growth and development in personality occurs by
learning and experience.
 Nature of Personality
vii. Psycho-physical system
Personality is subject to biological as well as psychological influences.
Mind and body are united.
Personality Test
Determinants of Personality
Determinants and Traits of Personality

• Personality can be described as the collective qualities,

characteristics, disposition and values of a person which distinguish
him from others and which will affect the manners he reacts toward
or interacts with other people and the environment.

Determinants – element that identifies and determines the nature of

something
Determinants and Traits of Personality
 Determinants and Traits of Personality
1. Biological Factors

The basic characteristics of the human biological system determine how human beings absorb

external stimuli and react to them.

The contribution of biology in the field of personality development is divided into the following

three major categories:

a) Heredity: Heredity influences the physical, emotional and mental states of an individual. As

heredity has an impact on the nature of an individual, hence it causes variation in personalities.

Heredity factors are the tendencies and attitudes that are passed on from parents and they

determine a person's nature.

 Determinants and Traits of Personality

1. Biological Factors
b) Brain: The brain is one of the most important personality
determinants. It is generally believed the father and the child adopt
almost the same type of brain stimulation. Later differences are the
result of the environment in which the child has grown.
c) Physical Characteristics: One of the most important factors in
determining personality are an individual's physical characteristics.
These factors play a vital role in determining one’s behavior in a social
organization.
 Determinants and Traits of Personality

1. Biological Factors

Physical characteristics include, but are not limited to:

• Height
• Skin tone
• Weight
• Hair color
• Beauty
These factors influence interactions with other people, contributing to
personality development.
 Determinants and Traits of Personality

2. Cultural Factors
Culture is one of the most important factors in shaping the personality
of an individual. It decides what the person actually is and what he is
learning. These cultural factors help in giving shape to the features and
attributes of one's personality. Customs associated with a culture also
determine the personality of an individual. Hence, the cultural
surroundings of a person should be considered while estimating his
personality.
 Determinants and Traits of Personality

3. Situational Factors
The personality formation of an individual also depends on situational
factors. Situational factors are dynamic and change with the social
conditions. People come across various situations that change their
perspective toward things.
A particular situation might have a huge impact on a person. It might
be restrictive or motivational. The person might not behave as per his
nature, but as per the situation he is facing.
 Determinants and Traits of Personality
4. Social Factors
• The personality of an individual is affected by numerous social factors such as nuclear families
and remote and universal alliances. Family and social background have an immense impact on
personality development. The following factors affect personality development:

The following factors from the home can affect the personality of an individual

 Broken home, separated (or) divorced parents, alcoholic parents, quarrel-some parents.
 Over ambitious parents
 Parental preferences on the gender (male or female) of the child
 Step parents
 Number of children in the family.
 Educational and socio- economic status of parents
 

Determinants and Traits of Personality

4. Social Factors

The following factors from the social groups can affect the personality of an individual

School

School factors responsible in shaping the personality of the children include:

 Discipline of the school

 Opportunity available for various curricular and co curricular activities.

 Size of the school

 Organizational climate of the school

• Personality of the teachers

Others: friend circle, colleagues at work
 

Determinants and Traits of Personality

5. Physical Environment

• Every feeling, emotion, idea, attitude, habit, behaviour and body structure is the
result of the physical environment that surrounds the person.

• For example, the colour, health and physique of people belonging to rural areas
differ from people belonging to urban areas. Their personalities differ due to the
different environments in which they are brought up. Urban people enjoy all the
modern facilities and lifestyles which results in delicate bodies and minds. Rural
people, on the other hand, lack such facilities and hence their lifestyles and
mindset are totally different.

 Big Five Personality Traits – The 5 Factor
Model of Personality
• Broadly there are five parameters which describe an individual’s
personality. These five dimensions are also called as “Big Five”
Factors, and the model is referred to as Five Factor Model, also
abbreviated as FFM.
• The Five Factor Model was initially proposed by Costa & McCrae in
the year 1992 and often describes the relation between an
individual’s personality and various behaviours.
 Big Five Personality Traits – The 5 Factor
Model of Personality
1. Openness to experience
- Individuals with openness to experience are
generally very active, have a tremendous
inclination towards creativity and aesthetics and
listen to their heart i.e. follow their inner feelings.
Such individuals are generally open to new
learnings, skill sets and experiences.
- People who score high on openness are quite
broadminded and modern in their outlook as
compared to individuals who score low on the
same parameter. Such individuals are conservative,
reluctant to changes and have a traditional
approach in life.
 Big Five Personality Traits – The 5 Factor
Model of Personality
2. Conscientiousness
- As the name suggests, individuals with a Conscientiousness
personality trait listen to their conscience and act accordingly. Such
individuals are extremely cautious and self disciplined. They never
perform any task in haste but think twice before acting.
- People with this personality trait are generally methodical and tend
to become perfectionists in the long run.
- People who score high on conscientiousness are proactive, goal
oriented and self disciplined. They strive hard to accomplish goals and
objectives within the stipulated time frame. Individuals who score less
are little laid back and are not much goal oriented.
 Big Five Personality Traits – The 5 Factor Model of Personality

