Railway
Engineering
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
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Railway Engineering
Cross-sectional Elements of Rail-Road
Rails
Fixtures
Sleepers
Ballast
Formation
Soil Subgrade
Gauge Length
It is the separation between the inner faces of
rails.
There are five different types of gauges which
either are currently in use or were used in In-
dia at some point of time:
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Feeder gauges were used in industries to transport goods within or in remote
hilly regions with minor economic importance. Narrow Gauges were mostly used
in hilly regions. UNESCO world heritage site of Kalka-Shimla railway has narrow
gauge railway line. Meter Gauge lines apart from Broad Gauge lines were the
main constituent of Railway networks in India when the British left. After
independence Indian Railways has been continuously converting Meter Gauge
lines to Broad Gauge lines. Standard Gauge lines are the most commonly used
gauge length around the world. Metro projects across India are based on
Standard Gauge lines only.
Rails
Materials:
Elements Ordinary Rails Rail at Point or Crossing
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Shape of Rail
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Weight of Rails: There are two types of rails widely used in Indian Railways:
52kg/m rail section
60kg/m rail section
Defects in Rails:
Corrugated Rails:
Formation of wave shaped depression at the top surface of rails.
It creates sound during movement of train over it.
It is generally observed where train starts moving or where brakes are fre-
quently applied.
Kinks:
At the joints of rail when one end gets out of alignment then it is called kink.
Hogged Rails:
When rails are bent downward at joints due to battering action.
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Buckling of Rails:
Due to rise in temperature or due to any other reason if rail goes out of align-
ment it is known as buckling of rails.
Conning of Wheels
Wheels are conned at a shape such that the slope so formed is. Same slope is
provided over rail surface.
Purpose of providing conning of wheels:
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On Straight Tracks:
To keep the train in central position.
To avoid wear and tear of rails.
On straight tracks, the axle moves such that the diameter of wheel on two
rails is exactly same and both wheel travel same distance.
If train move sideways in any direction, diameter of wheel will increase on
one rail as compared to other rail. Now the distance travelled on one rail
will increase and the train will start moving on a circular line forcing the train
to come back to its original position.
On Curved Tracks:
On curved tracks, centrifugal force acting on train will push the train out-
ward increasing the diameter of wheel on outer rail.
Distance required to be travelled by wheels on two rails will be different as,
And hence this difference will get adjusted partially by coning and partially
by slip and skid.
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Creep of Rails
It is time dependent deformation of rails. There are various theories which
speculates reason for creep in rails:
Wave Action Theory: This theory suggests that length of rail
increases due to movement of wave over rail surface due to moving
wheels. Due to wave action, pith and depth development occurs which is
further controlled by:
Track Modulus: It is the measure of stiffness of the track and is defined as
load per unit length of the rail required to produce unit depression in the
track.
Track Stiffness
Stability of formation
Percussion Theory: According to percussion theory, creep is developed due
to the impact of wheels at the rail end ahead of a joint. As the wheels of the mov-
ing train leave the trailing rail at the joint, the rail gets pushed, forward causing it to
move longitudinally in the direction of traffic, and that is how creep develops.
Unbalanced Traffic on Rails: Unbalanced traffic in a double-line section results
in trains move only in one direction on a particular track, i.e., each track is unidi-
rectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic on a given rail.
Due to Drag Force: According to drag theory, the backward thrust of the
driving wheels of a locomotive has the tendency to push the rail backwards, while
the thrust of the other wheels of the locomotive pushes the rail in the direction in
which the locomotive is moving. This results in the longitudinal movement of the
rail in the direction of traffic, thereby causing creep.
Due to Start and Acceleration of train: Force acting at the time of starting,
accelerating, slowing down or stopping the train causes creep.
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Welded Rails
Long Welded Rails [LWR]: These rails are formed by welding the rails
together. In LWR, movement of rail due to temperature variation is restricted by
fixing rails with sleeper fixtures.
In the case of LWR, the thermal expansion of the rail takes place at the rail ends
because of temperature variations and the inability of the resisting force offered by
the rail and the ballast to overcome the same. A long welded rail continues to ex-
pand at its ends up to that particular length at which an adequate resisting force is
developed towards the centre. A stage is finally reached at a particular length of
the rail from its ends when the resistance offered by the track structure becomes
equal to the thermal forces created as a result of temperature variations. There is
no alternation in the rail length beyond this point.
