Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
General
The estimation of speed and knowing when to reduce speed when approaching a berth is
not always easy and confidence can only come with experience. On very large ships, such
as VLCC’s, some guidance may be available from reliable Doppler logs. In any case,
total reliance upon instrumentation is not wise and is no substitute for experience. A pilot
jumping from one ship to another, sometimes several during one duty period has to
develop a ‘feel’ for the type of ship he boards and con ‘by the seat of his pants.’
Speed
Many casualties are proven to occur as a direct result of excessive speed. Its effect can be
insidious and a Master may feel he cannot keep up with events which are happening too
quickly. Effective control of the ship is slowly but inexorably lost. Against this are
commercial pressures, on Masters and pilots alike, for expedient passages and turn-
around times. Whilst there are arguments either way, they are clearly not compatible or
experience has shown that a fast pilot is not necessarily a good pilot – just lucky!
It is therefore desirable to balance a safe and effective speed of approach, against a
realistic time scale. It would be unwise for example, to conduct a three mile run in at a
speed of one knot. Three hours would stretch anyone’s patience.
It is, of course, impossible to give exact figures; the requirement is dictated to a large
degree by variable factors such as type of ship, tonnage, draft, shaft horse power, wind
and tide. Generally speaking, ships of less than 40,000 dwt are inclined to run their way
off relatively quickly when engine speed is reduced; whereas larger ships carry their way
for much larger distances. Speed must be brought firmly under control at greater
distances from the berth.
It is usually obvious when the speed of a ship is too slow, and can easily be overcome
with a small increase in revolutions; it is not always obvious when the speed is too high.
The speed of a large ship, during an approach to a berth, particularly without tugs, can
increase in an insidious manner and it is invariably difficult to reduce that speed in a short
distance and keep control of the ship.
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
Loss of Control
If we look at Figure 2-1 we may illustrate some important points. In this example we
have a medium size ship of 60,000 dwt, which we will assume is diesel powered with a
single, right handed, fixed pitch propeller and single conventional rudder.
At one mile from the berth and running at an approach speed of 6 knots, it is well in
excess of a dead slow speed of 3 knots. As the ship approaches the ½ mile mark, speed is
still over 3 knots, despite a rapid reduction in rpm. It is now necessary to stop the engine
and thence sustain a prolonged period of increasing stern power in order to stop the ship
in time.
During this substantial time interval the ship is at the whim of transverse thrust, wind,
tide, bank effect or shallow water effect. It is effectively ‘out of control’ in so much that
we can only stand back and hope it will do what we want. This is literally hit or miss stuff
and the more we can reduce this prolonged period of increasing stern power and thus
retain control, so much the better!
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
Ship Finally Stopped
1 Full Astern!
Control lost for a
Very long period
2
½ Astern
3
Slow Astern
Speed still over 3 knots
5
Stop Engine
Dead Slow
7
Ahead 4 Knots
Panamax 60000dwt 8
loaded
1 mile from the berth
9 – Speed in excess of
3 knots!!!
Slow Ahead
6 knots
Figure 2-1 Loss of Slow Speed Control
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
Slow Speed Control
In Figure 2-2 we see the same ship, once again one mile from the berth but this time at its
dead slow speed of 3 knots or less. Before it approaches the ½ mile mark it may also be
necessary to stop the engine to further reduce excessive headway and allow plenty of
time to adjust the ship’s approach and positioning for the berth.
Now the biggest worry is the loss of rudder effectiveness at very slow speeds, particularly
without any tug assistance and the fear that we cannot keep control of the ship’s head.
For a variety of reasons such as poor steering, wind, shallow water or directional stability
the bow may well begin to develop an unwanted sheer; alternatively it may be desirable
to adjust the attitude of approach. Control is best achieved by applying full rudder and
utilizing a short but substantial burst of engine power. This is the ‘Kick Ahead’
technique.
There are however, several pitfalls to avoid, which can lead to an excessive increase in
speed, thus ruining all the previous efforts to control it.
