U20AUOT02 - ENGINE EMISSION AND CONTROL

MODULE – 1

Part – A

1. Write various criterion of classification in method of ignition in IC engine.

• Spark Ignition (SI) Engines
• Compression Ignition (CI) Engines
• Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) Engines
• Dual-Fuel Engines
• Low-Temperature Combustion (LTC) Engines
• Controlled Auto-Ignition (CAI) Engines

2. What are the principal emissions in SI and CI engine?

Principal Emissions from SI Engines: Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrocarbons (HC), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

Principal Emissions from CI Engines: Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Particulate Matter (PM), Carbon
Monoxide (CO), Hydrocarbons (HC), Sulfur Oxides (SOx) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

Comparison of SI and CI Engine Emissions

• SI Engines: Generally produce higher levels of CO and HC, but lower levels of NOx and PM
compared to CI engines.
• CI Engines: Typically produce higher levels of NOx and PM, but lower levels of CO and HC
compared to SI engines.

3. List the sources of emissions in SI engine without emission control.

In a Spark Ignition (SI) engine without emission control, various sources contribute to the overall
emissions. These sources are primarily related to the combustion process and the fuel system. Here are
the main sources: 1. Incomplete Combustion, 2. Over-Rich Air-Fuel Mixture, 3. High Combustion
Temperatures, 4. Engine Oil Combustion, 5. Evaporative Emissions, 6. Cold Start, 7. Deposits in the
Combustion Chamber, 8. Fuel System Leaks, 9. Poor Engine Maintenance and 10. Aging and
Deterioration of Engine Components.

4. How fuel NO emission is formed in IC engines?

Fuel NO emission in internal combustion (IC) engines is formed when nitrogen present in the
fuel reacts with oxygen during combustion. This reaction typically occurs at high temperatures,
leading to the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), including nitric oxide (NO). Formation of
NOx normally takes place in high temperature of about 2800K. Thus, the main production of
NOx takes place in the IC engines as they develop more amount of heat during the power
 stroke. Mainly nitrogen oxides get produced from the reaction taking place inside the cylinder
between the nitrogen and oxygen.

5. What is zero zone combustion model?

The zero zone combustion model is a simplified approach used in engine simulations to
represent the combustion process. In this model, the combustion chamber is treated as a single
zone where the air-fuel mixture is assumed to be homogeneous and the properties like pressure,
temperature, and composition are uniform throughout. This model is used to simplify the
analysis of combustion dynamics and heat release in internal combustion engines.

6. Define premixed combustion.

Premixed combustion is a type of combustion in which the fuel and oxidizer (usually air) are
mixed together before ignition. This results in a uniform mixture that burns rapidly when
ignited, creating a flame front that propagates through the mixture.

7. What are the main sources of HC emission from SI engines?

The main sources of hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from spark ignition (SI) engines are:
Incomplete combustion: Due to poor air-fuel mixing or insufficient oxygen.
Over-rich air-fuel mixtures: Excess fuel leads to unburned hydrocarbons.
Cold starts: Inefficient combustion when the engine is not at optimal temperature.
Engine oil combustion: Oil entering the combustion chamber and burning.
Evaporative emissions: Fuel evaporation from the fuel system components.
These factors contribute to the presence of unburned or partially burned fuel in the exhaust.

8. Define flame quenching.

Flame quenching is the process by which a flame is extinguished when it comes into contact
with a cooler surface, such as the walls of the combustion chamber. This occurs because the
heat required to sustain the combustion reaction is absorbed by the cooler surface, lowering the
temperature below the ignition point.

9. List the method of ignition used in engine.

The methods of ignition used in engines are:
Spark Ignition (SI), Compression Ignition (CI), Glow Plug Ignition, Laser Ignition and Pilot
Injection Ignition.

10. List the principal emissions in I.C engine.

In an internal combustion engine (I.C. engine), the principal emissions are:
Carbon Monoxide (CO): Produced due to incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels.
Hydrocarbons (HC): Unburned or partially burned fuel that can include a variety of organic
compounds.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Formed due to high temperatures and oxygen content in the
combustion process, contributing to air pollution and acid rain.
Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the exhaust
gases, including soot and other by-products of combustion.
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2): A greenhouse gas emitted as a result of complete combustion of
carbonbased fuels, contributing to global warming.
These emissions are regulated and efforts are made to minimize them to reduce environmental
impact and improve air quality.

Part – B

1. Draw the sequence of events in four stroke SI engine cycles.

 2. Write notes on air pollutants resulting from engine emissions.

Air pollutants resulting from engine emissions

3. Tabulate typical SI and CI engine exhaust emission concentrations.

Typical Exhaust Emission Concentrations

SI Engine (Gasoline fuelled)
Depending upon engine operating conditions without catalytic control engine out emissions range:

CO 0.2 to 5% by volume (v/v)

:
HC 300 to 6000 ppmc1*, v/v
:
NOx 50 to 2000 ppm, v/v
:
*ppmc1= parts per million as methane measured by Flame Ionization Analyzer/Detector(FIA or FID)
CO emissions are high under engine idling and full load operation when engine is operating on
fuel rich mixtures. HC emissions are high under idling, during engine warm-up and light load
operation, acceleration and deceleration. NOx are maximum under full engine load conditions.

CI (Diesel) Engines
Diesel engines usually operate with more than 30% excess air band the emissions are accordingly
influenced.
CO : 0.03 to 0.1 %, v/v
HC : 20 to 500 ppmc1

NOx : 100 -2000 ppm

 3
0.02 to 0.2 g/m (0.2 to 0.5% of fuel consumption by mass)
PM :

4. Write notes on prompt NOx.

Prompt NO

In the flame reaction zone NO may be formed rapidly. The prompt NO is formed in the
flame by reaction of intermediate chemical species of CN group with O and OH radicals.
The hydrocarbon radicals CH, CH2, C, C2 etc. formed in the flame front react with
molecular nitrogen to give intermediate species such as HCN and CN by the reactions (1) to
(3). Large concentrations of HCN near the reaction zone in fuel rich flames have been
observed and rapid formation of NO has been seen to be associated with rapid decay of
HCN.

5. Describe the effect of addition of diluents on NOx formation in SI engines.

Effect of Addition of Diluents on NO Formation

Burned residual gases left from the previous cycle act as charge diluents. A part of
exhaust gas is also recirculated back to the engine for diluting the intake charge to
reduce NO formation. This process is known as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).
Dilution by the burnt residual gases is also
called as ‘internal EGR’. The combustion
temperatures decrease as a result of charge
dilution and the lower combustion
temperatures result in lower NO levels.
The effect of different diluents on NO
emissions is shown on Fig. B.5 The equal
volume of different diluents gives
different NO reductions. CO2 and H2O
being tri-atomic gases have higher
specific heat and give larger NO
reductions than the same volume of N2,
He or Ar.
 Fig. B.5. Effect of content of various
diluents in intake air on NO reduction in a SI engine

6. Describe NOx formation in CI engines.

NO Formation in CI Engines

In the compression ignition engines, rapid combustion of fuel and air that are mixed
during delay period occurs This rapid combustion phase is termed as ‘premixed
combustion’ and is followed by mixing controlled diffusion combustion process. The
diffusion combustion rates are controlled by the .rate at which fuel and air mix and hence
the name ‘mixing controlled combustion’. Fuel-air equivalence ratio varies widely from
very rich at the core of spray to very lean at the spray boundaries and, the formation of
emissions is governed by the local air-fuel ratio besides other factors like temperature
and pressure. In the premixed combustion phase, mixture formed within the flammable
limits burns spontaneously. On the other hand, in the mixing controlled combustion
phase, it is believed that combustion occurs in those regions of spray where equivalence
ratio is close to stoichiometric.

7. Write notes on formation of UBHC emission in SI engines.

FORMATION OF UNBURNED HYDROCARBONS

The unburned hydrocarbons are also called volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Unburned hydrocarbon emissions result as part of the fuel inducted into the engine
escapes combustion. Most of hydrocarbons in exhaust HC are the same compounds as
in the fuel. A typical petroleum fuel contains 100 to 200 different hydrocarbons (10 to
20 are the major constituents) and other organic compounds. Thus, if the fuels are rich
in aromatics and olefins the exhaust hydrocarbons also consist of a high fraction of
aromatics and olefins, which are photo-chemically more reactive.
Almost 400 hundred different organic compounds are present in the engine exhaust. A
number of these compounds are formed during combustion process in the engine
cylinder.
Nearly 50% mass of organic compounds emitted in the exhaust is similar to fuel in
composition. The balance 50% is composed of the chemical species which are
produced by thermal cracking, pyrolysis, chemical synthesis and partial oxidation of
the fuel molecules during combustion.
 Methane is also present in significant amounts in the exhaust of gasoline and diesel
engines. As methane is not photo-chemically reactive, hydrocarbon emissions now, are
also measured neglecting methane emissions and these are termed as nonmethane
hydrocarbons or non- methane organic gases (NMHC/NMOG).
Hydrocarbon concentration in the exhaust is measured by flame ionization analyzer
(FIA), which is basically a carbon atom counter. The total hydrocarbon concentration
measured by this method is specified in parts per million as methane or C1 (ppmC 1 or
simply ppmC). It means that if the FIA is calibrated with propane (C 3H8), the HC
measurement reading is to be multiplied by a factor of 3 to obtain HC concentration in
ppmC.

8. Discuss about HC emissions from wall quenching.

HC Emissions from Wall Quenching

Single wall quench layer thickness typically varies from 0.05 to 0.1 mm. It decreases with
increase of engine load as higher wall temperature results at higher engine loads, which
reduces heat loss to the walls from the reaction zone, and consequently a smaller quench
layer thickness is obtained. However, at top dead centre the surface to volume ratio of the
combustion chamber is at its maximum and at this point the wall quench layer may comprise
of 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the total charge inducted into the cylinder.

Studies on combustion of pre-mixed fuel air mixtures in combustion bombs show that when
all the crevices in the bomb are eliminated by filling with solid material, unburned HC
concentrations were just about 10 ppm C only. Such low concentrations result as after flame
quenching the hydrocarbons in the quench layer thickness on the single walls diffuse in the
hot burned gas quite early and get oxidized.

Typically, most hydrocarbons would get oxidized on diffusion in the high temperature
burned gases within 2-3 milliseconds of the flame quench. These studies showed that the
contribution of single wall quench layers to the total unburned HC emission is quite small.

9. Draw the sequence of events in four stroke CI engine cycles.

So basically in four stroke CI engine there are 6 processes:-

• Suction
• Compression
• V=C(Heat addition)
• Expansion
• V=C(Heat rejection)
• Exhaust

10. Describe air pollutants resulting from engine emissions.

Air Pollutants from Engine Emissions

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO) o Source: Incomplete combustion of carbon-containing
fuels.
o Health Effects: Reduces oxygen delivery to the body's organs and tissues; can cause
cardiovascular problems and impair cognitive functions.
2. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) o Source: High-temperature combustion processes.
o Types: Mainly Nitric oxide (NO) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).
o Health Effects: Respiratory issues, aggravation of asthma, and can lead to the formation
of ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter.
o Environmental Effects: Contributes to acid rain and eutrophication of water bodies.
3. Sulfur Oxides (SOx) o Source: Combustion of sulfur-containing fuels like coal
and oil.
o Types: Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is the most common.
o Health Effects: Respiratory problems and aggravation of existing heart disease.
o Environmental Effects: Contributes to acid rain, which can harm ecosystems, corrode
buildings, and affect water bodies.
4. Particulate Matter (PM) o Source: Combustion, tire wear, brake wear, and road
dust.
o Types: PM10 (particles with diameters of 10 micrometers or less) and PM2.5 (particles
with diameters of 2.5 micrometers or less).
o Health Effects: Respiratory and cardiovascular issues, premature death in people with
heart or lung disease, decreased lung function, and respiratory symptoms.
o Environmental Effects: Reduces visibility and contributes to haze; can damage soil and
water quality.
5. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) o Source: Evaporation of fuel, incomplete
combustion, and emissions from vehicle exhaust.
 oHealth Effects: Some VOCs can cause cancer, liver damage, and kidney damage. They
also contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone.
o Environmental Effects: Precursor to ozone formation, which contributes to smog and
adverse effects on ecosystems.
6. Ground-level Ozone (O₃)

o Source: Not directly emitted; formed by the reaction of NOx and VOCs in the presence
of sunlight.
o Health Effects: Respiratory problems, aggravation of asthma, and other lung diseases.
o Environmental Effects: Damages crops, forests, and man-made materials; reduces
biodiversity.
7. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) o Source: Complete combustion of carbon-containing
fuels. o Health Effects: Non-toxic at normal atmospheric concentrations but
contributes to climate change.
o Environmental Effects: Major greenhouse gas contributing to global warming and
climate change.
8. Hydrocarbons (HC) o Source: Incomplete combustion of fuel. o Health
Effects: Can form ground-level ozone, leading to respiratory problems.
o Environmental Effects: Contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone and
photochemical smog.
9. Lead (Pb) o Source: Historically from leaded gasoline; now primarily from
industrial sources and some aviation fuels.
o Health Effects: Affects almost every organ and system in the body, especially harmful
to the nervous systems of children. o Environmental Effects: Can accumulate in
soils and sediments, leading to contamination of food sources.
 Part – C

1. Draw and explain with tabulation the sequence of events in four stroke CI engine cycles.

Fig.1. Sequence of Events in 4-Stroke

CI Engine Cycle

Event Time of occurrence, Crank angle

Intake valve opens (IO) 10 -25º CA bTDC at the end of exhaust stroke

Exhaust valve closes (EC) 10 to 15º CA aTDC in the beginning of intake stroke

Intake valve closes (IC) 25 -50º CA aBDC in the beginning of compression stroke

15-5º CA bTDC towards the end of compression stroke. Injection duration

Start of Injection (SOI) at full engine load about 15 to 25º CA

Start of combustion (SOC) 5 -0 º CA bTDC, (considering ignition delay after injection)

End of combustion (EOC) 20 to 30 CA aTDC in expansion stroke

Exhaust valve opens (EC) 30 to 50º CA bBDC Shortly before the end of expansion stroke
2. With suitable sketches discuss briefly main process in photochemical smog formation.

Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is a brownish-gray haze resulting from the reactions caused by solar
ultraviolet radiations between hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere. The
air pollutants such as ozone, nitric acid, organic compounds like peroxy- acetylnitrates or
PAN (CH3CO-OO-NO2) are trapped near the ground by temperature inversion experienced
especially during winter months. These chemical substances can effect human health and
cause damage to plants. The photochemical reactions are initiated by nitrogen oxides emitted
by vehicles into atmosphere. A simple set of reactions leading to photochemical smog
formation is as follows:

is energy of a photon and UV is ultraviolet light radiations.

The above reactions form NO2 photolytic cycle. However, if only these reactions are
involved then, NO2concentration in the atmosphere would remain constant. But, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) that include unburned hydrocarbons and their volatile
derivatives also react with NO and O 2 to form NO2 . The reactions between HC and NO do
not necessarily involve ozone and provide another route to form NO 2 and thus, the
concentration of ozone and NO2 in the urban air rises. The most reactive VOCs in
atmosphere are olefins i.e., the hydrocarbons with C=C bond. The general reaction between
hydrocarbons (RH) and NO may be written as

The overall global reaction is

Main processes in photochemical smog formation are shown in Fig.2.