Number of sleepers required to stop movement of rails:
Here, Force experienced by rail due to thermal stress
Coefficient of thermal expansion of steel used for rails
Maximum temperature variation
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity for steel used for rails
Cross-sectional area of rails
Resistance offered by each sleeper on rail.
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Breathing Length: It is the portion of LWR at ends where some movement is
observed in the rails. It is due to the fact that number of sleepers provided in this
region is less than the required for stopping the movement. In between two breath-
ing lengths, there use to lie central portion in which no movement is observed.
Breathing length or minimum length of rail required to be provided on each
side of the central portion (or region of rail with zero movement) will be given by:
Here, breathing length of the rail.
Spacing of the sleepers.
Sleepers
Types of Sleepers:
Wooden Sleepers
Metal Sleepers:
Cast Iron Sleepers
Steel Sleepers
Pre-Stressed Concrete Sleepers
Composite Sleepers (Plastic Sleepers)
Composite Sleeper Index:
Here, Strength index
Hardness index of wood at 12% moisture content.
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Sleeper Location Track Crossing Bridge
Minimum CSI required
Sleeper Density: It is defined as the number of sleepers required per track
length of a rail. It is given by:
Here, Length of rail being used
It is a whole number which represents the number of total sleepers ex-
tra required over the length of the sleeper. For example if it is given
that the sleeper density is (n+5) then number of sleepers to be in-
stalled in a track length of n meter will be (n+5).
Broad Gauge rail Length hence value for BG rail .
Meter Gauge rail Length hence value for MG rail .
Ballast
Materials used in Ballast Cushion can be:
1. Stone Aggregate
2. Brick Aggregate
3. Sand
4. Murrrum
5. Kankar
6. Fly Ash
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Minimum depth of Ballast Cushion:
Here, Width of sleepers
Width of Sleepers
Varies from 15 to 25 cm
Horizontal Alignment
Radius of Curve (R)/ Degree of Curve (D˚)
Degree of curve is the angle subtended by curve at centre by one chain length.
For 30 meter chain:
For 20 meter chain:
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Here the curve is considered in such a way that arc is considered as the chain length.
There used to be cases where the chord is considered as chain length.
Versine of Curve
It is the maximum off-set of the curve from the chord.
Speed of the Train
Maximum allowable speed of the train shall be minimum of the following:
Maximum allowable speed by railway at any section.
Maximum allowable speed at the curve location is taken as minimum of
the speed calculated by:
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Martin’s Formula
Railway board Formula
Maximum speed based on cant (or super-elevation)
Maximum speed based on length of curve
Maximum Allowable Speed on Curves
Martin’s Formula (obsolete):
On curves provided with transition curve (transitioned curve):
For Broad Gauge or Meter Gauge Tracks:
For Narrow Gauge tracks with speed not exceeding 50 km/h:
For High Speed trains:
Here, Maximum permissible speed of train as per Martin’s Formula in km/h.
Radius of curve in meter.
On curves not provide with transition curve (non-transitioned curves):
For BG tracks:
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For MG tracks:
For NG tracks:
Here, Actual cant provided in mm
Cant deficiency in mm
Cant [Super-Elevation]
Here, Super-elevation required to be provided in mm
Gauge Length in mm
Design Speed of track in km/h
Radius of the curve in meter
Design Speed of track in m/s
Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
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Limiting Cant that can be provided: manoeuvring
Equilibrium Speed (Average Speed)
Actual cant is provided for an average speed so that all types of train can be
allowed to move on the tracks with some cant deficiency or cant excess:
Maximum Sanctioned Speed > 50 km/h:
When maximum Sanctioned Speed < 50 km/h:
Equilibrium speed calculated by using weighted average method:
Here, is number of trains moving with speed .
Maximum Cant should not be more than the maximum permissible value
prescribed earlier.
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Cant Deficiency and Cant Excess
When actual cant is provided for average speed, two cases arises:
Speed of Train > Equilibrium Speed: In such case there will be a cant
deficiency such that:
Here, Speed of train moving at speed higher than equilibrium speed.
Equilibrium Speed on the given section of railway track
Gauge Length
Radius of the curve
When desired cant isn’t available high speed trains are forced to move with lower val-
ue of actual cant. In this case also the train can move till the resultant force is passing
between the wheels.
Limiting values of Cant deficiency:
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Speed of Train < Equilibrium Speed: In such case there will be a cant excess.
Cant Excess: In case of trains moving with speed lower than that of
equilibrium speed, available cant will become more than required. This is
called cant excess.
Theoretical Cant: It is the maximum value of cant for which maximum
speed of a train can be allowed on the track.