3. Extraversion and Introversion

• Extraversion: Extraversion refers to a state where individuals show more concern
towards what is happening outside.
• Such individuals love interacting with people around and are generally
talkative. They do not like spending time alone but love being the centre of
attraction of parties and social gatherings.
• Such individuals love going out, partying, meeting people and often get bored
when they are all by themselves. They admire the company of others and hate
staying alone.
 Big Five Personality Traits – The 5 Factor Model of Personality

3. Extraversion and Introversion

• Introversion: Introversion, on the other hand refers to a state when an individual
is concerned only with his own life and nothing else.
• Such individuals do not bother about others and are seldom interested in what
is happening around. They prefer staying back at home rather than going out and
spending time with friends.
• Such individuals speak less and enjoy their own company. You would never find
them in meetings, clubs, parties or social get-togethers. They generally do not
have many friends and tend to rely on few trusted ones.
 Big Five Personality Traits – The 5 Factor
Model of Personality
4. Agreeableness
• Agreeableness is a personality trait which teaches individuals to be
adjusting in almost all situations.
• Such individuals do not crib and face changes with a smile. They
accommodate themselves to all situations and are friendly and kind
hearted. People who score high on agreeableness are ready to help
others and flash their trillion dollar smile whenever a problem arises.
• Individuals who score low on agreeableness on the other hand find
difficulties in adjusting with others and are little unfriendly.
 Big Five Personality Traits – The 5 Factor
Model of Personality
5. Neuroticism
- Neuroticism is a trait where individuals are prone to negative
thoughts such as anxiety, anger, envy, guilt and so on.
- Such individuals are often in a state of depression and do not know
how to enjoy life. They always look at the negative sides of life and find
extremely difficult to cope up with stress.
Other Traits
You may have heard people say they are "Type A." Since researchers
started studying Type A personality, beginning with cardiologists Meyer
Friedman and Ray Rosenman in the 1950s, it has become a household
term.
Type A Personality Characteristics
1. Achievement-oriented
2. Competitive
3. Fast-paced
4. Impatient
Type A Personality
 Type B Personality

Type B personalities tend to be less focused on competitiveness and more on

enjoying the journey.

This doesn't mean that Type Bs don't like to achieve. They may work hard
and take real pride in their accomplishments, but they don't attach the same
stress to their outcomes if they don't come in first or achieve the most,
something that tends to create significant stress in Type As.
 Type C and D Personality

People with Type C personality tend to be more passive; they may put
the needs of others before their own and repress any negative
emotions. Type D (the D is for "distressed") is characterized by negative
emotions like worry and an attempt to inhibit these emotions, while
avoiding social interaction.
 Machiavellianism Personality
"Machiavellian" generally describes someone who is cunning, deceitful, and willing
to manipulate others to achieve their goals, often prioritizing personal gain over
ethical considerations.
People with ‘Machiavellian’ traits are unemotional and regularly deceive
(cheat/mislead) and manipulate others.
(The term originates from the Italian diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli, particularly his
book "The Prince," which analyzes political strategies, sometimes seen as amoral,
for acquiring and maintaining power).
 Machiavellianism Personality
Common signs of Machiavellianism
Seven common signs of a Machiavellian personality are:
• Competing with others rather than cooperating.
• Manipulating others in order to reach their goals.
• Luring (trapping/tempting) others into wild behaviour to further their own
ends.
• Making plans for personal benefit with no consideration of their effect on
other people.
• Promoting their own interests.
• Minimising or controlling other people’s power of influence.
• Failing to share critical information with others, if it suits their interests.
PART B

Perception
 Meaning of Perception
Meaning of Perception
Different individuals have different thinking styles, beliefs, feelings and
objectives etc. and almost every individual behaves accordingly. Just
because of these factors different people take different meaning for the
same things. For some, a particular thing is right where as for some it is
totally wrong. It is all because how you take things, what is your point
of view, how you look at things. This is perception.
 Definition of Perception

According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as “the process

by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions
to give meaning to their environments.”
How perception works?
How perception works?
How perception works?
How perception Describes the elephant as a wall, snake, fan, etc.,
respectively. They argue vehemently, each convinced of

works? their own singular truth, failing to grasp the larger

reality.
 Factors affecting Perception

The factors in the PERCEIVER that affect perception are:

Attitude: Attitudes have a powerful influence on what we pay attention to, what
we remember, and how we interpret information. Different attitudes lead to
different interpretations.