 Fig.2. Main processes in photochemical smog formation
The harmful constituents of photochemical smog are, NO 2, O3, PAN and aldehydes. The
PAN and aldehydes cause eye irritation. NO2 and ozone are strong oxidants and cause
damage to elastomeric/ rubber materials and plants.

3. Describe about theory of emission formation in SI engines with sketch.

Emission Formation in SI Engines

Origin of SI engine exhaust emissions is shown schematically in Fig.3.

 Schematic of progress of combustion in SI engine and
Figurer. 3
pollutant formation

NOx and CO are formed in the burned gases in the cylinder. Unburned HC emissions
originate when fuel escapes combustion due to several processes such as flame
quenching in narrow passages present in the combustion chamber and incomplete
oxidation of fuel that is trapped or absorbed in oil film or deposits

NOx is formed by oxidation of molecular nitrogen. During combustion at high flame

temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the inducted air breakdown into atomic
species which react to form NO. Some NO 2 is also formed and NO and NO 2 together are
called as NOx.

CO results from incomplete oxidation of fuel carbon when insufficient oxygen is

available to completely oxidize the fuel. CO rises steeply as the air-fuel (A/F) ratio is
decreased below the stoichiometric A/F ratio.
HC originates from the fuel escaping combustion primarily due to flame quenching in
crevices and on cold chamber walls, fuel vapour absorption in the oil layer on the
cylinder and in combustion chamber deposits, and presence of liquid fuel in the cylinder
during cold start.
Air-fuel ratio is one of the most important parameter that affect the engine exhaust
emissions. Typical variation in emissions with air-fuel ratio for premixed charge SI
engines is shown in Fig. 4. The SI engine is operated close to stoichiometric air-fuel
ratio as it provides a smooth engine operation. Nitric oxide emissions are maximum at
slightly (5-10 %) leaner than stoichiometric mixture due to combination of availability
of excess oxygen and high combustion temperatures at this point. Carbon monoxide and
HC emissions reduce with increase in the air-fuel ratio as more oxygen gets available for
combustion. Lean engine operation to a certain critical value of airfuel ratio tend to
reduce all the three pollutants. Further leaning of mixture results in poor quality of
combustion and eventually in engine misfiring causing an erratic engine operation and
 sharp increase in HC emissions. Normally, one would like to operate engine on lean
mixtures that would give low CO and HC, and moderate NOx emissions.
But, presently most engines are operated very close to stoichiometric conditions for catalytic
control of NOx emissions.

Fig. 4. Variation in CO, HC and NO x emissions for a SI engine

4. Briefly explain thermal NO formation with kinetics and zeldovich mechanism.

 Formation of Nitrogen Oxides

Nitric oxide is the major component of NOx emissions from the internal combustion engines. During combustion, three
probable sources of NO formation are:
: By oxidation of atmospheric (molecular) nitrogen at high temperatures in the
(i) Thermal NO postflame burned gases.

Formed at the flame front within the flame reaction zone.

(ii) Prompt NO :

Oxidation of fuel-bound nitrogen at relatively low temperatures

(iii) Fuel NO :
Thermal NO is the dominant source of nitrogen oxides in IC engines.
Thermal NO

Thermal NO formation, also known as the Zeldovich mechanism, is a key process in the production of
nitrogen oxides (NOx) in high-temperature combustion environments. This mechanism is particularly
relevant at temperatures above 1800 K. The formation of thermal NO involves several chemical
reactions that occur due to the dissociation of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) molecules at high
temperatures.

NO is formed in the high temperature burned gases behind the flame front. The rate of formation of NO
increases exponentially with the burned gas temperature although, it is slower compared to the overall
rate of combustion.

Kinetics and Modelling of Thermal NO Formation

The following three reactions commonly referred to as the extended Zeldovich mechanism govern the
formation of thermal NO:

1. Dissociation of molecular nitrogen (N2):

 In this reaction, a nitrogen molecule (N2) reacts with an oxygen atom (O) to form nitric oxide
(NO) and a nitrogen atom (N).

2. Formation of NO from nitrogen atoms:

Here, a nitrogen atom (N) reacts with an oxygen molecule (O2) to produce another nitric oxide
(NO) molecule and an oxygen atom (O).

3. Recombination of nitrogen and oxygen:

This reaction involves a nitrogen atom (N) reacting with a hydroxyl radical (OH) to form nitric
oxide (NO) and a hydrogen atom (H).

k1, k2 and k3 are the reaction rate constants for the forward reactions and k -1, k-2 and k-3 are for
the reverse reactions.

The original Zeldovich mechanism consisted of the first two reactions (2.1) and (2.2) and
the third reaction (2.3) was added by Lavoie. The forward part of the first reaction (2.1) is
highly endothermic with high activation energy of about 314 kJ /mol and is a rate
determining reaction in NO formation.

The rate of NO formation in the Zeldovich mechanism is governed by the kinetics of these reactions,
which depend on factors such as temperature, pressure, and the concentrations of the reactants. At high
temperatures, the reaction rates increase significantly, leading to higher NO formation. The overall
production of thermal NO is a balance of these reactions and is influenced by the specific conditions of
the combustion process.

5. Explain briefly NO formation in SI engines with thermodynamic combustion models.

NO Formation in SI Engines
Rate of formation of NO:

where w = R1/( R2+ R3)

For computation of rate of formation of NO using above Eq. data are required on;

(i) Thermodynamic state of the combustion gases

(ii) Equilibrium concentration of O. OH, O2, N, N2 and NO in the burned gases.

Thermodynamic Combustion Models

Temperature of the burned gases and subsequently the equilibrium composition for a given
engine and air-fuel ratio may be computed using a thermodynamic model from

measured cylinder pressure – crank angle history

(a)
Use of empirical burn rates, or
(b)
Use of fundamental combustion models that are based on flame propagation models or multidimensional
combustion models.
(c)

Thermodynamic combustion models for SI engines are zero-dimensional and are only time
dependent. Space coordinates of the combustion chamber are not taken into account. Two
types of thermodynamic combustion models are used:

One Zone Combustion Model: It is the simplest form of thermodynamic

combustion models where the burned gas after combustion is assumed to mix
instantaneously with gases burned earlier and the unburned gases so that all the cylinder
gases at a given instant is uniform in composition and temperature. This model is too
simplistic and unreal. It is unable to predict Excepting gross engine performance
parameters such models are unable to predict engine performance and emissions with an
acceptable degree of accuracy.
Two Zone Combustion Models: Two zone models consist of an unburned mixture
zone and a second zone consisting of the burned gases. The unburned and burned zones
are separated by a thin reaction zone (flame front) of negligible thickness and hence the
mass of charge in the flame front can be neglected.
Two zone fully mixed model: This model assumes that the burned gases
produced on combustion of the charge element during the given time period
instaneously mixes with the burned gases produced earlier. Thus, all the
burned gases at a given instant are uniform in temperature and composition.
The unburned gases are in a separate zone and obviously at a different and
much lower temperature. The pressure in the entire cylinder is however
uniform.

Two zone unmixed model: At the extreme is an unmixed multi-zone

model where no mixing occurs between the burned gases produced by the
mixture elements that burn at different instants in the cycle. The unmixed
model predicts that a temperature gradient exists in the burned gases. The
difference in temperatures of an early burnt element (near spark plug) with a
late burn element at the far end of the combustion chamber of around 400 K
have been experimentally measured supporting that the burned gases are not
uniform in temperature and composition supporting the unmixed
combustion model. Although, the actual situation in the combustion
chamber may be somewhere between the fully mixed and unmixed models,
but the unmixed model is more realistic.
6. Discuss briefly NO formation in CI engines with Arrhenius type expression.
NO Formation in CI Engines

In the compression ignition engines, rapid combustion of fuel and air that are mixed
during delay period occurs This rapid combustion phase is termed as ‘premixed
combustion’ and is followed by mixing controlled diffusion combustion process. The
diffusion combustion rates are controlled by the .rate at which fuel and air mix and hence
the name ‘mixing controlled combustion’. Fuel-air equivalence ratio varies widely
from very rich at the core of spray to very lean at the spray boundaries and, the
formation of emissions is governed by the local air-fuel ratio besides other factors like
temperature and pressure. In the premixed combustion phase, mixture formed within the
flammable limits burns spontaneously. On the other hand, in the mixing controlled
combustion phase, it is believed that combustion occurs in those regions of spray where
equivalence ratio is close to stoichiometric.

In the classical spray combustion models, formation of NO starts in the burned gases
produced on combustion of close to stoichiometric and lean flammable mixtures during
premixed combustion phase. New combustion research on turbocharged/supercharged
engines suggests that most NO is formed in mixing controlled diffusion combustion at
spray boundaries and in the post combustion high temperature gases. The diffusion
combustion takes place at near stoichiometric conditions. In the
supercharged/turbocharged engines the delay period is rather short and overall a
significantly smaller fraction of fuel burns in premixed phase. In the modern
turbocharged, high-pressure direct injection engines with retarded injection timing, more
than half of NOx in the cycle is produced in the post combustion gases after peak
pressure. In the naturally aspirated engines with long ignition delays and sufficient time
available for premixing of fuel and air, the contribution of premixed combustion to NO
formation is considered to be substantial.

The hypothesis that most of NOx in diesel engines is formed in the burned gases
produced by combustion at near stoichiometric conditions has been demonstrated by
the following results. NO formation index (EINOx) in diesel engines has been
correlated with the stoichiometric adiabatic flame temperature, using the following
Arrhenius type expression:
The measured NOx emissions with varying amounts of diluents at different engine loads and
speeds correlated well with according to the relationship given in above Eq. On a log plot, the
(EINOx) data normalized with emissions obtained for standard air (without diluents) for several
engines had linear correlation with the reciprocal of as shown on Fig C.6
The activation energy for DI engine was determined to be - 285.0 kJ/gmol, and for IDI engines
equal to - 304.9 kJ/gmol. A single value of E correlated the emission data varying by a factor of
nearly 40 times. The good correlation obtained between EINO x and demonstrates the dominant
importance of NO formation in close-to-stoichiometric burned gas regions.

Fig.C.6. Correlation of NOx emission index with adiabatic flame temperature of stoichiometric
mixture (Tf,φ = 1) varied by addition of nitrogen and oxygen as diluents and determined for
mixture conditions at top dead centre for motored engines.
The engine design and operating conditions too affect the NO x formation process. The above model
is a very simple model and it showed good correlation for the engines of 1980s. For advanced
engines with very different injection parameters and fuel-air mixing processes, single overall
activation energy was found to have a poorer correlation than shown on Fig.

7. Explain the formation of CO emission from SI engines with equations.

FORMATION OF CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide is formed during combustion of fuel-rich mixtures due to deficiency of
oxygen. Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels may be considered as a two-step process leading to
complete combustion when carbon dioxide is the final product.

Step 1

Conversion of hydrocarbons to CO: oxidation reactions involving intermediate species like

smaller hydrocarbon molecules, aldehydes, ketones etc lead to formation of CO as
schematically shown below are.

RH represents a hydrocarbon where R stands for the hydrocarbon radical

Step 2

Conversion of CO to CO2: when sufficient oxygen is available. Hydroxyl radical OH is one the
principal oxidizing species and converts CO to CO2,

The above reaction is quite fast and is under equilibrium at high temperatures. In fact, the reactions
involving C-O-H system may be taken in chemical equilibrium during combustion and large part
of expansion stroke when temperatures are above 1800 K.
CO emitted is higher than the equilibrium concentrations corresponding to the temperature and
pressure conditions at the end of expansion. The calculations show that until about 60 degrees after
top dead centre, the burned gases are close to equilibrium. However, late in the expansion stroke
and during exhaust blow down on opening of the exhaust valve as the gases cool down, the CO
concentrations differ from the equilibrium value. The predicted CO levels at the end of expansion
computed by equilibrium considerations during early part of expansion and CO oxidation kinetics
(a b o v e Reaction) in the later part of expansion correlated well with the experimental data as
shown on Fig. C.7 These CO values may be considered as partial equilibrium vales.
 Fig. C.7. Comparison of calculated CO using partial equilibrium (kinetics in later part of

expansion stroke) and experimental data

Detailed investigations have shown:

For rich mixtures (f>1), the average exhaust CO concentrations are close to equilibrium
concentrations during expansion.
For near stoichiometric mixtures (f ˜1) exhaust CO is close to computed partial equilibrium
values.
For lean mixtures the measured CO is higher than the computed values using kinetic
models. This discrepancy may occur due to partial oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons
released from crevices and lubricating oil film and deposits on the combustion chamber
walls during expansion.
For estimation of CO concentration, a good approximation is to assume chemical equilibrium frozen
at 1750 K.

8. In detail describe with suitable diagram Crevice HC emission from SI engines.

Crevice HC
Crevices in the combustion chamber are narrow regions into which fuel-air mixture can flow but
flame cannot propagate due to their high surface to volume ratio causing high heat transfer rates
to walls.
 The largest crevice in the combustion chamber is between cylinder wall and piston top land, and
second land.
Other crevices present are along the gasket between cylinder head and block, around intake and
exhaust valve seats, threads around spark plug and space around the central electrode of the
spark plug.
Piston – ring - cylinder crevice is shown schematically in Fig. C.8.

Fig. C.8. Typical dimensions of piston top land crevices.

During compression and combustion, unburned charge is pushed into these crevices and at peak
pressure, maximum gas would be stored in the crevices. The gas composition into the crevices
depends on the location of spark plug. In the piston-cylinder crevices mostly unburned charge
would be filled in unless the flame has reached piston top in some location nearest to the spark
plug before the peak pressure occurs, which would result also in small amounts of burned gas
being pushed into the crevice in this location. The other crevices close to spark plug would be
filled with a larger fraction of the burned gas. During expansion, the stored gases in the crevices
begin to flow back into the cylinder. Part of the unburned charge from crevices that expands back
into the combustion chamber is oxidized on mixing with the hot burned gases.
Amount of HC Stored in Crevices include:
Contribution of crevice volume to HC emissions may be understood as follows. The crevice gas
temperatures are nearly equal to the temperature of walls which are cooled. Hence, the density of the
charge stored in the crevices is higher than in the cylinder. The maximum fraction of the unburned
charge stored in crevices, Es occurs at peak pressure and is given by;
 where m, V, T and P are mass
volume, pressure and temperature. The subscripts cr and o refer to the conditions in the crevices and at
the end of intake stroke in the cylinder, respectively. Pmax is the peak pressure in the cylinder.
Typically Pmax /Po = 40, To= 300 K and Tcr = 400 K. Taking piston top land crevice volume equal to
0.9 cm3 and the engine cylinder volume of 300 cm3 for a compact car, 9% of the charge is stored in the
piston ring crevice. The crevice charge would consist of 10 to 15 percent residual gases and some
burned gases forced into it when flame propagates across the crevice opening.
In a production engines ring crevice region may contribute 25 % to 50% to exhaust HC emissions
depending upon the operating conditions.
Increase in radial clearance between the piston and cylinder beyond two-plate quench distance would
allow flame penetration in the crevice. It would result in reduction of HC as the flame would be able to
penetrate in the crevice volume. However, increase in radial clearance would lead to increase in blow
by gases and loss in engine power output.
Under conditions of high residual gas dilution or use of very lean mixtures, the flame may quench much
before it reaches the crevice region. Thus, increase in crevice volume by increasing radial clearance can
result in an increase in HC emissions under engine operation on lean mixtures or with high EGR.