Kick Ahead - Rudder Angle.
If a kick ahead is to be utilized, it is essential that the rudder is seen to be ‘hard over’
before the power is applied. Whilst this ensures a maximum rudder turning force, it also
‘puts the brakes on’ some of the residual speed, directly resulting from increased power.
With the helm at anything less, such as 150 or 200, less rudder force is applied at the cost
of increased forward speed. It is also essential that the power is taken off before the
rudder is returned to amidships or angles less than 350. Failure to do this will result in a
brief, but important interval, during which time most or all of the power applied, is again
being used to increase speed.
Kick Ahead - Duration.
The duration of the kick ahead should be as short as possible. Prolonged use of the
power, after the initial steering effect has ceased, will only result in a violent sheer and an
unwanted build up of speed. This will result in the need for yet another kick ahead to
rectify the situation. Due to the scaling factor this is particularly important with scale
models, as the effect is several seconds faster than a real ship. As soon as the revolutions
reach a maximum, the power must be taken off.
Kick Ahead - Power.
It is difficult to quantify the amount of power to apply for a kick ahead, as it very much
depends on the size of the ship and the needs of the ship handler at the time. It is
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
important, however, to appreciate the ratio of shaft horse power to tonnage that exists
from ship to ship.
Stern power as required
1
Kick Ahead Period of no control
is small
2
Short Period of Stern
Power
3
4
Kick Ahead
6
Dead Slow Ahead or Stop
7
Panamax 60,000 dwt
Loaded Short Kicks
Ahead
8
Dead Slow Ahead – Turbine
Stop Engine - Diesel Page 5 of 12
Figure 2-2 Slow Speed Control
Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
If we look at a table of new tonnage (circa 1998) from a Japanese shipyard, (Figure 2-3)
there are enormous differences with increasing ship size. The cargo ship of 20,000 dwt, it
has a substantial 10,000 shp; the tanker of 60,000 dwt, by contrast, has only 15,000 shp.
The VLCC of 250,000 dwt, which is four times larger than the tanker, has only twice the
engine power at 31,000 shp.
In practical terms it is noticeable that a kick of slow ahead may be very effective on a
smaller ship, but extremely inadequate for a VLCC, when half or even full power may be
needed to achieve any result. This, of course, does not encompass that peculiar breed of
ship that for some reason is built with speeds of 6 or 8 knots at dead slow ahead!
Ship Type DWT LBP B Draft Engine SHP
Tonnes
Tanker 380,000 355 64 23 Turbine 45000
250,000 320 52 21 Turbine 31000
120,000 252 38 17 Diesel 23000
100,000 251 38 15 Diesel 21000
80,000 237 36 12 Diesel 20000
60,000 219 32 12 Diesel 15000
Bulk Cargo 190,000 285 50 18 Diesel 24000
120,000 248 38 18 Diesel 23000
80,000 237 36 12 Diesel 17000
60,000 218 32 12 Diesel 15000
30,000 163 24 11 Diesel 13000
20,000 146 22 9 Diesel 9000
Cargo 20,000 157 26 10 Diesel 17000
12,000 146 22 10 Diesel 11000
Car Carrier 12,500 180 32 9 Diesel 10400
Container (23 Knot)
TUE 1940 29,000 196 32 11 Diesel 26200
TEU 839 23,000 213 30 9 Diesel 30000
Figure 2-3 Shaft Horse Power
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
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Type of Propulsion Unit
The type of propulsion unit is also an important factor to consider when utilizing the kick
ahead. Diesel powered ships are generally very good, with the power coming in quickly
and effectively. The number of engine starts, however, varies considerably from ship to
ship. Some may be very good and have an unlimited start-up capacity. Others may only
have two air bottles which at the very best might give 10 to 12 starts each. Far worse
cases are frequently experienced, with the infamous words ‘only one start left pilot’
ruining what was otherwise a very good day!
