Notre Dame Math Club

Floor Function Theory

The greatest integer function, also known as the floor function, denotes the greatest integer
less than or equal to its argument. The floor of x is usually denoted by ⌊x⌋ or [x]. Examples
⌊−2.5⌋=−3, ⌊π⌋=3, ⌊5⌋=5

Ceiling Function Theory

The ceiling function gives the least integer greater than or equal to its argument. The ceiling
of x is usually denoted by ⌈x⌉. Examples ⌈-2.5⌉=-2, ⌈π⌉=2, ⌈5⌉=5

Properties
1. Bounding Inequality: ⌊x⌋ ≤ x < ⌊x⌋+1, ⌈x⌉−1 < x ≤ ⌈x⌉
2. Sum Inequality: ⌊x⌋+⌊y⌋ ≤ ⌊x+y⌋, ⌈x⌉+⌈y⌉−1 ≤ ⌈x+y⌉ ≤ ⌈x⌉+⌈y⌉
3. Hermite's Identity: For a positive integer n,

4. Relationship with Fractional Part: The fractional part of a number, denoted by {x}, is defined
as {x}=x−⌊x⌋. This means that x=⌊x⌋+{x}, where 0 ≤ {x} < 1. Also ⌈x⌉=x+(1−{x})
5. Nested Floors: ⌊m⌊x⌋⌋=⌊mx⌋, for a positive integer m
6. Symmetry Property: ⌊x⌋+⌊−x⌋ = {0 if x∈Z -1 if x not belongs to Z
⌈x⌉+⌈−x⌉ = {0 if x is an integer, 1 if x is not an integer

Examples
1
1. Prove that ⌊x+2⌋+⌊x⌋=⌊2x⌋.

Solution:
Suppose x=n+f where n=⌊x⌋ and f={x} or fractional part of x
Let x=n+f, where n is an integer and f is the fractional part of x, such that 0 ≤ f < 1.
𝟏
Case 1: 0 ≤ f < 𝟐

(LHS):
1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⌊x+ ⌋+⌊x⌋ = ⌊(n+f) + ⌋+⌊n+f⌋ = n+⌊f+ ⌋+n = 2n+⌊f+ ⌋
2 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

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𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Since 𝟐 < f+𝟐 < 1 so, ⌊f+𝟐⌋=0 which implies ⌊x+𝟐⌋+⌊x⌋=2n

(RHS):
⌊2x⌋=⌊2(n+f)⌋=⌊2n+2f⌋=2n+⌊2f⌋
Since 0 < 2f < 1 so, ⌊2f⌋= 0 which implies ⌊2x⌋=2n
LHS=RHS hence case 1 is proved
𝟏
Case 2: 𝟐 ≤ f < 1

(LHS):
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⌊x+𝟐⌋+⌊x⌋=⌊(n+f)+ 𝟐⌋+⌊n+f⌋=n+⌊f+𝟐⌋+n=2n+⌊f+𝟐⌋
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Since 1 ≤ f+𝟐 < 1 so, ⌊f+𝟐⌋=1 which implies ⌊x+𝟐⌋+⌊x⌋=2n+1

(RHS):
⌊2x⌋=⌊2(n+f)⌋=⌊2n+2f⌋=2n+⌊2f⌋
Since 1 ≤ 2f < 2 so, ⌊2f⌋=1 which implies ⌊2x⌋=2n+1
LHS=RHS hence case 2 is proved
Since the identity holds for all possible values of x, it is true for all real numbers x.

2. (BdMO 2021 National) Let r be a positive real number. Denote by [r] the integer
part of r and by {r} the fractional part of r. For example, if r = 32.86 then {r} = 0.86
and [r]=32. What is the sum of all possible numbers r satisfying 25{r} + [r] = 125?
Solution:
Let x=n+f, where n is an integer and f is the fractional part of x, such that 0 ≤ f < 1.
Rewriting the following equation we get,
𝟏𝟐𝟓−𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟓−𝒏
25f+n=125 ⟹ f= Now, 0 ≤ f < 1 ⟹ 0 ≤ < 1 ⟹ 0 ≤ 125-n < 25 ⟹ -25 <n-125 ≤ 0
𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓
⟹ 100 < n ≤ 125
So, the possible values of n are ∈ {101, 102 ,…. ,125}. Putting every value of n in the
equation we get all the values of f will be ∈ {24/25,23/25 ,….. ,1/25,0}
(𝟏𝟐𝟓+𝟏𝟎𝟏)×𝟐𝟓 (𝟐𝟒×𝟐𝟓) 𝟏
So, Σn + Σf = 𝟐
+ 𝟐
× 𝟐𝟓 =2827