A person who has negative attitude towards some set of people always will have
problem with whatever they do.

Motives: Person’s most urgent needs and desires any given time can influence
perception. Motives stimulate individuals. It is unsatisfied need. They exert strong
influence on perception. For example; hungry people tend to see images of food.
 Factors affecting Perception

The factors in the perceiver that affect perception are:

Emotions- An individual’s emotional state strongly influences

perception. Anger and frustration distort perception.

A manager who is angry after a tense meeting may misinterpret a

colleague’s neutral facial expression as disrespect or defiance, even if
the colleague meant no offense. The emotional state clouds objective
interpretation.
 Factors affecting Perception

The factors in the perceiver that affect perception are:

Interests- Individual interests differ considerably. Interest influences

the focus of attention. Differences in individual interests result in
differing perceptions. Ex: an architect sees minute details of building

During a cricket match, a sports enthusiast may notice player strategies

and techniques, while a fashion designer may be drawn to the players’
uniforms and branding. Their interests guide what they focus on and
how they perceive the same event.
 Factors affecting Perception

Factors in the perceiver

Experiences- Past experiences affect the focus of attention. Individuals

tend to perceive those objects or events to which they can relate to.

A person who was once bitten by a dog may perceive all dogs as
dangerous, even if the current dog is friendly and calm. Their past
experience directs their attention to signs of threat, even if none exist.
 Factors affecting Perception

Factors in the perceiver

Expectations- People see what they expect to see. Anticipation of a

particular behaviour from a person affects what a person perceives. Eg: A
teacher would notice rough behaviour of last benchers than first benchers.

A teacher, expecting mischief from last bench students, may immediately

interpret whispering or laughing among them as disturbance, even if it’s
unrelated to class. Meanwhile, the same behavior from first benchers might
be ignored or excused.
 Factors affecting Perception
Factors in the Target
• Novelty- Novelty targets are more likely to be noticed than the
targets observed in the past.
 Factors affecting Perception
Factors in the Target

• Motion, sound, size- They shape the way we see the target. People
gives more attention to moving objects than the stationery objects.
Loud people are more likely to be noticed. Larger object will be
noticed than a small object.
 Factors affecting Perception
Factors in the Target

• Proximity- Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived

together.
 Factors affecting Perception
Factors in the Target

• Proximity- Proximity or geographical proximity is an important factor

for formation of groups. For the same reason an individual behaviour
may be perceived to be group behavior.
Factors affecting Perception
 Factors affecting Perception
Factors in the Target

• Similarity- Similar things need to be grouped together. if things are

similar to us, we perceive it easily and quickly. Eg: An army person
perceives an army staff easily.
 Factors affecting Perception
Factors in the Situation
• Time- The time at which an object or event is seen affects perception.
For example; a daily report arriving after two days may be ignored by
the perceiver.
• Work setting- The changing context of the work setting influences
perception. For example; stressful work situations distort perception.
• Social setting- The changing social setting influences perception. For
example; a male student wearing earrings may not be noticed in a
disco but highly noticeable in the classroom.
Perceptual Process
• Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting
information. This process includes the perception of select stimuli
that pass through our perceptual filters , are organized into our
existing structures and patterns, and are then interpreted based on
previous experiences.
 Perceptual Process
1. Perceptual Input

Sensory Stimulation

The occurrence of sensory stimulation basically this part of perception process

involves in contact with a particular stimulus. The world is full of stimuli that can
attract our attention through various senses. Thus, we are able to describe
systematically the sights, sound, smell and taste that populate our conscious
experience. Stimulation includes selective attention and selective exposure.
1. Stimulation

Process of receiving stimuli

2. Perceptual Process

a. Selection of Stimuli
Out of all received stimuli, some necessary stimuli are selected for
further processing.

Factors governing selection of stimuli – Internal and External

 External factors influencing selection of stimuli

Expectations

People usually see what they expect to see, and what they expect to see is

usually based on familiarity, . Previous experience, or preconditioned set.