Negative Super-Elevation
Negative Super-Elevation is provided in case when from a junction two sepa-
rate tracks diverges. As due to presence of a curve on both the tracks, both are
required to be provided with cant. But as the main line is provided with normal cant
in which outer rail is raised as compared to the inner one, in case of branch rail,
the inner rail gets raised.
Hence providing outer rail at lower elevation as compared to inner rail in
branch line the Super-Elevation hence provided is called negative Super-
Elevation.
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For the branch line we will have,
Where,
Here, Actual positive cant on the main line
Permissible cant deficiency
Transition Curve
Transition Curve is a changing radius curve at junction of straight and
curved portion of a track. Purpose of providing Transition Curve:
i. To provide Super-Elevation gradually in the length.
ii. To avoid sudden jerk to passengers.
iii. To reduce radius of curve from Radius = ∞ to Radius = R (limiting value
equal to radius of curve).
For Ideal Transition Curve:
i. It shall be tangential to its junction points.
ii. Rate of change in Super-Elevation should be same as rate of change of
curvature of the curve.
In Railways, Cubic Parabola is used (Froude’s Curve):
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Equations used for the designing Transition Curve:
At any point on the transition curve:
Rate of curvature:
Spiral angles:
Here, Distance from the start of transition curve in transverse direction from
straight track (vertical coordinate of curve)
Distance from the start of the transition curve along the straight track
(horizontal coordinate of curve)
Radius of the circular curve to be followed
Distance of any point on Transition Curve from take-off point.
Overall Length of the curve
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Providing Transition Curve on railway track with simple curve:
Here, Length of Transition Curve = L
Total tangent length:
Length of Simple Curve:
Chainage:
Length of Transition Curve:
First Approach:
Formula 1:
Formula 2:
Formula 3:
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Here, Length of the Transition Curve in meter
Actual Cant provided on the section in cm
Maximum permissible speed at the given section in km/h
Cant deficiency in cm
Maximum length obtained from the above three formulas shall be used.
Second Approach:
Empirical formula given by Railway Board:
Based on rate of change of acceleration:
Based on rate of change of Super-Elevation:
Here, Length of Transition curve in meter
Radius of curve in meter
Maximum permissible speed on the concerned section in m/s
Actual cant provided in cm
Maximum length obtained from the above three formulas shall be used.
Extra-Widening
Extra widening is provided on curved section of tracks to prevent wear and tear on
both wheels and tracks.
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Here, Width of wheel base in meter
Lap of flange in meter
Here, Depth of flange before top of rail surface in cm
Diameter of wheel in cm (Mean diameter of conned portion of wheel)
Radius of curve in meter.
Vertical Alignment
Gradient
It is the slope provided in longitudinal direction. Types of gradient:
Ruling Gradient: Maximum gradient that can be provided in general.
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Momentum Gradient: It is a downward gradient provided just before an
upward gradient. It helps in gaining extra momentum which enables the train to
climb difficult slopes. This gradient can be greater than Ruling Gradient.
Pusher Gradient: This type of gradient is provided in extra-ordinary situa-
tion. For manoeuvring through such section, an extra locomotive is required to
be attached in the train.
Gradient at station Yard: It is a nominal gradient provided at station yard
so drain the water accumulated in coaches after maintenance work.
Grade Compensation
Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of the trains as a result in
presence of gradient at curve, gradients are compensated to ease the move-
ment of the train on them values of which are as following:
General case of Vertical Curves
Here, Initial Gradient
Final Gradient
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Rate of change of gradient per chain length
Total length of vertical curve
Here, length of the chain
Total length of curve is divided on each side of the intersection equally
which is equal to on each side.
Here D is mid-point of AC and E is mid-point of BD.
If RL of Chainage point B is known then:
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Equation of Parabolic Curve:
Here, the above equation describes the parabolic locus of point ‘P (x, y)’ as shown
in the diagram such that,
Horizontal distance along the curve as shown in figure
Vertical distance of the curve from assumed datum as shown in figure
As shown in figure
For point ‘P’ anywhere on the curve (As per the figure):
As per the equation and the figure:
Here, constant for the equation
Hence ‘h’ value for point ‘C’:
Now if,
Similarly,
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Now, final equations in terms of number of chains ‘n’:
We have,
And,
We get,
And RL of any point P:
Point and Crossing
Points and crossings are provided to transfer train from one track to anoth-
er. It is the weakest location in a rail-road. Good quality rails (high manganese)
shall be used with frequent maintenance.
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Vertical wear on tongue rail shall not exceed 10 mm.