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3. (BdMO 2024 National) Find all the real numbers x such that ⌊x⌊x⌋⌋=2024.
Solution:
We know that x={x}+⌊x⌋ putting it we get
⟹2025 > ⌊x⌋2+ ⌊x⌋{x} ≥ 2024
Case 1: ⌊x⌋ is positive
⌊x⌋ is an integer and, 0 ≤ {x} < 1 ⟹ 0 ≤ {x} ⌊x⌋ < ⌊x⌋
⌊x⌊x⌋⌋=2024 ⟹ ⌊⌊x⌋2+{x}⌊x⌋⌋=2024
From the first part,
2025 > ⌊x⌋2+⌊x⌋{x} ⟹ 2025 > ⌊x⌋2 ⟹ ⌊x⌋ < 45
From the second part,
⌊x⌋2 +⌊x⌋{x} ≥ 2024 ⟹ ⌊x⌋2+⌊x⌋ ≥ 2024 ⟹ ⌊x⌋ > 44
So, 45 > ⌊x⌋ > 44, there is no integer solution for ⌊x⌋.

Case 2: ⌊x⌋ is negative

⌊x⌋ is an integer and 0 ≤ {x} < 1 ⟹ 0 ≥ {x}⌊x⌋ > ⌊x⌋
⌊x⌊x⌋⌋ ⟹ ⌊⌊x⌋2+{x}⌊x⌋⌋=2024
From the first part,
2025 > ⌊x⌋2+⌊x⌋{x} ⟹ 2025 > ⌊x⌋2+⌊x⌋ ⟹ ⌊x⌋ > −46
From the second part,
⌊x⌋2+⌊x⌋{x} ≥ 2024 ⟹ ⌊x⌋2 ≥ 2024 ⟹ ⌊x⌋ < −44
So, −44 > ⌊x⌋ > −46 and so ⌊x⌋=−45
−𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟒
So, ⌊-45x⌋=2024 ⟹ 2025 > −45x ≥ 2024 ⟹ ≥ x > −45
𝟒𝟓
−2024
So, the only solutions for x is: x ∈ (−45, ]
45

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𝑥+1
4. (BdMO 2022 National) Find all solutions for real x: ⌊x⌋3−7⌊ ⌋=−13.
3
Here ⌊x⌋ is the floor function, which represents the largest integer less than or
equal to x. For example: ⌊2.1⌋=2, ⌊3⌊=3, ⌊−1.6⌋=−2.
Solution:
𝟐
Case 1: n ≤ x < n+ 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⟹n+𝟑≤ x+𝟑 < n+1. Therefore, ⌊x+𝟑⌋=n. Substituting these values into the original
equation, we get: n3−7n=−13. We are looking for integer solutions for n. We can test
integer divisors of 13, which are ±1, ±13. Let f(n)=n3−7n+13.
f(1)=1−7+13=7 not 0, f(−1)=−1+7+13=19 not 0, f(13)=2119 > 0
f(−13)=-2093 < 0. Since f(−3)=−27+21+13=7 and f(−4)=−64+28+13=−23, the real
root of this equation lies between −3 and −4. Since there are no integer solutions for n,
there are no solutions for x in this case.

𝟐
Case 2: n+𝟑≤ x < n+1
𝟏 𝟒 𝟒
⟹n+1 ≤ x+𝟑< n+ 𝟑. Therefore, ⌊x+𝟑⌋=n+1. Substituting these values into the original
equation, we get: n3−7(n+1) = −13 ⟹ n3−7n+6=0. We can test integer divisors of 6 (±1,
±2, ±3, ±6) to find the integer roots.
For n=1: 13−7(1) + 6=0. So, n=1 is a solution.
For n=2: 23−7(2) + 6=0. So, n=2 is a solution.
For n=−3: (−3)3−7(−3) + 6=0. So, n=−3 is a solution.
Since this is a cubic equation and we have found all three integer roots for n. For each of
these roots, we need to check if the corresponding x values satisfy the condition for Case 2.
𝟐
The solutions for x will be the intervals [n+𝟑, n+1).
𝟐
For n=1: The solution for x is the interval [1+ 𝟑,1+1), which is [5/3,2).
𝟐
For n=2: The solution for x is the interval [2+𝟑,2+1), which is [8/3,3).
𝟐
For n=−3: The solution for x is the interval [−3+ 𝟑, −3+1), which is [−7/3, −2).

The set of all solutions for x is the union of these three intervals.

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5. (BdMO 2020 National) For a positive real number x, let [x] be its integer
part. For example, [3.14]=3, [5]=5, [6.9]=6. Let z be the largest real number
3 4
such that [𝑧 ]+[𝑧 ]=5. What is the value of 21z.