Motives

People tend to perceive the things they need or want; the stronger the need

the greater the tendency to ignore unrelated stimuli in the environment.

 External factors influencing selection of stimuli
Size, back ground, movement, repetition: The bigger the size of the stimulus, the higher is the

probability that it is perceived. Size always attracts the attention, because it establishes dominance.

The size may be the height or weight of an individual, sign board of a shop, or the space devoted to an

advertisement in the newspaper. A very tall person will always stand out in the crowd on the other

hand; a very short person will also attract attention. A full page advertisement will always catch

attention as compared to a few lines in the classified section.

Repetition: supervisors make it a point to give the necessary directions again and again to the

workers. Similarly, the same advertisement or different advertisement but for the same product shown,

again and again on the TV will have more attention as compared to an advertisement which is shown

once
 External factors influencing selection of stimuli

Intensity attracts to increase the selective perception. A few examples of

intensity are yelling or whispering, very bright colours, very bright or very dim

lights. Intensity will also include behavioural intensity. If the office order says

“Report to the boss immediately,” it will be more intense and effective as

compared to the office order which says “Make it convenient to meet the

boss today.”
Internal factors influencing selection of stimuli
Psychological needs: Our current needs and desires play a huge role in
what we pay attention to. When someone is hungry, they are more likely to
notice food-related advertisements.

Background: One’s cultural, social, and educational background affects how

they interpret and respond to stimuli.
• A person from a rural background may perceive a cityscape differently
than someone raised in an urban environment.
• Cultural norms influence what is seen as respectful, offensive, beautiful,
or appropriate.
• Background helps determine which stimuli are relevant or important
based on learned values and traditions.
Internal factors influencing selection of stimuli

• Experience: Past experiences shape what we focus on and how we

perceive it. A person with positive experiences with dogs is more likely to

perceive a dog as friendly, while someone with a negative past may see it

as threatening.

• Personality: An individual’s personality traits influence attention and

interpretation of stimuli. Optimists tend to focus on positive stimuli, while

pessimists may be more alert to negative details.

b. Process of Organizing

The aspect of forming bits of information into meaningful wholes is called

perceptual organization .
b. Process of Organizing
Figure and Grounds
People have tendency to organize their perceptions into figure and ground relationship.
How a figure- ground pattern is perceived can be influenced by prior pleasant or painful
associations with one or the other element in isolation. in the organisational setting, some
people are more noticed or stand out than others. For example, an individual in the
organisation might try to focus his entire attention on his immediate supervisor, trying to be
in his good books, completely ignoring his colleagues and how they feel about his
behaviour. According to this principle, thus, the perceiver tends to organize only the
information which stands out in the environment which seems to be significant to the
individual.
b. Process of Organizing

Grouping
Grouping is the tendency to curb individual stimuli into meaningful patterns. For instance, if
we perceive objects or people with similar characteristics, we tend to group them together
and this organizing mechanism helps us to deal with information in an efficient way rather
than getting bogged down and confused with so many details. This tendency of grouping is
very basic in nature and largely seems to be inborn.
b. Process of Organizing

Closure
Individuals have a need for closure. They express this need by organizing their perceptions so that they form a
complete picture. If the pattern of stimuli to which they are exposed is incomplete, they tend to perceive it,
nevertheless, as complete; that is, they consciously or subconsciously fill in the missing pieces.
if a manager perceives a worker, on the whole, a hard worker, sincere, honest, then even, if he behaves in a
contradictory way sometimes (which is a kind of a gap), the manager will tend to ignore it, because it does not
fit in with the overall impression, that he has about the worker.
b. Process of Organizing

Proximity
The principle of proximity or nearness states that a group of stimuli that are close together will be
perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. For example, several people working on a
machine will be considered as a single group so that if the productivity on that particular machine is
low, then the entire group will be considered responsible even though, only some people in the group
may be inefficient.
c. Process of Interpreting

It is the process of understanding and giving meaning to the organized stimuli.

Perceptual interpretation is an integral part of the perception process. Without interpretation,
selection and organisation of information do not make any sense. After the information has
been received and organised, the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the
information.
c. Process of Interpreting
It is the process of understanding and giving meaning to the organized stimuli.
4. Process of Interpreting
4. Process of Interpreting
III. Perceptual Outputs:

Perceptual outputs encompass all that results from the throughout process. These would
include such factors as one’s attitudes, opinions, feelings, values and behaviours resulting
from the perceptual inputs and throughputs. Perceptual errors adversely affect the
perceptual outputs.