The purpose of check rail is to aid the flange of the opposite wheel passing
through the crossing to steer clear of the nose.
Point [Switch]
Cross section of Heel:
Heel Divergence: Distance between running faces of stock rail and
tongue rail and tongue rail at heel of the switch ‘h’.
Flange way Clearance (FC): Clear distance between two adjacent fac-
es of stock rail and tongue rail. For,
Throw of Switch: Distance by which toe of tongue rail moves side-
way. For,
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Angle of Switch:
Here, Actual length of tongue rail
Theoretical length of tongue rail
Thickness of tongue rail
Crossing
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Angle of crossing: Angle between two legs of crossing.
Number of Crossing (N): Ratio of widening of the rail to the length of rail
from TNC. Number of crossing can be calculated using one of the three methods:
Cole’s Method or Right Angle Method: This method is used by Indian
Railways:
Isosceles Triangle Method:
Centre Line Method:
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Turn Out
Elements of a Turnout:
Curve Lead (CL): It is the distance between toe of switch and TNC measured
along stock rail.
Switch Lead (SL): It is the distance between toe of switch and heel meas-
ured along stock rail.
Lead: Distance between heel of switch and TNC along stock rail.
Radius:
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Here, Gauge Length
Angel of Crossing / Number of Crossing
Gauge Length
Heel Divergence
Angle of Switch
Designing of a Turnout:
Turnout curved from toe of switch to TNC (Cole’s Method):
Curved Lead:
Outer Radius:
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Central Radius:
As per Railway Board,
Tongue is kept straight and curve starts from heel and end at TNC (Indian
Railway method):
Lead:
Radius:
Straight portion in tongue and from TNC to part in lead. Rest of the rail
curved:
Lead:
Radius:
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Cross-Over
Straight Intermediate portion between two turnouts:
Curved portion in two turnouts:
For first Turnout:
For second Turnout:
Crossings
Scissors Crossing:
Diamond Crossing: When two tracks are crossing each other at any angle
at same level as shown in figure, it is called diamond crossing
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Number of crossing:
Traction and Tractive Effort
Train Weight:
Here, Weight of locomotive
Weight of Wagons
Important forces associated with train:
All Resistance:
Here, Resistance offered by internal parts of engine
and wagon, friction between rail and wheels
due to track profile or due to any other reason
that resist movement of trains.
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Tractive Effort: It is the force applied by engine on driving wheels.
Hauling Capacity: It is maximum fractional force that can be generated be-
tween wheels and rails.
During movement of train:
Resistance Analysis on Train
All Resistance (RT)
It is the resistance experienced by the train independent of the external fac-
tors. This resistance is experienced by the train all the time.
These are always of three types:
Resistance Independent of speed :
It is due to friction between different parts of engine
and wagon.
Friction between bearings of wheels
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Resistance due to track irregularities.
Here, rolling resistance in tonnes
Weight of train in tonnes
Resistance depending upon Speed : Resistance due to speed of the
train:
Here, Train resistance in tonnes
Speed of train in km/h
Atmospheric Resistance: It exists even when wind speed is zero:
Here, Train resistance in tonnes
Resistance due to Track Profile
Resistance due to gradient :
Here, Resistance due to upward gradient in tonnes
Slope of upward gradient
Resistance due to Curve :
Here, Degree of curve with 30 meter chain
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Resistance due to Manoeuvring of Train
Resistance during start of train :
Here, Weight of locomotive in tonnes
Weight of wagons in tonnes
Resistance developed due to acceleration of train :
Here, Final speed of train in km/h
Initial speed of train in km/h
Time taken in acceleration in second
Resistance due to Wind
Wind Resistance :
Here, exposed area of train in m2
Speed of wind in km/h
Tractive Resistance
It is the force applied by engine on driving wheels:
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Here, Number of cylinders
Pressure difference
Piston displacement
Diameter of Piston
Diameter of Wheel
Diameter of the wheel is selected such that sufficient tractive effort can be
generated with suitable speed required.
Hauling Capacity
It is the maximum frictional force that can be generated between driving
wheels and rails.
Here, Hauling Capacity in tonnes
Coefficient of friction between wheel and rails.
General value of coefficient of friction:
Number of axle in the locomotive
Load on each axle of the locomotive in tonnes
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Designation of Locomotives
Locomotives are designated as:
Here, Number of front wheels in the locomotive
Number of driving wheels in the locomotive
Number of rear wheels in the locomotive.
Number of pairs of driving wheels or number of driving axles:
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