U20AUOT02 - ENGINE EMISSION AND CONTROL

MODULE – 2 Part – A

1. What is misfired combustion?

An engine misfire happens when the cylinders in the engine don't burn right
or the combustion within the chamber is incomplete (or nonexistent!).
Typically, engine misfires can be caused by a variety of factors, including
malfunctioning coils, worn or faulty spark plugs, a leak or a faulty ignition
switch.
Engine may misfire under engine idling and low load operation as the
residual gas dilution is high.
Presence of high residual gas content retards combustion and more fuel burns
during expansion stroke.

2. How many quench zones exist in the engine cylinder?

Four quench zones basically exist in the engine cylinder. These zones are:
• cylinder head quench layer wall including spark plug crevice
• cylinder wall quench layer and head gasket crevice
 • the quench layer on piston head, and  the quench zone around
the piston above the top land crevice.

3. List several processes contribute to HC emissions from CI engine.

Several processes are likely to contribute to unburned hydrocarbon emissions as below;
• Overmixing of fuel and air beyond lean flammability limits during delay period,
• Under-mixing of fuel injected towards the end of injection process resulting in
fuelair ratios that are too rich for complete combustion,
• Impingement of fuel sprays on walls due to spray over-penetration,
• Poorly atomized fuel from the nozzle sac volume and nozzle holes after the end of
injection, and
• Bulk quenching of combustion reactions due to cold engine conditions, mixing
with cooler air or during expansion

4. Draw typical diesel particulate matter composition for an engine.

5. What are the main stages of soot formation?

Soot formation consists of four main stages viz,

Inception and nucleation, Surface growth, Coagulation and Agglomeration,
and Oxidation.

6. How many design and operating variables affecting SI engine emissions?

Principal design and operating variables affecting engine emissions are:
Design Variables:
Compression Ratio
Combustion chamber surface to volume ratio
Ignition timing
Valve timings and valve overlap
Air motion, swirl tumble etc.
Charge stratification
Operating Variables:
Air-fuel Ratio
Charge dilution and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
Speed
Load
Coolant temperature
 Transient engine operation: acceleration, deceleration etc.

7. Give design and operating variables affecting CI engine emissions?

Important diesel engine variables that influence emissions are:
Engine Design Variables
Compression ratio
Combustion chamber type
Combustion chamber design
Injection system: injection pressure and timing, nozzle holes, nozzle sac volume
Operating Variables:
EGR
Engine speed
Engine load
Fuel quality

8.What are the types of emission limits?

Units of Emission Limits

Two types of emission limits are specified in the standards
For the light and medium duty vehicles, passenger cars and, two and three wheelers are in terms
of mass of pollutant emitted per unit distance travelled i.e., g/km ( g/mile in the USA , 1 g/km =
1.61 g/mile).
For heavy duty vehicles and engines test is carried on the engine itself and the limits are specified
in terms of mass of pollutant per unit of work done, i.e., g/kW-h or g/bhp-h (1 g/kW-h = 1.34
g/bhp-h) .
The test cycle and measurement procedures have been accordingly developed whether test is to be
done on a vehicle or on the engine.

9. What are the factors contribute to Hydrocarbon emissions from CI

engine?
several processes are likely to contribute to unburned hydrocarbon emissions as below;
• Overmixing of fuel and air beyond lean flammability limits during delay period,
• Under-mixing of fuel injected towards the end of injection process resulting in
fuel-air ratios that
• are too rich for complete combustion,
• Impingement of fuel sprays on walls due to spray over-penetration,
• Poorly atomized fuel from the nozzle sac volume and nozzle holes after the end of
injection, and o Bulk quenching of combustion reactions due to cold engine
conditions, mixing with cooler air or during expansion.

10.List the operating and design variables in SI engine emissions.

{ Same as 6}
 Part – B

1. Describe combustion chamber deposits HC emission.

Combustion Chamber Deposits HC
Deposits are formed in the intake system, on the valves, combustion chamber and piston
crown after engine operation for several thousand kilometres. The combustion chamber
deposits are carbonaceous in composition and porous in nature. Olefins, aromatics and
heavier fuels result in higher deposit build up. Engine operation for 50 to 100 hours under
cyclic and variable load and speed conditions can result in deposit thickness of around
100 mm in the combustion chamber.
The fuel-air-residual gas charge is compressed into pores of deposits. As the pore size is
smaller than the quench distance, the flame cannot penetrate into deposit pores. The
unburned mixture comes out of pores during expansion and diffuses back into burned
gases. Some of these hydrocarbons will burn up on mixing with the hot burned gases.
But, as the temperatures drop on expansion a large fraction of these may fail to get
oxidized and are emitted from the engine.
On the other hand, the deposits formed on the combustion chamber surface reduce heat
transfer and it may decrease quench layer thickness. Prevention of heat transfer by the
combustion chamber deposits increases charge temperatures and hence lower HC
emissions. However, the overall effect of deposits is to increase HC emissions. In the
engine and vehicle tests, combustion chamber deposits are seen to increase HC emissions
by 10 to 25 percent.

2. Write short notes on post flame HC oxidation.

Post-flame HC Oxidation
During expansion stroke, the hydrocarbons from the quench layer, oil film and crevices
diffuse back into the bulk combustion gases. These hydrocarbons that diffuse back into
the burned gases oxidize inside the cylinder and in the exhaust depending upon the
burned gas temperature and the availability of oxygen. HC levels in the cylinder prior to
opening of exhaust valve are 1.5 to 2 times higher than the concentrations in the exhaust.
Empirical correlations have been obtained from the experimental data to estimate HC
oxidation in the cylinder and exhaust as given below:

where [ ] denotes concentration of reactants in moles per cm 3, XHC and XO2 are the mole
fractions of HC and O2, respectively, t is time in seconds, temperature T in K and the
density (p/RT) is in moles per cm3. From the oxidation rate given by the above
expression, oxidation time, tox for a given concentration [HC] can be estimated as below:

3.Describe (i) overmixing of fuel (ii) under mixing of fuel.

Overmixing of fuel and its contribution to unburned hydrocarbon emissions:

Overmixing occurs when the air-fuel mixture in an engine is overly rich, meaning there is too
much fuel and not enough air for complete combustion. This imbalance leads to the following:

1. Incomplete combustion: Excess fuel cannot be fully burned due to insufficient oxygen,
leading to unburned hydrocarbons (HC) being released as exhaust.
2. Higher emissions: Unburned hydrocarbons are a major pollutant, contributing to smog
formation and air quality deterioration.
3. Fuel inefficiency: Overmixing wastes fuel, reducing engine efficiency and increasing
overall emissions.

Controlling air-fuel ratios is essential to reduce unburned hydrocarbons and improve engine
performance.

Undermixing of fuel and its contribution to unburned hydrocarbon emissions:

Undermixing occurs when the fuel and air in an engine are not properly blended, resulting in
pockets of rich and lean mixtures within the combustion chamber. This condition contributes to
unburned hydrocarbon emissions in the following ways:

1. Incomplete fuel atomization: Poor mixing leads to larger fuel droplets, making it
difficult for all fuel to be fully exposed to oxygen for combustion.
2. Localized rich regions: Areas with excessive fuel and insufficient air prevent complete
combustion, resulting in the release of unburned hydrocarbons (HC).
3. Flame quenching: The irregular air-fuel distribution can cause flame extinction in certain
regions, leaving unburned fuel in the exhaust.
4. Higher emissions: Undermixing increases HC emissions, contributing to air pollution
and decreased engine efficiency.

Proper atomization and mixing are critical to achieving efficient combustion and reducing
unburned hydrocarbons.

4. Write notes on solid carbon material.

Dry soot or solid carbon material

Dry soot is mainly the carbonaceous fraction of the particulate and its typical chemical formulae
are C8H, C9H and C10H. About 5 to 10 % by mass oxygen and 0.5% nitrogen are also present.
Typical empirical formula of dry soot would be CH0.11O0.065N0.005. Dry soot results from
several processes like pyrolysis, dehydrogenation and condensation of fuel molecules.

5. What is soot oxidation? Explain.

Soot Oxidation
Oxidation of soot takes place during each stage of soot formation i.e., during formation of
precursors, nuclei, primary soot particles and aggregates. A large fraction of soot that forms early
in the combustion process is oxidized within the cylinder. Reactions with O, O2, OH, CO2 and
H2O oxidize soot. But, O, O2 and OH are the main oxidants. OH radical plays an important role
in soot oxidation in fuel rich conditions that exist in diffusion combustion systems. The OH
radical is present in significant concentrations in the reaction zone of diffusion flames and
oxidizes soot in the flame region. In the post combustion gases, O2 is present in abundance and
is the main oxidant. Rate of oxidation is also influenced by the shape and size of the soot
particles. As the particles grow in size they tend to agglomerate instead of coagulation, and form
clusters or chains.
The oxidation of chain structure by O2 is much slower than by OH.
Most widely used soot oxidation model in engines is that by Nagle and Strickland-Constable
(NSC). The NS-C mechanism for soot oxidation is given by:

where;

6. Describe effect of engine speed on SI engine emissions.

Engine Speed
Volumetric efficiency of the engine changes with speed, it being highest in the mid-speed
range. At high engine speeds the volumetric efficiency generally decreases resulting in
high residual gas dilution.
Although heat transfer rates increase with increase in engine speed as a result of higher
turbulence, but total amount of heat transfer is lower due to shorter cycle time. This gives
higher gas temperatures at higher speeds. However, at high speeds a shorter time is
available for NO formation kinetics.
The net result is a moderate effect of speed on NO although this is specific to the engine
design and operating conditions. Increase in exhaust gas temperatures at higher speeds
enhances post flame oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons. A reduction of 20 to 50 percent
in HC emissions has been observed with increase in speed from 1000 to 2000 rpm.

7. How fuel quality effects CI engine emissions?

Fuel Quality effects in CI engine emissions:

For petroleum fuels many of the properties such as hydrocarbon composition, natural
cetane number, volatility, viscosity and density are interdependent. As the fuel density
decreases the fuel contains more of paraffinic hydrocarbons, which results generally in
higher cetane number and fuel volatility and lower viscosity. So, the effect of change in
 one fuel quality parameter on emissions may be some times the result of several
interactions.
A high fuel cetane number improves cold starting and results in faster warm-up thus
reducing cold engine HC emissions. As an increase in the cetane number reduces ignition
delay it results in lowering of HC and NO x emissions. On the other hand, with higher
fuel volatility a larger lean flame out ‘overmixing' region may result and due to faster fuel
evaporation the fraction of fuel burned during premixed combustion is also higher.
Therefore, an increase in NO x as well as HC may be observed with more volatile diesel
fuels. The fuel sulphur increases sulphates in PM emissions increasing the particulate
mass.

8. Write notes on world motorcycle emission test cycle.

In Europe and India, different test cycles have been and are being followed. However,
there is an attempt to harmonize the test cycle all over the world and a world motorcycle
emission test cycle (WMTC) as shown in Fig has been developed.

European Union countries have now defined emission test limits as an alternative to the
European test cycle, ECE-40. More and more countries are expected to adopt WMTC.

9. Describe under mixing of fuel.

Undermixing of fuel and its contribution to unburned hydrocarbon emissions:

Undermixing occurs when the fuel and air in an engine are not properly blended, resulting in
pockets of rich and lean mixtures within the combustion chamber. This condition contributes to
unburned hydrocarbon emissions in the following ways:
1. Incomplete fuel atomization: Poor mixing leads to larger fuel droplets, making it
difficult for all fuel to be fully exposed to oxygen for combustion.
2. Localized rich regions: Areas with excessive fuel and insufficient air prevent complete
combustion, resulting in the release of unburned hydrocarbons (HC).
3. Flame quenching: The irregular air-fuel distribution can cause flame extinction in certain
regions, leaving unburned fuel in the exhaust.
4. Higher emissions: Undermixing increases HC emissions, contributing to air pollution
and decreased engine efficiency.
Proper atomization and mixing are critical to achieving efficient combustion and reducing
unburned hydrocarbons.

10. Write notes on soluble organic fraction.

Soluble organic fraction (SOF) that can be extracted by a solvent like dichloromethane.
The soluble organic fraction originates from the fuel and oil hydrocarbons, and hence has
H/C ratio ˜ 2, although depending upon engine operating conditions it may vary from
1.25 to 2.0. The hydrocarbons C17 to C40 are present in particulate SOF phase, the C23 –
C24 being close to the mean. Typically, SOF has an empirical formula
CH1.65O0.1N0.007. The soluble organic fraction is adsorbed on the solid soot core. The
SOF also consists of partial oxidation products and poly aromatic hydrocarbons besides
hydrocarbons originating from fuel and the lubricating oil. The mass content of SOF
varies significantly depending upon engine design and operating conditions, but mostly it
is in the range from 20 to 45 percent.
In addition to SOF, sulphates originating from fuel sulphur, nitrogen dioxide and water
are also absorbed on the particle core formed by soot. Other inorganic compounds of
iron, silicon (fuel contamination), phosphorous, calcium, zinc (source is oil) etc. are also
present in traces in the particulates.

Part – C
1. Explain in detail the port fuel injection and fuel vaporization process.

Mixture Quality and In-Cylinder Liquid Fuel

Very rich fuel-air mixture has to be supplied during cold starting as fuel evaporation is
poor at low engine temperatures. During acceleration, delayed dynamic response of the
fuel system to meet the engine requirements again requires supply of overly rich-
mixtures. The carburetted engines are to be supplied a richer fuel mixture than the
modern PFI engines as there is a delay for the metered fuel in reaching the cylinder. Also,
the carburettor is unable to precisely control the fuel quantity.
The port fuel injection systems (PFI) i.e., separate fuel injectors for each cylinder provide
more precise fuel metering and more uniform fuel distribution among cylinders. PFI also
gives a better control of air-fuel ratio during cold starting and response to transient
operation compared to the carburettor.

Fuel injection process in a PFI engine is shown schematically in (Fig.).

 Fig. Schematic of Port Fuel Injection and fuel vaporization process

Mixture preparation is governed by factors such as:

• Fuel atomization and droplet size
• Fuel vaporization on the back of the intake valve depending upon its temperature,
and
• Mixing with intake air and hot residual gases. The hot residual gases flow back
into the intake manifold as the intake valve opens and its amount depends on the
operating conditions. The injected fuel comes into contact with these hot residual
gases that help fuel vaporization.
Some features of fuel induction into the cylinder of PFI engines are:
• The conventional PFI system produces the droplets of Sauter mean diameter
(SMD) ranging from 130 μm to 300 μm. The droplets larger than 10 μm are
unable to follow the air stream and they impinge on the combustion chamber
walls producing a non-uniform fuel distribution in the cylinder.
• As the injection is made at the back of intake valve, liquid fuel film is formed at
the port and on the back of the valve. The intake air strips this liquid fuel film and
carries along into the cylinder. In the process, substantial amount of liquid fuel
droplets enter the engine cylinder and is deposited on cylinder walls.
• Shearing of the liquid film from the back of intake valve and port by intake air
produces larger droplets than by the injectors which impinge on the cylinder walls
depositing liquid fuel film. Injection at a higher pressure although would produce
finer droplets but the fuel jet velocity and droplet momentum are also higher,
which increases the probability of the impingement of the fuel droplets on walls.
• During cold start as 8 to 15 times of the stoichiometric fuel requirement is injected
for the first few cycles, more liquid fuel is deposited inside the cylinder.