This will help us to form the right attitudes and engage in appropriate behavioural patterns,
which in turn will be beneficial for attaining the desired organizational outcomes. It is
essentially important for managers who are responsible for organizational results to
enhance their skills in order to develop the right attitudes and behaviours.
Learning
 Learning
Learning is a process by which new behaviors are acquired. It is generally
agreed that learning involves changes in behavior, practicing new behaviors
and establishing permanency in the change. Learning is any permanent
change in behavior of a person that occurs as result of experience. Learning
has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, and responds as a result of
experience in a manner different from the way he formerly behaved. Since
learning changes the behaviour of person, it comes to have a
great importance in organizational behaviour.
 Nature of Learning
(1) It Creates Change:
Learning brings change in behaviour. If a person learns
something but there is no change in his behaviour, it
cannot be described as learning. For example, an
employee undergoes a training for doing work with
the help of better systems of working. As a result of
this, he starts working in a better way. This will be
called learning. On the contrary, if he works in his
usual manner even after undergoing training, it
cannot be called learning.
 Nature of Learning
(2) It Creates Permanent Change:
Learning is what is permanent. If after
getting training to work it is forgotten it
cannot be called learning. It will be called
learning only when the information or
knowledge obtained through training is
brought into use for a long time. A change
happening only for a short time does not
fall in the category of learning.
 Nature of Learning
(3) It must be Felt:

Whatever we learn should get reflected in our

behaviour. If our learning is not seen in our behaviour,
it will not be called learning. For example, we have
learnt the principles of management after an intensive
study, but our behaviour does not reflect it, it will not
be called learning. After learning about the principles
of management, bringing them into use is the real
learning.
 Nature of Learning
(4) It is an Intangible Activity:

Learning is an activity which is not visible but can

only be felt in the behaviour of an individual.
Therefore, learning is not a tangible object.
Suppose a person has learnt the art of teaching.
Learning of teaching by him cannot be seen but it
can be felt while he is teaching.
Nature of Learning
(5) It is a Continuous Activity:

Learning is a continuous activity. Whatever

we do in our daily life, we learn something
or the other, consciously or unconsciously,
from it. There is no fixed time or age for
learning something.
 Nature of Learning
(6) It Affects Behaviour:
Learning affects one’s behaviour. In other words,
whatever we learn we reflect it in our behaviour.
Everything learnt influences or changes the
behaviour of a person.
(7) It Gives Satisfaction: We generally learn with a
particular objective. When our
determined objective is achieved it provides us
satisfaction.
 Nature of Learning
(8) Training Programs

On the basis of learning, useful training programs can

be chalked out. According to Social Learning Theory,
people learn by imitating others. During the course of
training, trainees keenly watch their trainer doing work.
Watching keenly his activities, the same are imprinted
on their minds and they learn what, when and how
they are to do work.
'Anyone can make mistakes,
but only an idiot persists in
his error.'
Theories of Learning
Theories of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning Theory

2. Operant conditioning theory

3. Cognitive learning theory

4. Social learning theory

Classical Conditioning Theory
Classical Conditioning Theory
 Classical Conditioning Theory

• Ivan Pavlov a psychologist who won Nobel prize introduced classical

conditioning theory.

• The study was undoubtedly single most famous study ever conducted
in behavioral sciences. It was a major breakthrough and had a lasting
impact on understanding of learning. This stimulus - response
connection (S-R) can be applied in management.
 Classical Conditioning Theory
• Historically when a CEO visits an organization, production charts are updated,
individuals put on a good dress, window panes are cleaned and floors are
washed. What all one has to do is to just say that the Top Boss is visiting. You will
find that all above work is undertaken (response) without any instructions.

Because the people in the organization have learned the behavior (conditioned). It
has caused a permanent change in the organization (S-R connections).

https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859
Classical Conditioning Theory
Classical Conditioning Theory
Classical Conditioning Theory
Operant conditioning theory
 Operant conditioning theory
• The second type of conditioning is called operant conditioning.
• Here, we learn that a particular behavior is usually followed by a
reward or punishment. What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the
Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner did for operant conditioning.

• Operant conditioning argues that one’s behavior will depend on

different situations. People will repeatedly behave in a specific way
from where they will get benefits.
 Operant conditioning theory

• On the other hand, they will try to avoid a behavior from where they
will get nothing. Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences
to specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that
behavior.
 Operant conditioning theory

• On the other hand, they will try to avoid a behavior from where they
will get nothing. Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences
to specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that
behavior.
• At first, the rat ran around the box randomly.
• In this process, it happened to press the lever, and the food dropped
into the box. The dropping of food-reinforced the response of
pressing the lever.
 Operant conditioning theory

• After repeating the process of pressing the lever followed by dropping

off food many times, the rat learned to press the lever for food.