Working with a turbine ship is very different, in so far as the turbine is slow to come on
line and build up power. This is not particularly useful for kicks ahead. When slowing
down, but still wishing to keep control of heading, it is better, if conditions allow, to
leave the turbine on dead slow for as long as possible rather than stop the engine. Some
turbines can be run at minimum RPM ahead which is even more effective. The turbine is
thus on line and instantly available for use.
Summary
Without the assistance of tugs to control both heading and speed, the correct use of the
kick ahead is the single most effective means of keeping control of heading and speed
particularly with directionally unstable ships. Clearly the ship must be stopped sometime
and indeed several kicks ahead, no matter how carefully applied, will result in a slow
build up of speed. This can be carefully balanced with short periods of modest stern
power thereby just easing the speed back, or even stopping the ship entirely if so desired.
The Master or pilot is thus able to enjoy far longer periods of total control which would
not be possible with the ship running at higher speeds.
Transverse Thrust
Ahead Movement of the Propeller
The effect of transverse thrust whilst making ahead movement is arguably less worrying
than that of an astern movement, perhaps because the result is less noticeable. It is
sufficient to summarize the main factors which are evident with an ahead movement of a
right handed propeller.
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
a) The helical discharge from the propeller creates a large pressure on the port side
of the rudder.
b) A slight upward flow from the hull onto the propeller area puts slightly more
pressure onto the downward sweeping propeller blades.
c) It was evident during the tests that the speed of flow of water into the propeller
area is uneven in velocity.
The net result, a tendency for a right handed propeller to give a small swing to port when
running ahead. Whilst this may be noticeable in calm and near perfect conditions it is
easily influenced by other likely factors such as wind, current, shallow water, tugs, rudder
errors and so on.
Astern Movement of the Propeller
The importance of transverse thrust when using an astern movement is of much greater
significance to the ship handler. The helical discharge, or flow, from a right handed
propeller working astern splits and passes forward towards either side of the hull. In
doing so it behaves quite differently. On the port quarter it is inclined down and away
from the hull, whilst on the starboard quarter it is directed up and onto the hull. The flow
of water striking the starboard quarter can be a substantial force in tones that is capable of
swinging the stern port giving the classic ‘kick round’ or ‘cut’ of the bow to starboard.
Force in Tonnes
Mainly a function of water flow, the transverse thrust can be increased or decreased by
varying propeller rpm. This in turn varies the magnitude of the force in tonnes applied to
the quarter and it can be viewed clinically as one of the forces available to the ship
handler in much the same manner as rudder, tug or bow thruster forces. It is, however, a
weak force and can be roughly calculated if the SHP of a particular ship is known.
For example let us take a ship of 80000 dwt with a full ahead of 20,000 shp. If full astern
is only 50% of this then it only has a maximum of 10,000 shp astern.
For practical purposes it can be taken as a rough guide that transverse thrust is only 5 to
10% of the applied stern power, therefore in this case at best a force of 1,000 shp or 10
tonnes. (100 shp = 1 tonne)
Whilst shaft horsepower is an important factor in determining the magnitude of
transverse thrust and how much a ship will cut when going astern, a further consideration
must be the position of the pivot point.
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
Pivot Point and Transverse Thrust
Vessel Making Headway
Look at another ship, this time of 26,000 dwt with a maximum of 6,000 shp astern. It can
be seen that shp relates to approximately 6 tonnes of force on the starboard quarter. When
the ship is making slow enough headway for the propeller wash to reach the hull, it is
acting upon a pivot point that is forward and thus a turning lever of 110 metres. This
creates a substantial turning movement of 660 tonne-metres.
Example
Main Engine 10,000 shp
Full Astern 6,000 shp (60 tonne)
Transverse Thrust 10% = 6 tonne. ┼ ┼
┼
┼
1120
m
6 tonne x 110 metre = 660 tm
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
Control
Figure 2-4 Transverse thrust – vessel making headway
The forward speed of the ship must be considered because at higher speeds the full force
of propeller wash will not be striking the quarter. As the ship progressively comes down
to slower speeds and with the pivot point still forward, the magnitude of transverse thrust
will slowly increase reaching its peak just prior to the ship being completely stopped. It is
an unfortunate fact of life that at the slower speeds approaching a berth, if stern power is
applied transverse thrust is likely to be at its maximum.