2. Briefly explain the schematic of hydrocarbons exiting from engine cylinder.

 HC Transport to Exhaust
Four quench zones basically exist in the engine cylinder.
These zones are:
• cylinder head quench layer wall including spark plug crevice
• cylinder wall quench layer and head gasket crevice
• the quench layer on piston head, and
• the quench zone around the piston above the top land crevice.

Depending upon the gas-dynamic flow during exhaust, the flow from these regions is
expected to be different. At the end of combustion, hydrocarbons are present in high
concentrations along the combustion chamber walls trapped in the deposits, oil films and
crevices. During expansion stroke, hydrocarbons flow out of crevices. Some of the
hydrocarbons flowing out of crevices and desorbed from oil film and deposits diffuse into
the bulk gas, but most of these remain close to the walls. When the exhaust valve opens,
gases blow out of the cylinder at a high velocity. During the exhaust blow down process,
in the beginning the exhaust gas takes along HC from the quench zones (1) and (2), spark
plug and head gasket crevices which are closer to the exhaust valve and part of the
hydrocarbons released from crevices, oil films and deposits. Thus, the initial exhaust
blow down gas is rich in unburned hydrocarbons and about half of the total unburned HC
are emitted.
During expansion, hydrocarbon -rich boundary layer is present along the cylinder walls
as the fuel vapours expand out of piston-cylinder crevice and desorbed from the oil film.
Upward motion of the piston during exhaust stroke scraps this hydrocarbon –rich
boundary layer and gases from quench zone (3) rolling these into a vortex along the
periphery of piston crown. The piston motion pushes it towards cylinder head and this
vortex may be detached from the piston crown and is partly exhausted. This vortex
mechanism leads to high HC concentration in the exhaust gases towards the end of the
exhaust stroke.

3. Describe the following on HC emissions (i) effect of ignition delay (ii) effect of
nozzle sac volume and type of nozzle hole. HC Emissions from CI Engines
The unburned hydrocarbons in diesel exhaust consist of original fuel molecules, products
of pyrolysis of fuel compounds and partially oxidized hydrocarbons, in all numbering to
almost 400 organic compounds ranging from methane to heaviest fuel components. In
diesel engines, several events like liquid fuel injection, fuel evaporation, fuel-air mixing,
combustion, and mixing of burned and unburned gases may take place concurrently and
combustion is heterogeneous in nature.
Thus, several processes are likely to contribute to unburned hydrocarbon emissions as
below:
• Overmixing of fuel and air beyond lean flammability limits during delay period,
• Under-mixing of fuel injected towards the end of injection process resulting in
fuelair ratios that are too rich for complete combustion,
• Impingement of fuel sprays on walls due to spray over-penetration,
• Poorly atomized fuel from the nozzle sac volume and nozzle holes after the end of
injection, and
• Bulk quenching of combustion reactions due to cold engine conditions, mixing
with cooler air or during expansion.
 Overmixing of Fuel
Overmixed region in a diesel spray injected in swirling air is explained schematically in
Fig. The outer boundary of spray will have smaller droplets. Also, swirling air carries
smaller droplets towards downstream of the leading edge of the spray. The smaller
droplets vaporize more rapidly and due to air entrainment at the spray boundary the
mixture is leaner. The central core of the spray consists of larger droplets that evaporate
relatively at a slower rate and air entrainment in the spray core is also low.
The local fuel-air ratio distribution varies with the radial distance from the spray axis. The
fuel-air ratio distribution expected in diesel spray is qualitatively noted on Fig.

Fig. Schematic of diesel fuel spray and fuel-air equivalence ratio distribution at the time of
ignition. Formation of pollutants in different spray regions is qualitatively marked.
The outermost boundary of the spray is characterized by the fuel-air ratio being zero at the
boundary. A large lean mixture region containing fuel vapours exists inside the outer boundary
where equivalence ratio is less than the lean limit ( ˜ 0.3). This region is termed as lean flame
blow out region (LFOR).
The overmixing of fuel in the LFOR region near the spray boundary may result due to high air
swirl and/or longer time available before combustion starts (longer ignition delay). Overmixing
results in overleaning of the mixture beyond the lean flammability limit and it will not auto-
ignite or support combustion. In the overmixed region, only slow oxidation reactions are likely to
occur resulting in partially oxidized products and unburned fuel. Most of the unburned
hydrocarbons especially under idling and light loads are expected to originate from the
overmixed region.
The width of the LFOR region primarily depends on ignition delay, pressure and temperature in
the chamber, fuel type and air swirl. Increase in temperature and pressure would reduce width of
LFOR as the lean limit of combustion is extended. The magnitude of contribution of LFOR to
unburned HC would depend on the length of ignition delay, amount of fuel injected and rate of
fuel –air mixing during the delay period. A longer ignition delay allows more time for the fuel
vapours to diffuse farther into air and a higher percentage of fuel would be contained in the
LFOR. An increase in HC emissions with increase in the ignition delay is observed for DI diesel
engines as shown in Fig.
 Fig. Effect of ignition delay on HC emissions in a DI diesel engine

Under-mixing of Fuel
HC emissions also result from under-mixing of fuel with air. This can happen for the fuel
injected later in the cycle or because of over-fuelling of the engine. The fuel left in the injector
sac volume and nozzle holes at the end of injection on heating during combustion gets fully or
partially vaporized. The vaporized fuel from the nozzle sac and holes enter the engine cylinder at
low velocity later in the cycle during expansion stroke and has little time to mix with air when
the gas temperatures are still high. This portion of fuel therefore remains mostly unburned and is
emitted in the exhaust. Nozzle sac volume has been observed to be the main contributor to HC
emissions in a DI engines through the process of under-mixing of fuel. Effect of nozzle sac
volume on HC is shown on Fig. Two types of nozzle designs one with low sac volume and
another valve covered orifice (VCO) design are also shown.

Fig. Effect of nozzle sac volume and type of nozzle hole on HC emissions from DI diesel
engine.

In VCO nozzles the nozzle sac is eliminated. The VCO nozzles however, are not preferred as
their durability is low due to overheating of the nozzle tip as in the other nozzles fuel in the sac
absorbs latent heat of vaporization and the nozzle temperatures are lower.
Fuel contained in the nozzle holes also contributes to the HC emissions as seen when the curve is
extrapolated to zero sac volume.
For the DI engines, at full load a minimum of about 40 percent excess air (f< 0.7) is usually
supplied to limit smoke emissions. Over-fuelling may occur during acceleration especially in
turbocharged engines, as the response of turbocharger to increase airflow rate is slower than the
increase in fuel injection rate.
With increase in engine load (increase in fuel-air equivalence ratio), engine and cylinder gas
temperatures increase and therefore, HC emissions generally decrease until a critical fuel-air
ratio is reached. When excess air is reduced to around 10 percent (f = 0.9) or below HC
emissions increase sharply.
At low ambient temperatures during engine warm up or with retarded injection timing, some
engine cycles may misfire resulting in bulk quenching and high HC emissions. Under these
conditions, liquid fuel droplets may appear in the exhaust giving the exhaust a white coloured
appearance, known as ‘white smoke’.

4. Discuss briefly soot formation stoichiometry and conceptual model of soot

formation in diesel spray combustion.

Soot Formation Stoichiometry

From equilibrium considerations soot will appear when oxygen is not sufficient to oxidize
carbon even to carbon monoxide, i.e., C/O atomic ratio in the mixture is greater than
unity. Using the following stoichiometric reaction for a hydrocarbon, CxHy:

when x is greater than 2a i.e. C/O is greater than unity, solid carbon, Cs or soot is
produced during combustion.
The fuel –air equivalence ratio for the above reaction is:

For practical diesel fuels H/C ratio (y/x) ˜ 2. Hence, for the critical C/O = 1, the fuel-air
equivalence ratio, φ = 3. However, in practical systems the soot has been observed to
form at C/O ratio of 0.5 to 0.8 indicating that soot formation is a kinetically controlled
process.
It may be noted that for methane (CH4), theoretical critical φ is equal to 4. The critical
C/O ratio for soot formation increases with increase in temperature. Pressure has a strong
influence, higher pressures yielding higher soot formation at the same value of f . In other
words, increase in pressure results in lowering of critical value of f at which soot is
formed.

Conceptual Models of Soot Formation

Two conceptual models of soot formation in spray combustion have been suggested: One
model suggests that the soot is formed in a narrow zone of rich mixture at the spray
boundaries close to the diffusion combustion region.
Another conceptual model based on laser imaging studies of diesel spray combustion in a
supercharged engine at Sandia Laboratories has been proposed. Fig shows schematically
a diesel spray jet.
 Fig. Conceptual model of soot formation in diesel spray combustion

It is seen in these studies that the liquid jet is relatively short and the fuel ahead of liquid
jet is in vapour phase. It was seen that the soot appeared for the first time just
downstream of liquid jet in the rich premixed combustion region. The concentration of
soot increases and particle size grows as soot flows downstream towards the spray
boundary.
The highest soot concentration and largest particle size are in the region forming head or
leading edge of the jet. The model suggests that the formation of soot precursors and
consequently generation of soot particles takes place in the rich premixed flame where
fuelair equivalence ratio is in the range, φ =2 to 4. The soot particles grow in size as they
pass through the spray towards the spray leading edge. The soot finally gets oxidized in
the diffusion flame at the spray boundaries by OH radical rather than the molecular
oxygen, O2.
 5.
In detail explain inception and nucleation in soot formation process.
Soot Inception and Nucleation
Soot nucleation is a non-equilibrium process and is not yet fully understood. The
nucleation process appears to consists of several processes viz.,
• Thermal cracking or pyrolysis of long chain fuel molecules in an environment of
oxygen
• deficiency. During this process the large fuel molecules are broken into smaller
molecules forming soot precursors.
• Condensation reactions and polymerization that result in larger molecules.
• The third process is dehydrogenation process that increases C/H ratio of fuel
molecules enroute to soot formation.
The path to soot nucleation and formation also depends on temperature as below:
• At T < 1800 K, condensation reactions of aromatics and pyrolysis of other highly
unsaturated hydrocarbons are likely to form soot.
• At intermediate temperatures, 2800 > T > 1800 K, the thermal cracking leading to
fragmentation of fuel molecules to smaller unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules
followed by polymerization dominates soot nucleation. Acetylene, poly acetylenes
and poly unsaturated hydrocarbon radicals are formed due to fragmentation
reactions that lead to formation of soot.
• At still higher temperatures T > 3000K the vapour phase condensation of
molecules occurs to form soot nuclei.
The aromatic condensation route for soot nucleation is a more direct and faster route. The
fragmentation to smaller molecules and polymerization to soot nuclei is a slower route.
Of all the products of fragmentation reactions and pyrolysis the acetylenes and poly
aromatic hydrocarbons are considered the most likely precursors leading to soot
formation. These gas-phase species on condensation reactions produce soot nuclei.
Considering acetylene as an important soot precursor the formation of large ring
structures, i.e., PAHs leading finally to soot formation has been proposed that involves
the following three types of reactions known as Hydrogen-abstraction-C2H2 - addition
(HACA) mechanism:
Reaction 1:
Hydrogen atom is removed from an aromatic molecule (AR) by a free hydrogen atom to
form H2 and aromatic
radical (AR*):

Reaction 2:
Addition of an acetylene
to AR*:

Reaction 3:
Cyclization to
form aromatic
ring:
6.

Large PAH molecules are formed as this process repeats many times. The various PAHs
formed polymerize to form a solid phase soot nuclei of 1 to 2 nm diameter. These soot
nuclei on further surface growth produce soot particles.

How compression ratio affects SI engine emissions explain briefly.

Compression Ratio
The effect of compression ratio on engine emissions is shown on Fig. The typical effect
observed when the engine CR was reduced from 10:1 (CR used on high performance
engines during pre-emission control period) to 8.5 and 7.0:1 are given on this figure.

Fig. Effect of reduction in compression ratio from 10:1 to 8.5:1 and

7.0:1 on SI engine emissions

Use of high CR results in

(i) Higher burned gas temperature
(ii) Lower residual gas content

These lead to higher NO emissions on volume basis. However, as engine efficiency

increases with increase in compression ratio, brake specific NO emissions decrease.

High CR combustion chambers result in

(i) High surface to volume ratio and
7.
(ii) A proportionately higher crevice volume.
(iii) Lower exhaust gas temperatures

Thus the volume of flame quenching regions increases resulting in higher HC emissions.
The problem is further enhanced as due to lower exhaust gas temperatures oxidation of
the unburned HC is reduced during exhaust process. These factors result in an increase in
HC emissions with increase in engine CR. At lower CR% fuel efficiency is also reduced
thus increasing specific CO emissions.

Explain in detail effect of combustion chamber design in CI engine

emissions.

Combustion Chamber Design a.

Dead Volumes
Air in the combustion chamber is contained in several different volumes like piston bowl,
top land crevice, piston – cylinder head clearance, valve recess and head gasket
clearance. Typical distribution of clearance volume at tdc among different components
for a DI diesel engine is shown in Table.

Table. Volume Distribution of Combustion Chamber at TDC

The piston bowl in DI diesel engines contains slightly more than 50% of total clearance
volume at tdc. The air contained in top land crevice, head gasket clearance and valve
recess is nearly 15 % and is poorly utilized during combustion. Even the air contained in
the volume between piston crown and cylinder head at tdc is poorly utilized. Piston-
cylinder crevice volumes store morethan proportionate air due to lower temperature in
the crevice region compared to the temperature of air in the cylinder. A reduction in
crevice volume therefore, increases air utilization. Similarly, a lower clearance between
piston and cylinder head increases air utilization and reduces the possibility of fuel
entering the crevices. Reduction in ‘poor air utilization' volumes results in lower
particulate emission and fuel consumption.
8.

b. Multi-Valves and Air Motion

Use of multiple valves (3 or 4) per cylinder increases flow area and hence, the volumetric
efficiency of the engine. Four valves per cylinder are now common in gasoline engines.
In the direct injection diesel engines use of four valves enables a centralized location of
injector and combustion bowl in the piston.
The injector can be placed more centrally and vertically. Typical PM-NOx characteristics
for 4- and 2- valve per cylinder passenger car diesel engines are compared on Fig. With
two valves designs, the injector is always offset and inclined. Injector inclination of 20
and 10 degrees from vertical has been observed to give an increase of about 25 and 5 %,
respectively in PM emissions due to poor fuel distribution in the cylinder compared to a
vertically located injector. Reduction of up to 4 to 7 % in specific fuel consumption is
 also obtained at the same NOx emission level in a multi-valve engine with centrally
placed combustion bowl and injector.

Fig. PM – NO x trade-off for two valve and four-valve passenger car

DI diesel engines.

A centrally placed combustion bowl has lower swirl requirements and results in more
equal fuel distribution and availability of equal air to each spray for mixing. In four-valve
engines, symmetrical air motion in the piston bowl and equal fuel distribution between
different sprays lead to optimum mixture formation and combustion with very low smoke
levels.
Use of lower air swirl in 4-valve engines compared to 2-valve engines for the same PM
and NOx emission levels, results in reduction of fuel -air ‘overmixing' during premixed
phase of combustion. As ‘overmixing' of fuel is an important source of HC emissions,
lower HC emissions in 4-valve engines are obtained.

8. Describe briefly two test driving cycles for light duty vehicles.

European Test Driving Cycle

The driving cycles followed in Europe for light and medium duty vehicles is shown in
Fig.
 Fig. European driving cycle for light and medium duty vehicles: ECE 15 cycle
followed by extra urban driving cycle (EUDC).