• People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are

positively reinforced for doing so. Rewards are most effective if they
immediately follow the desired response. Also, behavior that is not
rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.
 Operant conditioning theory

• For example, suppose you are an employee of ‘X’ Bank limited. Your
Branch Manager has announced in a meeting that you will get a
bonus if you can bring a 10,00,000 deposit for the bank. You worked
hard and found that you have done this successfully.
But when the time comes, you find that you are given no bonus for
your hard work.
 Operant conditioning theory
• In the next year, if your manager again says you about the hard work,
maybe you will be stopped because last year you did not receive
anything for it. Many activities that we will engage in during everyday
life can be classified as an operant.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognitive Learning Theory
• Cognitive Learning Theory explains how people understand, process,
and retain information.
• It focuses on the internal mental processes involved in learning, such
as thinking, memory, problem-solving, and perception.
• Unlike behaviorist theories that emphasize external stimuli and
responses, cognitive theory highlights the role of the mind in making
sense of experiences.
• This theory helps educators design strategies that enhance
comprehension and long-term learning.
 Cognitive Learning - Meaning

• Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you

learn how to maximize your brain’s potential. It makes it easier for you to
connect new information with existing ideas hence deepening your
memory and retention capacity.

• The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and retain information
through experience, senses, and thought is known as cognition.
 Cognitive Learning Theory

• It imagines that with effective cognitive processes, learning is easier

and new information can be stored in the memory for a long time.

• On the other hand, ineffective cognitive processes result in learning

difficulties that can be seen anytime during the lifetime of an
individual.
 Cognitive Learning Theory

• Examples of cognitive learning strategies include:

Encouraging discussions about what is being taught. Helping

students explore and understand how ideas are connected. Asking
students to justify and explain their thinking. Using visualizations to
improve students' understanding and recall.
 Cognitive Learning Theory

• Employers need to expose employees to training on cognitive

learning—an organization whose employees have strong cognitive
skills is likely successful.

• Well-trained and fully engaged employees are capable of learning

quickly and being highly productive by handling multiple complex
tasks without the necessity of a supervisor.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
Key Contributors:
• Jean Piaget – Proposed that children go through stages of cognitive
development and learn by interacting with their environment.
• Jerome Bruner – Emphasized the importance of categorization,
discovery learning, and the spiral curriculum.
• Albert Bandura – Introduced the concept of observational learning
or social learning, later integrating it into a broader cognitive
framework.
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory
According to Albert Bandura’s Principles of Social Learning Theory, “social
learning theory aligned mostly with previous behavioral theories. It stated
the following:
• When someone witnesses a ‘model’ performing a specific behavior, as well
as the consequences of that behavior, they can commit the sequence of
actions to memory and recall that data to guide their future behaviors.
• People do not learn new behaviors simply by attempting them, and then
succeeding or failing. Instead, they depend largely upon the imitation of
action sequences by other people.
• People choose to replicate or dismiss certain behaviors based on how they
observe others being rewarded or punished for those behaviors, or the
outcomes of those behaviors.
Social Learning Theory

• The social learning theory also called observational learning, stresses

the ability of an” individual to learn by observing what happens to
other people and just by being told about something.

• One can learn things by observing models, parents, teachers, peers,

motion pictures, TV artists, bosses, and others.
Social Learning Theory – Bobo doll experiment
• Bandura believed that all behaviors are learned through social imitation as
opposed to genetics. In the early 1960s, he began conducting a series of
now-famous studies known as the Bobo doll experiments which led to the
development of his theory which he published in 1977.

• As part of these experiments, a group of children were individually exposed

to an adult model who was physically and verbally aggressive towards a
Bobo doll.
Social Learning Theory – Bobo doll experiment
Social Learning Theory – Bobo doll experiment
• When these children were left to play with the Bobo doll independently,
many of them imitated and reproduced the behavior that they had
observed.
• This experiment was replicated at a later date but this time the adult model
was either rewarded or reprimanded for the abusive behavior.
• The results of these experiments showed that children can be influenced
and can learn from observing the behavior of others.
• It also indicated that behavior that is reinforced or rewarded tends to be
repeated, whereas behavior that is reprimanded is less likely to reoccur.
Social Learning Theory

• 4 processes have been found to determine the influence that a model

will have on an individual.
1. Attention process
• People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its
critical features.
• If the learner is not attentive they would not able to learn anything. We tend
to be most influenced by attractive models, repeatedly available, which we
think is important, or we see as similar to us.
Social Learning Theory
2. Retention process
• A model’s influence depends on how well the individuals remember the models’
actions after the model is no longer readily available.