Wedge Effect
It is sometimes apparent that a ship, when using stern power in the close proximity of
solid jetties, banks or shallow water will ’cut’ the wrong way. There are two possible
causes for this occurrence and only a pilot’s local knowledge is likely to pinpoint them.
The first is a phenomenon known as ‘Wedge Effect’. This occurs when the ship with a
fixed pitch right handed propeller has a solid jetty or other vertical obstruction close to its
starboard side. If excessive stern power is used, the wash created is forced between the
ship and the obstruction. If we again look at figure 2-5, it can be seen that if the flow of
water is restricted then a force is exerted on the ship forward of the pivot point. This is
particularly apparent when the ship is stopped or making stern way. The force may be of
sufficient strength to kill normal transverse thrust and sometimes generate a swing of the
bow to port. It will be worse if the ship has a bow-in aspect or is land locked forward of
the berth. thus increasing the entrapment of the water flow. Whilst a disadvantage in
some respects, it can be turned into an advantage in some parts of the world. Using the
‘wedge effect’, a ship can be lifted bodily off a solid jetty when backing out avoiding
dragging the bow along the dock side.
The second possible cause of a ‘cut’ the wrong way may be attributed to the vicinity of
shallow water. The flow of water from the fixed pitch right handed propeller working
astern as we have seen is up and on the starboard quarter, but down and away from the
port quarter. If the ship has a small under keel clearance it is possible that, in addition to
such factors as cavitation and restricted flow into the propeller, the flow of water on the
port side is being deflected off the bottom and back on the hull. This clearly gives some
prior indication that the response of the ship may be unpredictable in shallow water and,
once again, the bow may swing the wrong way.
Alternative Design Features
Throughout these examples we have, for practical purposes, adopted a simplistic
approach by only considering a fixed right handed propeller. There are of course ships
with fixed left handed propellers, propeller tunnels and controllable pitch propellers, the
latter becoming increasingly more common.
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
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Left Hand Propellers
With a left handed propeller it is simply a case of remembering that the results of
transverse thrust are the opposite in so far that the flow of water from the propeller
working astern is up and onto the port quarter and not the starboard quarter. In basic
terms the ‘cut’ of the bow is therefore to port when working the propeller astern.
Controllable Pitch Propeller
The controllable pitch propeller rotates constantly in the same direction no matter what
movement is demanded of it. Viewed from astern, a clockwise rotating propeller is still
rotating clockwise with stern power, only the pitch angle of the blades has changed. This
gives the same effect as a conventional fixed pitch left handed propeller, which is also
rotating clockwise when going astern, the bow will swing to port. Similarly if the variable
pitch propeller constantly rotates counter-clockwise when viewed from aster, this will be
the same as a fixed pitch right handed propeller which is also rotating counter-clockwise
during an astern movement, the bow will swing to starboard. (See Chapter 9 – Special
Propellers and Rudders).
Shrouds
For economical purposes, propellers in shrouds or tunnels are growing in number, even
on large VLCC’s. This ultimately has some bearing upon transverse thrust because they
alter significantly the flow of water exiting the propeller area. It may be more
concentrated and is likely to impose an equal thrust upon both sides of the hull thus
resulting in little or no transverse thrust.
Hull Design
Finally, hull design features may play a significant part in altering this simplistic and
traditional concept of transverse thrust. It is possible, for example, because of a different
hull shape or length to breadth ratio, for the point of impact of water flow to be much
closer to the position of the pivot point when going astern. In such a case, transverse
thrust, although relatively pronounced with headway, may be surprisingly weak with
sternway, to the extent that the bow may literally fall off either way, particularly if
influenced by wind or shallow water.
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Ship Handling Chapter 2 – Slow Speed
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