The European test cycle is composed of steady operation modes derived from the actual
vehicle operation data on road. Although it consists of acceleration and deceleration
modes but as all the modes represent averaged operating conditions, the cycle is often
referred to as steady mode cycle.
The European test cycle as given in Fig. was implemented from Euro 1 emission
standards in 1992. It has two parts;
(i) an urban driving cycle (ECE 15) and
(ii) an extra-urban driving cycle (EUDC)
The break-up of different operating modes in the two parts of the cycle is also given in
Figure.
Prior to Euro 1 regulations, only the ECE 15 cycle was used. The low speed urban test
cycle consists of repetition of 15 mode cycle four times without interruption for a total
duration of 780 seconds. The total distance covered is 4.052 km at an average speed of 19
km/h. The high-speed test cycle called as Extra Urban Driving Cycle (EUDC) is carried
out after the ECE-15 cycle. This high-speed cycle has maximum speed of 120 km/h. The
EUDC part gives a higher contribution to NOx while the ECE-15 cycle has more
contribution to CO and HC emissions.
Emission measurement commences with the engine cold start at the beginning of the first
ECE-15 mode cycle itself.

US FTP-75 Cycle
The US test procedure known as Federal Test Procedure -75 (FTP-75) is a transient cycle
consisting of a typical actual driving trace for the light duty vehicles. It consists of four
phases as shown on Fig.:
• Cold transition phase of 505 seconds with a weighting factor of 0.43
• Stabilized phase of 867 seconds with a weighting factor of 1.0
• Hot soak phase of 10 minutes
 • Hot transition phase; repeat of first phase of 505 seconds with a weighting
factor of 0.57

Fig. US FTP-75 emission test cycle for light duty vehicles; the driving cycle for motor
cycles is shown by dotted line.

The total vehicle driving schedule is of 31 minutes. In addition, after operation for 1372
seconds engine is switched off in hot condition to allow hot soaking period of 10 minutes.
The total distance covered is 11.09 miles. The vehicle is preconditioned before test by
soaking it for 12 hours at a temperature between 20 to 30º C. The test begins with cold
start. FTP-75 procedure was the first to use CVS (Constant Volume Sampling) method for
measurement of the mass of the pollutants emitted per km or mile travelled. The sample
of diluted exhaust gas with air from CVS system is collected in three separate bags, one
each for the three phases of vehicle operation. The concentration of pollutant in each bag
and total volume of diluted exhaust gases for each test phase is determined to calculate
the mass of pollutants emitted. Weighting factors corresponding to each phase are used to
give mass emission values for the total cycle.
 U20AUOT02 - ENGINE EMISSION AND CONTROL

MODULE-3

Part – A

1. What is Indian emission standards?

Indian emission standards are regulations set by the government to control the amount of air
pollutants released by vehicles and industrial processes. These standards, known as Bharat
Stage (BS) norms, are similar to the European emission standards and are periodically updated to
reduce pollution. The latest standard, Bharat Stage VI (BS6), was implemented in 2020 and
mandates stricter limits on emissions like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate
matter from vehicles, leading to cleaner air and better public health.

2. Define flame ionization detector.

A Flame Ionization Detector (FID) is a type of gas detector used primarily in gas
chromatography to measure the concentration of organic compounds in a sample. It works by
burning the sample in a hydrogen flame, which ionizes the organic molecules. The ions
produced generate an electrical current, which is proportional to the amount of carbon in the
sample. This current is then measured and used to determine the concentration of the
compounds. FIDs are highly sensitive to hydrocarbons and are commonly used for detecting
and quantifying volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

3. List the categories of emission control techniques.

Emission control techniques can be categorized into the following:

1. Pre-Combustion Techniques: Modifying fuel or engine design to reduce emissions

before combustion.
2. Combustion Control Techniques: Optimizing the combustion process to minimize
pollutant formation.
3. Post-Combustion Techniques: Treating exhaust gases to remove pollutants, such as
using catalytic converters or particulate filters.
4. Evaporative Emission Control: Capturing and preventing fuel vapors from escaping
into the atmosphere.
5. Alternative Fuels and Energy Sources: Using cleaner energy sources, like electric
vehicles or biofuels, to reduce emissions.
6. Process Modifications: Altering industrial processes, such as using low-NOx burners, to
reduce emissions.

4. What is crankcase blow by?

Crankcase blow-by refers to the leakage of combustion gases from the combustion chamber
past the piston rings and into the engine's crankcase. These gases, which contain unburned
fuel, oil vapor, and other combustion byproducts, can build up pressure in the crankcase. To
prevent this pressure from causing damage, the blow-by gases are usually vented through a
Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system, which redirects them back into the engine's
intake manifold to be burned off during combustion. Excessive blow-by can indicate engine
wear and lead to reduced engine performance and increased emissions.

5. Define space velocity.

In the context of engine emissions, space velocity refers to the volumetric flow rate of exhaust
gases passing through a catalytic converter relative to the converter's volume. It is usually
expressed in units of inverse hours (h⁻¹). Space velocity is defined as:

A high space velocity means that exhaust gases are passing through the catalytic converter
quickly, which can reduce the time available for the catalyst to convert pollutants into less
harmful substances. Conversely, a lower space velocity indicates that the exhaust gases spend
more time in contact with the catalyst, potentially improving conversion efficiency but also
requiring a larger or more effective catalyst.

Space velocity is a crucial parameter in the design and operation of catalytic converters,
impacting their effectiveness in reducing emissions.

6. Define conversion efficiency.

Conversion efficiency refers to the effectiveness of a process or device in transforming
reactants into desired products. In the context of engine emissions or catalytic converters, it
specifically measures the proportion of pollutants in the exhaust gases that are converted into
less harmful substances. It is usually expressed as a percentage and is calculated by comparing
the amount of pollutant removed or converted to the amount initially present. High conversion
efficiency indicates that a larger percentage of pollutants are being effectively treated, leading to
cleaner emissions.

7. What is electrically heated catalysts?

Electrically heated catalysts (EHCs) are catalytic converters that incorporate an electrical
heating element to quickly bring the catalyst to its optimal operating temperature. This
helps reduce emissions during cold starts by enabling the catalyst to function effectively right
from engine startup, improving overall emission control.

8. What is SCR catalysts?

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) catalysts are devices used in vehicles and industrial
processes to reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. They work by injecting a reductant,
typically urea or ammonia, into the exhaust stream. The reductant reacts with NOx over the
SCR catalyst, converting it into nitrogen (N₂) and water (H₂O). SCR catalysts are effective in
lowering NOx emissions and are commonly used in diesel engines to meet stringent
environmental regulations.

9. What are the types of emission control methods?

Emission control methods include:

1. Pre-Combustion Techniques: Fuel treatment and engine design modifications.

2. Combustion Control Techniques: Optimized combustion and exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR).
3. Post-Combustion Techniques: Catalytic converters, particulate filters, and selective
catalytic reduction (SCR).
4. Evaporative Emission Control: Carbon canisters and sealed fuel systems.
5. Alternative Fuels and Energy Sources: Electric vehicles and biofuels.
6. Process Modifications: Low-NOx burners and flue gas desulfurization (FGD).

10.What is euro emission standards?

Euro emission standards are a set of regulations established by the European Union to
limit the amount of pollutants emitted by vehicles. These standards are implemented in
phases, each with stricter limits on emissions of pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC), and particulate matter (PM). The standards
are categorized by "Euro" levels, with Euro 1 being the earliest and Euro 6 being the most
recent. The goal of these standards is to reduce air pollution and improve public health by
ensuring vehicles meet increasingly stringent emission limits.

Part – B
1. Tabulate Indian emission regulations.

Here’s a basic table of Indian emission regulations for vehicles, including key standards and their
implementation dates:

Regulation Overview Implementation Date

Bharat Stage I, the first emission standard, aligned with
BS-I 2000 Euro
I.
Bharat Stage II, stricter limits than BS-I, aligned with Euro
BS-II 2005 (in major cities)
II.
 Bharat Stage III, further reducing emissions, aligned with
BS-III 2010 (in major cities)
Euro III.
Bharat Stage IV, introduced more stringent emission
BS-IV 2017 (across India)
norms, aligned with Euro IV.
Planned for 2020,
BS-V Bharat Stage V, stricter than BS-IV, aligned with Euro V.
deferred
Bharat Stage VI, significantly stricter standards, aligned April 2020 (across
BS-VI
with Euro VI. India)
Additional Notes:

• The transition from BS-IV to BS-VI was significant as it included changes in fuel quality
and stricter emission norms.
• Diesel vehicles are subject to stricter regulations compared to petrol vehicles.
• There have been various updates and amendments to these regulations over time to
address evolving environmental concerns and technological advancements.

2. Draw the schematic of light extinction smoke meter.

3. Write effect of surface to volume ratio of combustion chamber on HC emission

control.

• The premium high performance car engines during 1960s employed CR of 10 to 11:1.
The engine CR was lowered to 8.5 to 9.0:1 when stringent emission standards were
legislated for the first time in 1975.
• The combustion chamber with a lower CR has lower surface/volume ratio resulting in a
reduction in volume of quench layer on the combustion chamber surface.
• Typical effect of surface/volume ratio of combustion chamber is shown on Fig.
 • Moreover, for a low CR engine the crevice volume would also be proportionately lower.
These factors in turn would reduce HC emissions.
• Higher exhaust temperatures resulting with low CR would promote oxidation of HC and
CO in exhaust system.

Effect of surface/volume ratio of combustion chamber on HC emissions

4. Write short notes on evaporative emission control.

• The evaporative emission control system consists of a device to store fuel vapours
produced in the fuel system due to evaporation.
• A canister containing activated charcoal is used to store the fuel vapours.
• The vapours produced in the fuel tank normally collect in the fuel tank itself and are
vented to the charcoal canister when fuel vapour pressure becomes excessive. The
fuel vapours from the tank and carburetor led to and adsorbed into the charcoal.
• In the PFI engines only the fuel tank is connected to the canister.
• When engine is running, the vacuum created in the intake manifold is used to draw
fuel vapours from the canister into the engine. Purging air is sucked through the
canister which leads the fuel vapours from canister to the engine. An electronically
controlled purge valve is used.
• During engine acceleration additional mixture enrichment can be tolerated and under
these operating conditions the stored fuel vapours are usually purged into the intake
manifold.

5. Describe about thermal reactors.

THERMAL REACTORS
If high exhaust gas temperatures are maintained and sufficient free oxygen is present in the
exhaust gases, CO and HC can be oxidized in the engine exhaust system. Oxidation rate of
HC can be estimated by an expression:
 where [ ]
denotes concentration of reactants in moles per cm 3, XHC and XO2 are the mole fractions of
HC and O2, respectively, t is time in seconds, temperature T in K and the density (p/RT) is in
moles per cm3.
From Thermal conversion efficiency for HC and CO as a function of temperature is presented
in Fig.

Fig. Conversion efficiency versus temperature for thermal oxidation of HC and CO

6. Describe about exhaust gas oxygen sensor.

The exhaust gas oxygen sensor (EGO) also called, as ‘λ -sensor' or ‘lambda sensor' is
used to control air-fuel ratio within about 1% of stoichiometric value for operation of 3-
way catalysts. The sensor is fitted in the exhaust pipe just upstream of the catalytic
converter. EGO operates on the principle of electro-chemical cell. Lambda-sensor is used
to detect the presence or absence of free oxygen in the exhaust gas.
Solid zirconium oxide (ZrO2) stabilized with yttrium oxide (Y2O3 ) is used as electrolyte.
The outer and inner surfaces of the hollow cylindrical are coated with porous platinum to
form inner and outer electrodes. The outer electrode is exposed to the exhaust gas while
the inner electrode to air having a fixed oxygen concentration.
Due to catalytic effect of platinum electrode the exhaust gas reaches equilibrium
composition very rapidly. The electrochemical reactions at the electrodes produce oxygen
ions that carry current through solid electrolyte producing a voltage signal.

7. Draw the schematic of hydrocarbon trap.

 A schematic layout of exhaust system with hydrocarbon trap and main catalyst.

8. Describe effect of lead poisoning on a three-way catalytic converter. The

contaminants can poison the catalyst in the following manner:
Deposition on the active catalyst sites chemically reacting with catalyst
Accumulation of the contaminants on the outer surface of the catalyst physically
restricting contact of the exhaust gases with the catalyst. This is termed as ‘blanketing
effect'. Lead as tetra ethyl lead was used for many years as antiknock additive in gasoline.
Lead oxides and other lead compounds formed during combustion cause very rapid
degradation of the catalyst performance. About 10 to 30 percent of the lead in the fuel
gets deposited on the catalyst sites and catalyst wash coat. A typical effect of lead on the
conversion efficiency of a Platinum/Rhodium 3- way catalyst is shown on Fig.

A lead deposition of about 0.5 % of catalyst weight causes 50% drop in the conversion
efficiency. Now, the gasoline almost all over the world is lead free.
 9. Tabulate euro emission regulations.

Notes:
CO: Carbon Monoxide; HC: Hydrocarbons; NOx: Nitrogen Oxides; PM: Particulate Matter;
NO2: Nitrogen Dioxide; NH3: Ammonia.
Euro 7 is expected to introduce even stricter limits and cover a broader range of pollutants. The
actual values for Euro 7 might vary depending on final regulatory details.
10.Write notes on crankcase blow by.

• Definition:
Crankcase blow-by occurs when combustion gases leak past the piston rings into the engine's
crankcase during the combustion process.

• Causes:

• Worn piston rings.

• High combustion pressure.  Damaged cylinder walls.

• Contents of Blow-by Gas:

• Unburned fuel, air, oil vapor, and combustion byproducts like carbon particles and
nitrogen oxides.

• Effects:

• Oil contamination.
• Increased engine wear.
• Higher oil consumption.
• Increased emissions.
• Crankcase pressure build-up, which can cause oil leaks.

• Crankcase Ventilation:

• The Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system recycles blow-by gases back into the
engine for combustion, reducing emissions and pressure.

• Symptoms:

• Smoke from the oil filler cap.

• Increased oil consumption.
• Poor engine performance.  Oil leaks.

• Solutions:

• Regular maintenance and oil changes.

• Checking the PCV system.
• Replacing worn piston rings or repairing engine damage if blow-by is excessive.
 Part – C
1. Explain briefly, euro emission standards of light duty and heavy duty vehicles.

Notes:
CO: Carbon Monoxide; HC: Hydrocarbons; NOx: Nitrogen Oxides; PM: Particulate Matter;
NO2: Nitrogen Dioxide; NH3: Ammonia.
Euro 7 is expected to introduce even stricter limits and cover a broader range of pollutants. The
actual values for Euro 7 might vary depending on final regulatory details.
Since 1991/1992 when the European vehicles needed catalytic exhaust after treatment to meet
the regulations drastic reductions in emission limits have been enforced. Relative emissions limit
since 1990 (pre-Euro1) to Euro 4 limits are shown on Fig 1. The Euro 4 limits were only about 5
to 15 % of the pre 1990 limits. Beyond Euro 4 standards, drastic reductions in diesel NOx and
PM emissions are required. The diesel passenger car NOx would be reduced to just 1/3 rd and
PM to 1/5th of Euro 4 limits.