3. Motor reproduction process

• After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must
be converted to doing. It involves recall the model’s behaviors and performing own
actions and matching them with those of the model.
• This process then demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled
activities.
Social Learning Theory
4. Reinforcement process
• Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive
incentives or rewards are provided. Behavior that is positively reinforced is
given more attention, learned better and performed more often.
Principles of Learning
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals
learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to
learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.
Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value
of the subject matter, and providing continuous mental or physical
challenge, is usually a teacher’s responsibility. If students have a strong
purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning
something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation.
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated
are best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been
proven that students learn best and retain information longer when
they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the
practice must be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to
improvement.
Every time practice occurs, learning continues.
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Effect
The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is
weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect
the students positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction.

Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger,

confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student.
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost
unshakable, impression. Things learned first create a strong impression
in the mind that is difficult to erase.
The student's first experience should be positive, functional, and lay
the foundation for all that is to follow.
for example, a student learns a faulty technique, the instructor will
have a difficult task of correcting and “re-teaching” correct ones.
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Reinforcement:
Reinforcement is the attempt to develop or strengthen desirable
behavior by either bestowing positive consequences or withholding
negative consequences.
For example, if the boss imposes a penalty on an employee for coming
late is an example of negative reinforcement.
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Recency:
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are
best remembered.

The closer the training or learning time is to the time of actual need to
apply the training, the more apt the learner will be to perform
successfully.
Frequent review and summarization help fix in the mind the material
covered.
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Intensity:
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be
retained. A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience
teaches more than a routine or boring experience.
 Principles of Learning
• Principle of Requirement:
The law of requirement states that "we must have something to
obtain or do something." It can be an ability, skill, instrument or
anything that may help us to learn or gain something.
Attitude
Attitude
• An attitude can be defined as a predisposition to respond in a
favorable or unfavorable way to objects or persons in one's
environment. When we like or dislike something, we are, in effect,
expressing our attitude toward the person or object.

• They can have a powerful influence over behavior and affect how
people act in various situations.
 Nature of Attitude
• Introduction:
Attitude is the state of mind of a person towards something. It may be
defined as a negative or positive evaluation of an object that affects a
human's behaviour towards an object, people, or event. Attitudes,
especially individual attitudes, have a key bearing on how individual
functions within the organisation, particularly as these attitudes may
be reflected in positive or negative behaviour.
 Nature of Attitude
1. Attitude has an object: An attitude has an object, which is liked or
disliked, favoured or disfavored; or evaluated as negative or positive. The
object can be an idea, a thing, a person, or a situation.

2) Attitude own Direction, Degree, and Intensity:

An attitude expresses how a person feels toward something. It expresses:

i) Direction: An individual is either favourable or unfavourable towards an

object;
ii) Degree: How much a person likes or dislikes the object; and
iii) Intensity: The level of sureness or confidence of expression about
something, or how fully a person feels about his opinion.
 Nature of Attitude
3. Attitudes are learned:
Attitude is learned by a person it is not an inborn phenomenon.
Attitudes are learnt through experiences and social interactions. We
interact with others, experience many things and acquire information
about things, which leads to the formation of our negative or positive
attitudes towards different things.
 Nature of Attitude
4. Attitudes are predispositions:
An attitude is a predisposition - a prior determined or learnt view of a
thing or tendency to act in a specific way towards a thing. A person has
a view which is already formed in his mind.

5. Attitudes are relatively stable phenomena:

An attitude is not a momentary feeling but a long-held thought of
something. Though attitudes can be changed from time to time It is a
relatively stable phenomenon that persists for some time.
 Nature of Attitude

5. Attitude has an emotional component:

It has an emotional aspect of liking or disliking an object.