Solution:
𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟒
Let a=⌊ 𝒛⌋ and b=⌊𝒛 ⌋. The equation becomes a+b=5. Also, since 𝒛 < 𝒛 so a ≤ b. The possible
integer pairs (a,b) that satisfy these conditions are (0,5), (1,4), and (2,3).
𝟑 𝟒
Case 1: ⌊𝒛 ⌋=2 and ⌊𝒛⌋=3
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
⌊𝒛⌋=2 implies that 2 ≤ 𝒛<3. From 2 ≤ 𝒛 , we get z ≤ 𝟐. From 𝒛 < 3, we get z > 1. This gives
𝟑
the range 1 < z ≤ 𝟐.
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
⌊ ⌋=3 implies that 3 ≤ < 4. From 3 ≤ , we get z ≤ . From < 4, we get z > 1. This gives
𝒛 𝒛 𝒛 𝟑 𝒛
𝟒
the range 1 < z ≤ .
𝟑
𝟒
For z to satisfy both conditions, the intersection of the two ranges: 1 < z ≤ 𝟑. After checking
the other cases it led to contradictory inequalities. So, it is the only solution. From the valid
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
range 1 < z ≤ 𝟑, the largest value is z=𝟑. The final value: 21z=21×𝟑=7×4=28.

6. Find all the real solution for this equation

Solution:
𝒙 𝟐𝒙 𝒙
Using {x} = x- ⌊x⌋ we get {𝟐} + { 𝟑 } = 𝟔since 0 ≤ {a} < 1 for all real number a which implies
0 ≤ x < 12. Also observe that x is an integer. Now checking all the possible values of x we
get x=0,2,3,4,5,7.

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Practice Problems
1. (BdMO 2024 National) Let ℕ be the set of all positive integers. Find all functions 𝒇:ℕ → ℕ
such that

for all 𝒎,𝒏 ∈ ℕ. Note: ⌈𝒙⌉ denotes the least integer greater than or equal to 𝒙. For example:
⌈𝟐.𝟓⌉ = 𝟑, ⌈𝝅⌉ = 𝟒, ⌈𝟓⌉ = 𝟓.

2. (BdMO 2024 Regional)

Where, 𝟎<𝒏<1, find the value of m. ⌈𝒙⌉ means ceiling function that represents the value of
any number with decimal points is equal to next integer value. For example, ⌈𝟐.𝟏⌉=𝟑,
⌈𝟑⌉=𝟑, ⌈𝟐.𝟔⌉=𝟑

3. (Australia 1999) Solve the following system of equations:

Where ⌊x⌋ is floor of x and {x} is fraction part of x.

4. (IMO 2024 P1) Determine all real numbers α such that, for every positive integer n, the
integer ⌊α⌋ +⌊2α⌋+···+⌊nα⌋ is a multiple of n. (Note that ⌊z⌋ denotes the greatest integer
less than or equal to z. For example, ⌊−π⌋ = −4 and ⌊2⌋ = ⌊2.9⌋ = 2.)
5. (IMO 1986 P6) For every natural number n evaluate the sum

(The symbol [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x)

𝒏 𝒏
[Hint] Use example 1 formula, put x= 𝟐, 𝟐,…, and telescope the sum

𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟑
6. (CHNMOL 1993) Find the last two digits of the expression ⌊ ⌋.
𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟏 +𝟑

7. (India 2004 National) If a is a real root of x5-x3+x-2=0, find the value of ⌊a6⌋

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8. (India 2024 National) For each positive integer n ≥ 3, define An and Bn as

Determine all positive integers n ≥ 3 for which ⌊An⌋ = ⌊Bn⌋. Note. For any real number x, ⌊x⌋
denotes the largest integer N such that N ≤ x.
9. (AIME 1991) Suppose r is a real number for which

Find ⌊100r⌋
10. For any positive integer n let p(n) be the number of divisors of n For example 6 have
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
divisors 1,2,3,6 so p(6)=4. Prove that, p(1) + p(2) +….+ p(n) = ⌊𝟏⌋+⌊𝟐⌋+….+⌊𝒏⌋

[Hint] Double Counting

11. (Putnam 2005) Find a non-zero polynomial P(x, y) such that P(⌊a⌋, ⌊2a⌋) = 0 for all real
values of a.
12. (Slovenia 2005 National) Find the value of ⌊log21⌋ + ⌊log22⌋ + ⌊log23⌋ + …. + ⌊log2256⌋.
13. (Canada 1999 National) Find all real numbers x that satisfy 4x2 - 40⌊x⌋ + 51 = 0
14. (IMC 2025) Let a be an even positive integer. Find all real numbers such that

holds for every positive integer b. be real numbers. Then find the maximum value of
15. (Turkey 2023 National) Let x1, x2,….., x31 be real numbers. Then find the maximum
value of this expression

16. (Mexico 2023 Regional) Let be a real number that is not an integer. Denote {x} as
its decimal part and ⌊x⌋ the floor function. Prove that