From Euro 3 regulations, heavy-duty engines operating on gaseous fuels are tested also on ETC
in addition to ESC cycle. However, for compliance with Euro 4 or later standards, all heavy-duty
engines are to meet ESC, ELR and ETC test limits. Evolution of European emission regulations
for heavy duty vehicles is shown on Fig.
2. Describe in details with sketch about the working of constant volume
sampling for measurement of mass of the exhaust emission. Constant Volume
Sampler (CVS)
When emissions are to be measured from a vehicle being run on a driving cycle sampling
of the representative gas is very critical. Constant Volume Sampling (CVS) is used in
European, US and other tests to make it possible that a representative sample of the
exhaust gas is withdrawn for measurement of the gaseous emissions.

A Constant Volume Sampling (CVS) system is shown schematically in Fig. In the CVS
system:
• The entire exhaust gas from the vehicle is diluted with the filtered room air. An air
to exhaust gas dilution ratio of about 10:1 is used. The dilution with air lowers
partial pressure of unburned hydrocarbons and water, and prevents their
condensation in the sampling line.
• The diluted exhaust gas is drawn by a constant volume pump system employing
either a positive displacement pump (PDP) or a critical flow venturi (CFV) and a
blower. A PDP capacity of about 10 to 12 m3/min of air flow provides sufficient
dilution for most passenger cars.
• The volume flow rate of the diluted exhaust (exhaust gas + air) is maintained
constant throughout the test.
• Before the diluted exhaust gas enters the CFV or PDP, its temperature is
controlled within the ± 5 ºC of the average gas temperature during the test by a
heat exchanger.
 • From the diluted gas a small sample is continuously withdrawn and collected in
evacuated.
• Teflon bags. This process integrates the concentration of the pollutants over the
entire driving schedule. A small part of the dilution air is sampled simultaneously
and collected in a separate bag to correct for any background concentration of
pollutant present in the dilution air.
• The sample bags are analyzed after the test is completed.
• The mass of individual pollutants is determined from its measured concentration
in the sample bag, its density and the total volume flow rate of the diluted exhaust
during the test through CVS.

3. How high turbulence combustion chambers are used for controlling of

emission in SI engines.

High Turbulence Combustion Chambers

Small cylinders with hemispherical and pent roof type combustion chambers are now
more commonly used in SI engines.
Small cylinder engines can be operated at higher speeds which increases turbulence and
tends to reduce HC emissions.
Smaller cylinders have smaller amount of burned gases that form the high temperature
adiabatic core. More heat transfer takes place from the burned gases as the walls are
nearer to the bulk gases. It results in lower NOx.
The compact hemispherical combustion chambers shape (Refer Fig) provides the lowest
surface to volume ratio and minimum tendency to engine knock.

The hemispherical combustion chamber although may employ multiple valves, the two
valve configuration is more common as it is difficult to accommodate 4-valves at the
necessary valve positioning angles. The valve heads along with the surface of combustion
chamber form a profile that looks like a hemisphere. Both the intake and exhaust valves
are inclined increasing valve port area that results in higher volumetric efficiency. The
 chamber has a low surface to volume ratio. The intake ports are provided with a suitably
curved geometry to generate high rate of air swirl.

A shallow angle pent-roof type combustion chamber (Refer Fig.) is a good compromise
as it allows use of 4 valves of optimum size and positioning. A higher volumetric
efficiency and tumble air motion are obtained in these combustion chambers resulting in
higher burning rates. These compact combustion chambers have lower heat transfer
losses. Thus, quench layer thickness is minimized lowering HC emissions.

Pent roof combustion chamber being shallow compared to hemispherical combustion

chamber it has somewhat higher surface to volume ratio. However, the pent roof
combustion chamber is a good compromise between compactness of the combustion
chamber and use of multiple valves. A shallow angle pent roof type combustion chamber
allows optimum valve size and their positioning in multiple valve engine configuration.
Pent roof combustion chambers having 2 and 3 intake valves and total of 3 to 6 valves
per cylinder are in use. The 4-valve combustion chambers are the most common The
inclination of the intake and exhaust valves to each other tilts the pair of valve heads
such that they resemble to an arch and take the shape of a pent roof, hence the name. The
spark plug is located close to Centre. Mixture from the intake port flows across the
cylinder to the walls from where it is deflected downwards direction and rolls
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder in a tumbling motion. This motion is called air
‘tumble’.

4. Describe with sketch, working of exhaust gas recirculation system to control

engine exhaust emission.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Effect of addition of diluents to the intake charge for lowering of combustion
temperatures and consequently reducing the formation of NOx. The heat capacity of the
exhaust gas is higher than the air as it contains significant amount of tri-atomic gases CO 2
and water vapours. Therefore, addition of exhaust gas to fresh intake charge has a higher
effect in lowering the combustion temperatures compared to simple leaning of the charge.
EGR is defined as a mass percent of total intake flow:

where mi is the total mass flow into the engine.

Typically, only about 5 to 10 % EGR rates are employed. At higher EGR rates, frequency
of partial and complete misfire cycles increases resulting in unacceptably higher HC
emissions and loss in fuel economy and power. EGR systems are made to operate mostly
in the part-load range. These are deactivated at engine idle, because large amount of
residual gas is already present in the cylinder. Many times the system is deactivated at
full throttle conditions as the vehicle rarely operates under these conditions during city
operation.
 A schematic layout of EGR system is shown in Fig. An EGR control valve is used to
regulate flow of EGR depending upon engine operating conditions. The intake manifold
pressure or exhaust back pressure may be used to control EGR rate as these parameters
vary with engine load. In the modern engines, EGR rate is controlled by the engine
electronic control unit. A pressure sensor in the exhaust or intake provides signal to the
electronic control module of the engine, which in its turn regulates the operation of the
EGR valve.
Electronically controlled EGR valves actuated by high-response stepper motor are being
used on modern engines. Their fast response during transient operation makes it possible
to reduce NOx more than what is obtained by use of a mechanically controlled EGR
valves. Effectively a lower rate of EGR can be employed to obtain the same reduction in
NOx that results in a lower penalty on HC emission.

5. Explain with neat diagram, working principle of pellet type catalytic converter.

Palletized Catalysts
The first catalytic converters introduced in 1970s and used until early 1980s employed
spherical ceramic pellets, which were packed in a catalyst bed. The pellets of 3 to 6 mm
dia. were made of γ- alumina (Al2O3) The porous surface of alumina pellets provides a
large surface area on which the noble metal salts are impregnated to a depth of about 250
μm. The pellet catalysts are loaded with approximately 0.05% by weight of noble metals.
A typical pellet type catalytic converter is shown in Fig.

The gas flow through the packed bed pellet reactors is a mix of axial and radial flow so as
to provide large flow area and reduce flow resistance. The gas flow through pellet bed is
turbulent resulting in high mass-transfer rates. The packed bed catalysts suffer from the
following disadvantages:
• High pressure drop
• Are heavy, have high thermal inertia and hence slow to warm-up.
• Loss of catalyst from abrasion due to rubbing of pellets against each other.
Therefore during 1980s the ceramic honeycomb or metallic matrix monolith
converters replaced the pellet type converters.
6. Describe briefly about oxidation and reduction processes in three-way catalytic
converter.

Oxidation Catalytic Converters

The oxidation catalyst converts CO and HC to CO2and H2O at substantially low
temperatures and at higher conversion efficiency tan the thermal reactors. The required
oxygen for oxidation reactions is made available either by operating engine lean or by
injecting secondary air ahead of the catalytic converter when engine is operated rich.
Vehicles employing the oxidation catalysts were generally tuned rich for better NOx
control and secondary air injection was employed.
The conversion efficiency of a catalytic converter is defined as:

Light-Off Temperature
The catalytic conversion efficiency depends upon the exhaust temperature and its
relationship with temperature is shown on Fig.

The temperature at which 50% CO or HC conversion is obtained is defined as the light off
temperature. The catalyst light off temperature is desired to be as low as possible for good
emission reduction during actual vehicle operation.
The light off temperature for a new catalyst varies from about 220° C for CO to 260 -
270° C for HC. With ageing, the catalyst light off temperature increases. For the first
generation catalytic converters, the temperature of operation was in the range of 250 –
600 ºC and the typical gas space velocity during vehicle operation varied from 3 to 30 s -1.
 Reduction and 3-Way Catalytic Converters
For reduction of NOx, the CO, HC and H2 which are present in the exhaust during rich
engine operation are made to react with NOx over a catalyst when NOx is converted to
N2. Possible reactions under reducing conditions are given in Table.

A number of catalysts like CuO, NiO, monel etc., were studied for NOx reduction
However, their NOx conversion efficiency being just 25 to 35 % only, they did not find
acceptance. Rhodium (Rh) from the noble metal group has been found to be the most
successful reduction catalyst so far and is being used in actual systems.
The concentration of NOx being relatively small, only small fractions of CO, HC present
in exhaust is utilized in the reduction reactions. Most of HC and CO is required to
oxidized simultaneously or in a separate reactor. Initially, separate reduction and
oxidation catalyst systems were considered but their operation was complex, the engine
had to be operated rich. Also, some ammonia is generated during reduction reactions,
which is oxidized again to NO in the downstream oxidation reactor. Due to these reasons,
the dual-bed catalysts did not find much acceptance and the 3-Way catalyst was
developed and used on cars around 1980.

7. Explain the schematic of exhaust system fitted with closed coupled catalyst.
Close-Coupled Catalysts
A rapid catalyst lights off is achieved by installing the converter very close to the engine
to minimize heat losses from the exhaust gases as shown on Fig.
 The catalysts installed so close are called ‘close coupled' catalysts. These catalysts have
the following features:
The close-coupled catalysts are designed mainly for oxidation of HC.
In the close-coupled catalysts, CeO2 is removed from the substrate washcoat as. CeO2has
excellent properties for oxidation of CO.
The closed coupled catalysts have a small volume to improve light-off characteristics.
These are designed to oxidize only part of HC and little CO so that generation of very
high temperatures in the catalyst bed is prevented.
HC oxidation in thee close-coupled catalyst raises the exhaust gas temperature so that the
main under floor catalyst becomes operational rapidly within a short time. The under-
floor catalyst mounted downstream converts the remaining HC and, also the CO and
NOx.

The main 3-way catalyst is installed sufficiently downstream of the exhaust manifold
under the floor of the vehicles. These are also termed as ‘underfloor catalytic converters'.
The converters should not be exposed to excessively high temperatures during full engine
load conditions and steep accelerations when the initial exhaust gas temperature at the
inlet of the converter itself are quite high.
During accelerations the unburned HC and CO concentrations are higher than the cruising
conditions and their oxidation in the converter to achieve typically more than 90%
conversion releases high amounts of energy that raises the gas temperatures substantially.
However, during engine cold start and warm-up conditions, the underfloor catalyst does
not function as the gas temperatures are low and it also cools down as it flows from the
exhaust port to the converter. With implementation of ULEV and US Tier 2 standards,
HC emission control under engine cold start and warm-up operation are also required. To
reduce HC and CO emissions under cold engine conditions mew types of converters have
been developed. For the direct injection stratified charge (DISC) engines, NOx emissions
under over all lean engine operation are to be controlled. As the 3-way catalysts do not
control NOx under lean engine operation, new types of catalysts to reduce NOX for lean
mixture operation have been developed.

8. Briefly explain working of NOx storage reduction catalyst system with sketch.
Lean de-NOx Catalysts
The gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine operating in stratified charge mode is a a
leanburn spark ignited engine that gives 20 – 30% higher fuel efficiency compared to the
conventional stoichiometric engine The diesel engines also operate with 40% or more
excess air. The 3-way catalytic converter cannot provide NOx reduction in the lean burn
SI and the diesel engines. Lean de-NOx catalyst technology has been developed to meet
the needs of these engines.
Two main types of lean de-NOx catalyst technology are: o
NOx storage-reduction (NSR) catalyst or NOx trap o
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

NOx storage-reduction (NSR) catalyst

In the NSR catalysts NOx is trapped under oxygen-rich conditions in an alkaline earth
material like BaO which is incorporated in the noble-metal containing wash coat of 3-
way catalyst. The NOx trap concept is shown schematically in Fig.

NO is first converted to NO
2 over Pt catalyst from the oxygen rich exhaust

The NO2 is temporarily stored on alkaline metal oxide BaO forming its nitrate,
 The trap is saturated with NOx in about 60 seconds. A precisely controlled spike of rich
mixture is then supplied to the engine so that HC and CO in significant amounts are
present in the gases.
The required rich mixture for SI engine may be obtained by the synchronized control of
fuel injection pulse width. The stored NOx is reduced by the HC and CO) during a short
period of about a second. The NOx reduction takes place on a noble metal catalyst.

Lean NOx traps have high conversion efficiency in a relatively narrow temperature range
of 350 –450º C. However, different vehicle operating modes produce widely differing
exhaust gas temperatures and the overall conversion efficiency of NSR catalysts is 30 to
35% only. Another problem is poisoning of the trap by fuel sulphur. Fuel sulphur of less
than 5 ppm is necessary for operation of NSR catalysts.
U20AUOT02 - ENGINE EMISSION AND CONTROL

MODULE – 4

Part – A

1. What is thermal deactivation?

Thermal deactivation refers to the loss of activity or effectiveness of a material, often
a catalyst, due to prolonged exposure to high temperatures. This process typically
occurs when heat causes changes in the physical or chemical structure of the material,
leading to reduced performance.
When the catalyst is exposed to temperatures above 900-1000 °C, loss in catalyst
surface area and loss in dispersion of catalyst particles due to sintering are obtained.
Ignition failure for about 20 seconds may completely destroy the catalyst.

2. List the factors used for mixture formation and combustion in CI engine.
In CI engines, mixture formation and combustion is heterogeneous and complex in
nature. It is governed by:
• Mixture formation which depends on interactions between the injection spray,
air motion and combustion chamber geometry.
• Air motion – swirl, squish etc,
• Injection spray formation -precise control of fuel injection process is necessary
for formation of the desired spray and fuel atomization.
• Combustion chamber type- Indirect Injection or Direct Injection. The indirect
injection engines are being phased out of production due to their poor fuel
efficiency.
• Intake boost pressure

3. What is electronic fuel injection?

Electronic fuel injection (EFI) is a system used in internal combustion engines to
precisely control the amount of fuel delivered to the engine's cylinders for optimal
 combustion. Unlike older carburetor systems, which relied on air pressure differences to
mix fuel and air, EFI uses electronic sensors and actuators to manage fuel delivery
more accurately, improving engine efficiency, power, and emissions control.
Electronically controlled fuel injection systems have the capability to fulfill the ideal
injection rate requirements. The EFI also are capable of providing multiple injections.

4. Define turbocharging.
Turbocharging is a method used to increase the power output of an internal
combustion engine by forcing extra compressed air into the combustion chamber.
This process allows the engine to burn more fuel and produce more power without
increasing engine size.
A turbocharger consists of a turbine driven by the engine exhaust gas which is directly
coupled to a compressor. The fresh air from the atmosphere is drawn into the compressor
of turbocharger where its pressure and hence density are raised before it enters the engine
cylinder The higher mass flow of air in the turbocharged engines compared to the
naturally aspirated engines of the same swept volume, results in an increase in engine
power, lower fuel consumption, better transient operation response and lower specific
exhaust emissions (in g/kW-h).

5. What is NOx storage reduction catalyst?

A NOx storage reduction (NSR) catalyst, also known as a lean NOx trap (LNT), is an
emission control technology designed to reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from
internal combustion engines, particularly in lean-burn engines like diesel and
directinjection gasoline engines. This technology stores NOx emissions during lean
(oxygenrich) combustion and then reduces them during short periods of rich (fuel-rich)
combustion.