6. Attitudes influence human behaviour:

A positive attitude towards a thing will influence human behaviour
towards the thing favourably. Similarly, a negative attitude influences
human behaviour towards a thing unfavourably. For example, a
vegetarian person would avoid eating chicken due to his negative
attitude towards chicken consumption.
Formation of Attitude
 Formation of Attitude
• Several factors can influence how and why attitudes form, including:

• Experience
Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due
to direct personal experience, or they may result from observation.
• Social Factors
Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes.
Social roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular
role or context. Social norms involve society's rules for what behaviors
are considered appropriate.
 Formation of Attitude
• Several factors can influence how and why attitudes form, including:

• Learning
Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical
conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television
commercial, you see young, beautiful people having fun on a tropical beach while
enjoying a sports drink. This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to
develop a positive association with this particular beverage.
 Formation of Attitude

• Conditioning
Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop.
Imagine a young man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a
cigarette, people complain, chastise him, and ask him to leave their vicinity.
This negative feedback from those around him eventually causes him to
develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up the
habit.
 Formation of Attitude
• Observation
Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing people around them.
When someone you admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you
are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For example, children
spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and
usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.
 Formation of Attitude
• Personality Traits
 Formation of Attitude
• Culture
Barriers to change attitude and
ways to overcome barriers
 Barriers to change attitude

• Prior Commitment

• Insufficient Information

• Balance and Consistency

• Lack of Resources

• Improper Reward System

• Resistance to Change
 Barriers to change attitude
• Prior Commitment
When people feel a commitment towards a particular course of action that has
already been agreed upon, it becomes difficult for them to change or accept the
new ways of functioning.

Eg: Manager was very positive towards new employee and promised him to keep

him for 6 months minimum, but even if the employee failed to work, due to his
prior commitment, he cannot change his decision to terminate him.
 Barriers to change attitude

• Insufficient Information

It also acts as a major barrier to change attitudes. Sometimes people

do not see why they should change their attitude due to the
unavailability of adequate information.

Eg: Some people think that all govt. employees take bribes and do not
do hard work like private employees.
 Barriers to change attitude
• Insufficient Information

It also acts as a major barrier to change attitudes. Sometimes people do not

see why they should change their attitude due to the unavailability of
adequate information.

Eg: Some people think that all govt. employees take bribes and do not do
hard work like private employees. This attitude is shown because people
have less information about govt. officials.
 Barriers to change attitude
• Lack of Resources
If plans become excessively ambitious, they can sometimes be
obstructed by the lack of resources on a company or organization.

So, in this case, if the organization wants to change the employees’

attitude towards the new plan, sometimes it becomes impossible for
the lack of resources to achieve this.

Eg: Marketing department is not able to do promotional activities due

to financial problem in the company.
 Barriers to change attitude
• Improper reward system
If an employee feels that even after putting a lot of effort he may not
be rewarded. This creates negative attitude and stops him to do better
work.
 Barriers to change attitude
• Resistance to Change
Another barrier is resistance to change.
When the authority changes a plan of the organization, the employees
have to change themselves.
But some of them do not like this. If their attitude regarding the change
of plan cannot be changed, the organization will not be successful.
Eg: from manual method to computerization/introduction of a new
software
 Barriers to change attitude
• Low Credibility:
The term credibility implies trust, expertise and objectivity. Employees
are least interested in responding to change the efforts made by
someone who is not liked, has low rate of credibility and is not
convincing. If people hate you, they are least interested in adopting
your message.
Ways to overcome barriers
Ways to overcome barriers
• Providing New Information:
One of the ways of changing the attitudes is by providing new
information. Sometimes, this information will change a person’s beliefs
and in this process his attitudes. This is specifically true when the
reason for the negative attitude is insufficient or misleading
information. For example, people generally have a negative attitude
towards the staff at railway reservation counters.
Ways to overcome barriers
• Use of Fear:
A second way of changing the attitudes is through the use of fear.
Research has found out that fear can cause some people to change
their attitude. However, the degree of fear is very important for the
final outcome. Eg: warning advertisement about smoking
Ways to overcome barriers
• Influence of Friends or Peers:
Change of attitude can come about through persuasion of friends or
peers. Credibility of the others, especially the peers, is important to
effect change. Peers with high credibility shall exercise significant
influence as compared to those peers who have low credibility.
Ways to overcome barriers
• The Co-opting Approach:
• Another way in which attitude change takes place is by co-opting,
which means taking people who are dissatisfied with a situation and
getting them involved in improving things. For example, an employee
feels that the company should be doing something for improving the
employees’ benefits. The company appoints him as a member of the
employees benefit committee. By giving him the opportunity to
participate in employee benefit decision making, the company
increases the chances that his attitude will change. Once he realizes
the practical problems involved in determining the best possible
benefits and the efforts and hard work involved in it, he is most likely
to change his attitude.
 The End of Unit II
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