6. What is active catalytic regeneration?

Active catalytic regeneration refers to the process used in vehicles, particularly diesel
engines equipped with Diesel Particulate Filters (DPFs), to actively remove
accumulated soot and particulate matter from the filter through controlled
oxidation. This regeneration process helps maintain the efficiency of the DPF and
prevents blockages that can reduce engine performance or increase emissions.

7. What is passive catalytic regeneration?

Passive catalytic regeneration is a process that occurs automatically in diesel engines
equipped with Diesel Particulate Filters (DPFs) to remove accumulated soot and
particulate matter (PM) without the need for external intervention or additional
fuel. This type of regeneration takes place during normal engine operation when the
exhaust gas temperatures are high enough to oxidize the trapped soot.

8. What is DISC engine?

A Direct Injection Stratified Charge (DISC) engine is a type of internal combustion
engine that uses direct fuel injection and operates with a stratified charge combustion
process. This means that fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber rather than
 mixed with air in the intake manifold, and the air-fuel mixture is stratified, or layered, so
that different concentrations of fuel exist in different parts of the combustion chamber.

9. List factors in control of CI engine emissions.

Here is a concise list of factors influencing the control of Compression Ignition (CI)
engine emissions:
1. Fuel Injection Timing, 2. Injection Pressure, 3. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR),
4. Turbocharging and Boost Pressure, 5. Fuel Quality, 6. Exhaust After-Treatment
Systems, 7. Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR), 8. Combustion Chamber Design, 9. Engine Operating
Temperature, 10. Compression Ratio, 11. Multiple Injection Strategies, 12. Advanced
Engine Control Systems, 13. Alternative Fuels, 14. Driving Conditions.
By managing these factors, emissions from CI engines can be effectively controlled,
helping to meet stringent environmental regulations

10.Write the disadvantages of turbocharging.

Turbocharging is a widely used technology in modern internal combustion engines to
improve performance and efficiency. However, there are several disadvantages associated
with turbocharging:

Disadvantages of Turbocharging:
Turbo Lag, Increased Complexity, Heat Management Issues, Higher Maintenance Costs, Fuel
Quality Sensitivity, Potential for Engine Knock, Increased Emissions, Cost, reduced
reliability, Noise and Vibration and Weight.
In summary, while turbocharging offers several benefits such as increased power and
improved fuel efficiency, it also comes with disadvantages that can affect performance,
maintenance, cost, and reliability. Careful consideration of these factors is essential when
evaluating turbocharged engines.
{Turbo lag is the delay between pressing the accelerator and the turbocharger providing
increased power. This occurs because the turbo needs to spool up to a certain speed before
delivering boost, which can result in a temporary loss of power, especially at low engine speeds.}
 Part – B

1. Tabulate the development of emission control technology for gasoline engines.

2. Write the factors to be considered in control of CI engine emissions.

Here is a concise list of factors influencing the control of Compression Ignition (CI)
engine emissions: 1. Fuel Injection Timing
2. Injection Pressure
3. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
4. Turbocharging and Boost Pressure
5. Fuel Quality
6. Exhaust After-Treatment Systems
7. Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR)
8. Combustion Chamber Design
9. Engine Operating Temperature
10. Compression Ratio
11. Multiple Injection Strategies
12. Advanced Engine Control Systems
13. Alternative Fuels
14. Driving Conditions

By managing these factors, emissions from CI engines can be effectively controlled, helping to
meet stringent environmental regulations
3. Describe electronic unit injector.
• In the electronic unit injectors (EUI) the injection pumping element that raises the
fuel to injection pressure and the injector nozzle are integrated into one unit.
• One each of the EUI is directly mounted on every engine cylinder.
• The injection pump plunger of every EUI is driven directly by the engine
camshaft via a rocker arm.
• The electronic unit injectors were introduced on heavy-duty diesel truck engines
in the USA around 1990 as these could develop much higher pressures than the
inline mechanical injection systems.
• In this design, metering of the fuel delivery is done by the plunger and the
injection timing is controlled by opening and closing events of the solenoid valve
of the EUI.

4. List the advantages of turbocharging. Advantages of turbocharging are:

• With turbocharging, excess air of more than 50% can be easily used in DI engines
while still developing enough engine power.
• Due to higher air density and higher temperatures at the end of compression
stroke shorter
• ignition delay period is obtained.
• As a result of shorter ignition delay period, the fraction of fuel burned during
premixed combustion phase decreases resulting in lower NOx emissions.
• A shorter delay period gives lower HC emissions.
• With turbocharging, the injection timing can be retarded to further lower NOx
emissions without compromising fuel efficiency and power.
• High excess air results in lower soot emissions.
• Inter-cooling of the boosted air charge further increases charge density and lower
intake temperatures helps in reducing NOx emissions.

5. Write notes on diesel oxidation catalyst.

DIESEL OXIDATION CATALYSTS
The diesel oxidation catalyst is also termed as DOC.
The DOC works in a similar fashion as the oxidation catalytic converter in the gasoline
engines. However, the performance of DOC differs from oxidation catalysts in gasoline
engines due to:
• Low exhaust gas temperatures
• Presence of particulate matter in the diesel exhaust and
• High fuel sulphur content compared to gasoline
Typically use of DOC depending on engine design and operating conditions results into:
• 30 –80% conversion of the gaseous HC
• 40 to 90 % reduction of CO
• Dry soot does not get oxidized. But, oxidation of 50 to 80% of soluble organic
fraction and some PAH occurs that gives 30 to 50 % reduction in total PM
emissions.
• Conversion of fuel sulphur to SO3 and emission of sulphuric acid aerosol.
6.Describe control of active regeneration.

Control of Active Regeneration

The active regeneration is carried out once the filter is plugged and when the pressure
drop across the filter increases to the threshold level. The entire filter is plugged with
soot. The regeneration process starts at the front end and progresses towards downstream.
Once the regeneration starts, heat released further heats-up the filter and soot burns at a
progressively increasing rate. This may lead to uncontrolled rate of soot burning and high
rates of heat release. Eventually, it may melt the filter substrate. Therefore, the filter
temperatures are to be monitored continuously. To control temperatures during
regeneration, the burner may be shut off midway through the regeneration cycle to
prevent melting of the filter substrate. The Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) regeneration is
thus, a carefully controlled process.

7. Write regeneration by fuel additive.

Regeneration by Fuel Additives
Several fuel additives based on Fe, Ce, Mn, Zn, Cu and Pb lower the soot oxidation
temperature.
Cerium and copper based additives in 60 to 100 ppm concentration have been found very
effective in lowering soot ignition temperature to about 300º C and soot regeneration has
been achieved at temperatures below 400º C. The additives on oxidation produce metal
oxides which promote oxidation of soot.
For example, cerium fuel additive is converted to cerium oxide on combustion and on
reaching the DPF it catalyses soot oxidation.
The oxidation mechanism is as below:
1. Oxidation of soot:

2. Oxidation of CO:

3. Ce2O3 being an unstable compound gets converted back to CeO2 in the exhaust gas
as excess oxygen is available

These reactions are quite fast and are completed within 2 to 6 seconds once the
temperature is sufficiently high. The fuel additive based approach for particulate trap
regeneration is considered quite promising. The additive can be dosed into the fuel line
when required by automatic dosing equipment on board of the vehicle.

8. What are the requirements of good combustion in DISC engine.

For stratified charge engine operation the following main requirements are to be met to
obtain good combustion:
• Combustible mixture must form quickly.
 • The liquid fuel and fuel over-rich zones should be minimum at the time of
ignition.
• Suitable air motion is to be provided during compression stroke and at the time of
fuel injection to accomplish charge stratification and transport mixture to the
spark plug in a reproducible manner cycle after cycle. Air motion may be aided by
a suitably designed cavity on the piston crown.
• Wetting of piston crown and spark plug by excessive liquid fuel deposition is to
be prevented.
• Over mixed zones having excessively lean mixtures beyond flammability limits as
well as under mixed over-rich zones are to be avoided.

9. Describe shortly thermal deactivation.

Thermal Deactivation
Thermal deactivation refers to the loss of activity or effectiveness of a material, often
a catalyst, due to prolonged exposure to high temperatures. This process typically
occurs when heat causes changes in the physical or chemical structure of the material,
leading to reduced performance.
During normal city driving, exhaust temperatures are normally below 600° C. However,
overheating of catalyst may occur due to engine malfunction such as ignition failure,
misfire or excessively rich operation. The very high concentration of unburned
hydrocarbons in exhaust when oxidized in converter leads to excessively high catalyst
bed temperatures. When the catalyst is exposed to temperatures above 900-1000 °C, loss
in catalyst surface area and loss in dispersion of catalyst particles due to sintering are
obtained. Ignition failure for about 20 seconds may completely destroy the catalyst.

10. Write notes on NOx storage reduction in engine.

NOx Storage-Reduction (NSR) Catalysts
The NOx storage-reduction catalyst system or ‘NOx Trap’ was first developed for
application to gasoline direct injection, lean-burn DISC spark ignited engines.
In the diesel engines, diesel derived hydrocarbons are used as reductants.
The principle of operation and basic features of Diesel NSR catalysts are the same as for
the lean burn SI engines.
The first step is to absorb NOx (NO converted to NO2 on the catalyst itself) on rare earth
metal oxides and the second step is release of NOx in presence of hydrocarbons for
reduction to N2.
For significant reduction in NOx, typically 2 to 5:1 HC/NOx molar ratios are required.
Normally, engine out hydrocarbon emissions are quite low in the diesel engines.
In the diesel NSR system, hydrocarbons are added to the exhaust gas by: 
post injection of fuel in the cylinder after the main fuel injection event
 adding secondary fuel into the exhaust system.
About 2% of the main injection quantity is injected 90 to 200º CA after the main injection
in the cylinder. The common rail injection system is well suited for providing post
injection.
The best NOx storage and conversion efficiency of NSR catalysts are obtained in a
narrow temperature range of 200-350º C. Peak conversion efficiency may reach around
 55 to 60% but overall conversion efficiency under driving cycle conditions is only around
35%. A number of catalyst modules to reduce space velocity and improve overall
conversion have been employed in prototypes.
Part – C

1. Explain sintering of noble metal and wash coat material and masking of catalyst sites by
contaminants.

Thermal Deactivation
During normal city driving, exhaust temperatures are normally below 600° C. However,
overheating of catalyst may occur due to engine malfunction such as ignition failure,
misfire or excessively rich operation. The very high concentration of unburned
hydrocarbons in exhaust when oxidized in converter leads to excessively high catalyst
bed temperatures. When the catalyst is exposed to temperatures above 900-1000 °C, loss
in catalyst surface area and loss in dispersion of catalyst particles due to sintering are
obtained. Ignition failure for about 20 seconds may completely destroy the catalyst.
Sintering caused by high temperatures results in:
• Under high temperatures, the catalyst particles migrate, coalesce or atoms in
vapour phase get transported from smaller particles to larger particles. These
process form large particles by combination of several small catalyst particles.
Thermal sintering of the catalyst particles reduces catalyst activity.
• As the temperature increases to 1200° C, γ-alumina changes to α-alumina
resulting in wash coat shrinkage, loss of micro-pores and reduction in catalyst
surface area by a factor of 10. The catalyst particles are also trapped inside the
collapsed pores which then are unable to come into contact with the gases.
• Thermal deactivation increases light off temperature. After ageing at 730° C, the
catalyst had a surface area of 21.5 m 2/g of wash coat that reduced to 11.4m 2/g
after ageing at 1000° C. The corresponding light off temperatures were about 250
and 320° C, respectively.

The sintering of precious metal and wash coat are shown schematically on
Fig.4.3.1.
2. Draw and explain the NOx and PM emission control techniques in CI engines.

AN OVERVIEW OF CONTROL OF CI ENGINE EMISSIONS

For emission control in the CI engines, usually called as the diesel engines the following
are important:
• CI engines emits pollutants in solid (soot), liquid (poly aromatic hydrocarbons,
fuel and oil components, sulphur acids) as well as those in gaseous (CO, HC,
NOx) state.
• Emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter from diesel engines are of
main concern.
• Emission regulations do have limits for CO and HC as well from the CI engines,
but concentration of their emissions is rather small and these have been relatively
easy to control through improved engine and fuel system design.
• NOx - PM trade off governs selection and optimization of many engine design
variables e.g, injection timing, injection pressure, boost pressure etc as change in
some engine variables may although causes reduction in NOx but increases PM
and vice versa.
• Engine design changes to reduce NOx emissions many a times result also in
higher brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC). This is important as the
emissions of the greenhouse gas, CO2 are also to be reduced.
The development efforts like for the SI engines have been focused on reduction of
engineout emissions and treatment of the exhaust gases. Improvements in fuel quality
also have been made to meet the needs of advanced emission control technology.
In CI engines, mixture formation and combustion is heterogeneous and complex in
nature. It is governed by:
• Mixture formation which depends on interactions between the injection spray, air
motion and combustion chamber geometry.
• Air motion – swirl, squish etc,
• Injection spray formation -precise control of fuel injection process is necessary
for formation of the desired spray and fuel atomization.
• Combustion chamber type- Indirect Injection or Direct Injection. The indirect
injection engines are being phased out of production due to their poor fuel
efficiency.
• Intake boost pressure.
Turbocharging especially with variable boost pressure coupled with EGR results in
substantial reductions in both the NOx and PM.
Exhaust after treatment such as diesel particulate filter (DPF), diesel oxidation catalysts
(DOC), selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOx etc., are already in use.
An overview of various technologies and direction of research and development which
have been pursued to control NOx and PM emissions from the CI engines are presented
in Figs 4.3.2 and 4.3.3 respectively.
3. Describe briefly schematic of a common rail diesel injection system.
Common Rail Diesel Injection (CRDI) Systems
In the common rail systems, the high fuel pressure is generated by a common pump that
is separate from the injectors. The fuel pressure is independent of engine speed and load.
A typical layout of the common rail systems is shown in Fig. 4.3.4.
 The CRDI has four main components:
(i) high-pressure pump
(ii) high-pressure distribution rail (common rail) and pipes
(iii) injectors, and
(iv) Electronic engine control unit (ECU).
A mechanical pump raises the fuel pressure and feeds the common rail with fuel at high
pressure. The common rail is connected to the injectors by short pipes. A solenoid valve
in each injector controls the injection timing and quantity.
In one design of the common rail systems, the rail pressure is same as the injection
pressure. In another design known as ‘intensified’ CRDI system, the fuel pressure in rail
is lower and it is multiplied by a factor of 3:1 to 10:1 in the injector body by a stepped
piston to raise it to the injection pressure. The CRDI systems mostly operate at pressures
of around 1600 bars.

4. Brief EGR systems for turbocharged engines with diagram.

EGR Systems for Turbocharged Engines
Two methods are used for application of EGR in the turbocharged engines. The layouts of
the two systems given below are shown on Fig. 4.3.5.
Low- Pressure Route: Exhaust gas from downstream of turbine is tapped and inducted
to the intake side of the compressor. In this method, the required pressure difference
across the EGR valve is easily obtained and EGR is possible over a wide range of engine
operation. The main disadvantage is that the exhaust gas along with air also passes
 through the compressor and intercooler resulting in durability problems of compressor
due to presence of soot particles.
High-Pressure Route: Exhaust gas from the upstream side of the turbine is tapped and
led to the exit side of the compressor. The EGR gas does not pass through the intercooler
or compressor. EGR is additional to the intake charge of compressor and amount of
oxygen in the charge remains constant.
With this method, higher reductions in NOx can be achieved with lesser increase in
smoke and particulate emissions.
In the high-pressure route of EGR sufficient pressure difference between pressure
upstream of turbine and downstream of compressor is not available under all the engine
speed-load conditions. At high loads the pressure at the exit of compressor may be higher
than the pressure upstream of turbine. To introduce EGR at high engine loads:
• Turbine back pressure is increased, by use of a variable geometry turbocharger, and
• A venturi is fitted between the compressor and intake manifold. The EGR is introduced
at the throat of venturi.
5. Describe the schematic of selective catalyst reduction system using pre
oxidation catalyst.
SCR Catalyst System
The basic SCR system using urea consists of three catalysts viz.,
• Hydrolysis catalyst
• SCR catalyst, and
• An oxidation catalyst to oxidize ammonia slip
NOx conversion efficiency can however, be improved at low catalyst temperatures
(< 300º C) when all the NOx is converted to NO 2 before entering the SCR catalyst. An
additional oxidation catalyst therefore, ahead of SCR catalyst is used in the modern SCR
systems.
A typical SCR system for heavy-duty vehicles is shown schematically in Fig. 4.3.6.

NOx conversions of more than 70 % have been obtained with SCR over the HD driving
cycle. On road, over all reductions of close to 68 % have been obtained for heavy duty
trucks. Urea consumption is about 5.5% of the fuel consumption. Urea requirements for
several thousand kms of operation can be stored on board.
6. Explain with diagram schematic of diesel fueled burner bypass regeneration
system.
Burner Regeneration
A diesel fuel burner is placed in the exhaust in front of the filter to regenerate the diesel
particulate filter. This system can perform at all engine speeds and loads. Two types of
system have been used: 1. burner full flow system and
2. burner bypass system
In the full flow system, the total exhaust gas is to be heated to about 540º C. A large air
pump for the burner and high burner fuel consumption are needed. Complex electronic
controls to regulate burner fuel flow to maintain safe levels of gas temperature at inlet of
filter are necessary. In the bypass system, only a small part of exhaust is allowed to flow
through the filter when regeneration is carried out. A smaller air pump is required. A
bypass burner regeneration system is shown on Fig 4.3.7.
 Regeneration process is independent of engine operating conditions, as the filter during
regeneration is isolated from the engine exhaust. The fuel consumption by the burner to
heat the inlet face of the filter to 540º C is an order of magnitude lower compared to the
full flow system. The relative magnitudes of energy required to raise the exhaust
temperature to 540º C in the full flow and bypass type burner regeneration system (10 %
of total flow) are presented in Fig 4.3.8 for a 5.7-liter diesel engine.

7. What is CRT System? Explain briefly about continuously regenerating Traps.

Continuously Regenerating Trap (CRT) System
The principle of CRT is based on the fact that NO2 is a much superior oxidizing agent for
soot than the molecular oxygen. It oxidizes the dry carbon soot trapped in the filter below
300º C by the following reactions:

Although the trap substrate can be coated with a catalyst material to reduce soot oxidation
temperatures to as low as 200º C, but installation of an oxidation catalyst upstream of
particulate filter where NO is preferentially converted to NO 2 which then oxidizes the
soot has been found more effective. The catalysts used are noble metals. The oxidation
catalyst is a flow through ceramic monolith using Pt-Pd catalyst impregnated on Al 2O3
wash coat. The schematic of a CRT is shown in Fig. 4.3.9.

NO2 is produced by oxidation of NO upstream of DPF. The soot trapped in the

downstream DPF is continuously oxidized on the filter substrate by NO 2 thus keeping the
particulate filter essentially clean and the exhaust backpressure remains nearly
unchanged.

8. Explain briefly methods of charge stratification and combustion in DISC engine.

Methods of Charge Stratification and Combustion
The methods of charge stratification and combustion that have been studied and some of
these employed in production engines may be grouped in the following three types. These
are also shown on Fig. 4.3.10.

Spray Controlled: The fuel spray characteristics primarily controls the charge
stratification in this strategy. Ignitable mixture is formed at the boundaries of the fuel
spray. The spark plug is placed close to the spray as it is there that the ignitable mixture is
present at the time of ignition. Formation of good quality mixture becomes difficult at
high engine loads. The combustion being highly sensitive to spray characteristics smoke
formation is often observed at high loads. Wetting of the spark plug by liquid fuel causes
frequent spark plug fouling.
Wall Controlled: In the wall-controlled concept, fuel injection is directed towards a
specially designed piston cavity. The piston cavity is off Centre. The spark plug is located
away from the fuel injector on the side of combustion chamber. Fuel impinges on the
piston cavity walls where it evaporates and mixes with air. An intense reverse tumble
charge motion transports the mixture to spark plug electrodes.
Flow Controlled: Mixture is formed by interaction between fuel spray and suitably
directed air motion like swirl or tumble. The spark plug and injector are generally widely
spaced in these configurations. The air motion transports mixture to the spark plug such
that the ignitable mixture is present at spark plug electrodes at the time of spark. When air
motion is well organized, the combustion chamber walls do not get wetted by liquid fuel
and a stable stratified charge operation is obtained over a wide range of engine operation.
The characteristics of combustion process obtained with the three charge stratification
and combustion methods are compared in Table.
 U20AUOT02 - ENGINE EMISSION AND CONTROL

MODULE – 5
Part – A

1. Define HCCI or CAI engine.

HCCI/CAI ENGINES
Stringent emission standards and the need to reduce greenhouse gas, CO 2 emissions from
vehicles has led to intensive research on new combustion systems namely, the
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) or Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI)
engines.
In an HCCI engine, a mixture of air and fuel is premixed (like in a gasoline engine) but is
ignited through compression, without the need for a spark plug (like in a diesel engine).
The mixture auto-ignites when the pressure and temperature in the combustion chamber
reach a high enough level during the compression stroke.
CAI is a concept similar to HCCI but is often associated with gasoline engines where
ignition is controlled more directly. It still involves premixing fuel and air, but the
combustion is initiated by auto-ignition, controlled by exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
or intake heating to regulate temperature.

2. What is port injection?

Port injection is a type of fuel injection system used in internal combustion engines,
where fuel is injected into the intake ports just upstream of the engine's intake valves.
This system allows for better mixing of air and fuel before it enters the combustion
chamber. Port injection is often contrasted with direct injection, where fuel is injected
directly into the combustion chamber.

3. List the factors used to develop alternative propulsion system.

Following factors provided motivation for the development of alternative propulsion
systems for road vehicles:
• Global warming - Reduction desired in the emission of greenhouse gas, carbon
dioxide
• Control of urban air pollution
• Higher energy efficiency - to prolong availability of petroleum fuels as the crude
reserves are diminishing
• Energy security – to be independent of import of energy from other countries.

4. List the name of alternative fuels used in vehicles.

Here’s a list of alternative fuels commonly used in vehicles:
Electricity (for electric vehicles), Hydrogen (used in fuel cell vehicles), Biodiesel
(derived from vegetable oils or animal fats), Ethanol (commonly used as E85, a
blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline), Methanol (can be blended with gasoline or
used in flexible-fuel vehicles), Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) (stored in high-
pressure tanks), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) (natural gas cooled to liquid form for
storage), Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or Propane, Biogas (methane produced
 from organic waste), Synthetic Fuels (e-Fuels) (created through chemical processes
using renewable energy), P-Series Fuels (a blend of ethanol, natural gas liquids, and
methyltetrahydrofuran), Ammonia (used in some experimental or niche applications)

These alternative fuels are used to reduce reliance on traditional gasoline and diesel
and to lower emissions.

5. Define motor gasoline.

Motor gasoline, commonly referred to as gasoline or petrol, is a refined petroleum
product used as fuel in internal combustion engines, particularly in cars, motorcycles,
and other vehicles. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons derived from crude oil, often
blended with additives to improve its performance, efficiency, and environmental impact.
Motor gasoline is a mixture of nearly 400 different hydrocarbons consisting of
nparaffin, isoparaffins, olefins, aromatics and some cycloparaffins. Typical gasoline has
hydrogen to carbon atom ratio in the range 1.8 to 1.95 and it may be assigned a
molecular formula, C8H15. It is liquid at room temperature and boils in the range from
about 35 to 215º C.

6. Define Diesel fuel.

Diesel fuel is a type of liquid fuel used primarily in compression ignition engines,
commonly referred to as diesel engines. It is made from refined crude oil and is widely
used in vehicles like trucks, buses, cars, trains, ships, and in some industrial machinery
due to its high energy density and efficiency in engines that require greater torque.
Diesel fuel is a mixture of a few hundred hydrocarbons derived from refining of crude
petroleum. When petroleum prices were low, the diesel fuels were produced mostly by
blending various refinery streams from the atmospheric distillation unit of petroleum
refineries. To meet the increasing demand of the diesel fuels, products of secondary
refinery processes like thermal and catalytic cracking, hydro-cracking, vis-breaking etc.,
also are used as blending components of the current diesel fuels.

7. What are the most important alternative fuels?

Most important alternative fuel candidates are: ethanol, methanol, natural gas,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), vegetable oil esters commonly called as ‘biodiesel’
and hydrogen. High petroleum prices during 1980’s provided motivation for
development programmes for use of ethyl alcohol produced from agricultural products as
motor fuel in countries like Brazil. During the same period, clean burning properties of
methanol and its easy production from natural gas led to technological development
activities on methanol in the USA.

8. Define trans-esterification process.

Transesterification is a chemical process used to produce biodiesel by converting fats
or oils (which are triglycerides) into esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. This is done by
reacting the fats or oils with an alcohol, typically methanol or ethanol, in the presence
of a catalyst, usually a strong base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium
hydroxide (KOH).
9. Define CAI engine.
CAI is a concept similar to HCCI but is often associated with gasoline engines where
ignition is controlled more directly. It still involves premixing fuel and air, but the
combustion is initiated by auto-ignition, controlled by exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
or intake heating to regulate temperature.

10.Define antiknock.
Antiknock refers to the ability of a fuel additive or a fuel characteristic that prevents or
reduces engine knocking (also known as pinging or detonation) in internal combustion
engines. Knocking occurs when fuel-air mixtures in the engine's cylinders ignite
prematurely or unevenly, resulting in an abnormal and often damaging combustion
process. This can cause a sharp metallic sound and lead to engine damage over time.
 Part – B

1. List the parameters required to obtain the charge for CAI operation.
Methods to Obtain CAI
The following parameters have been used to obtain the required temperature, pressure and
composition of charge for CAI operation:
• Residual gas content or EGR
• Compression ratio
• Intake mixture temperature
• Intake mixture pressure
• Fuel-air ratio
• Coolant temperature
• Injection timing in gasoline direct injection engines

2. Write notes on late in-cylinder injection. Late In-Cylinder Injection:

If the injection is made very close to or after tdc the fuel encounters a gradual decrease
in gas temperature and pressure. It results in a long ignition delay and allows more time
for mixture formation and favourable conditions for HCCI combustion are obtained. As
most of the fuel now burns as premixed, a drastic reduction in soot formation is
observed and high rates of EGR can be used to obtain very low NOx.
The late injection strategy has the advantage in that the start of combustion is better
related to the injection timing and hence the combustion process can be controlled by
injection timing. Also, very little changes are necessary in the injection equipment.

3. Describe H2-O2 fuel cell.

The working principle of H2-O2 fuel cell is shown on Fig. 5.2.1.

• The fuel-cell has two electrodes made of porous material coated with platinum as
catalyst.
 • The electrodes are separated by a solid semi-permeable electrolyte.
• Hydrogen flows into fuel cell on catalytic anode and gives up an electron.
• Negatively charged oxygen at cathode attracts hydrogen protons through the solid
electrolyte membrane. On cathode, hydrogen and oxygen ions combine to
produce water.
• The electrons flow through external circuit producing current.

4. Tabulate fuel quality relationships with emissions.

Fuel Quality Relationship with Emissions
Fuel properties can affect emissions directly as well as indirectly. Some fuel components
by themselves may pose health hazards or adversely influence the environment. Some
other fuel properties influence engine combustion and engine durability, while some other
properties accelerate deterioration in the performance of emission control devices and
systems. These fuel quality emission interactions are given in Table 5.2.1.

5. Describe antiknock quality.

Antiknock Quality
In SI engines, use of a higher compression ratio results in higher thermal efficiency and
higher engine power. With increase in compression ratio however, knocking combustion
occurs. Persistent and high intensity combustion knock causes engine overheating, loss in
efficiency and may lead to mechanical damage to the engine components particularly
under high load operation. To prevent or minimize knocking combustion, gasoline of a
high antiknock quality is needed.
Knock resistance of a fuel is measured by octane number (ON), which is determined by
comparing knocking combustion characteristics of the sample fuel to that of standard
reference fuels in a standardized CFR (Cooperative Fuel Research, USA) test engine.

The two reference fuels that define the octane scale are:
 • A fuel with high knock resistance: Isooctane (C 8H18) or 2-2-4 trimethyl pentane
given octane number equal to 100, and
• A fuel with low knock resistance: n-heptane (n-C 7H16) given octane number equal
to 0.

6. Write note on distillation characteristics of diesel fuel.

Distillation Range
A typical distillation curve for diesel fuel is shown in Fig. 5.2.2. The temperature for 50
percent distillation temperature or mid-boiling point, 90 percent point and the final
boiling point are the important distillation parameters.

Lower the boiling point of the fuel, more readily it vaporizes and mixes with air giving
more complete combustion. The mid boiling volatility is also correlated to the other
physico-chemical properties like, density, viscosity and ignition quality. A higher mid
boiling point fuel has higher density and viscosity, and usually a lower CN. Low mid
boiling point fuels give faster cold starting and hence lower HC emissions. The fuel
components boiling above 350º C may not burn completely, forming high soot
concentrations and combustion chamber deposits. Fuels with high T 90 and final boiling
point are seen to result in an increased injector coking leading to poor combustion and
higher smoke emission.
For the modern diesel fuels low maximum permissible limits for T 90 or T95 around 350 to
360º C are being stipulated due to their negative long-term effects on emissions.

7. Discuss the effect of natural gas on emissions.

 Effect of Natural Gas on Emissions
Light-duty SI, natural gas engines run at stoichiometric conditions and use 3 Way
catalysts. With natural gas, mixture enrichment during cold starting which is needed with
gasoline operation is not required as the fuel is already in gas phase. Hence, with natural
gas operation lower unburned fuel emissions during cold starting and warm-up phase are
obtained. Similarly, as very little mixture enrichment is necessary during warm-up and
transient engine operation, CO emissions are also lower. With the use of electronic engine
and fuel management and emission control technology, natural gas vehicles complying
with the US Tier 2 and ULEV standards can be built more easily compared to gasoline
vehicles. Emission results for two vehicles operating on gasoline and natural gas vehicles
are compared in Table 5.2.2. Natural gas cars gave more than 50% lower non-methane
hydrocarbons, 10 to 50% lower CO and 10 to 80% lower NOx.

8. Write the influence of biodiesel on emissions.

The influence of biodiesel on emissions varies depending on the type of biodiesel
(soybean, rapeseed, or animal fats) and on the type of conventional diesel to which the
biodiesel is added due to differences in their chemical composition and properties.
The average effects of blending of biodiesel in diesel fuel on CO, HC, NOx and PM
emissions compared to diesel as base fuel are shown in Fig.5.2.3.
9. Write notes on distillation.
Distillation
The distillation characteristics of gasoline are presented by a curve relating percent
volume of fuel evaporated to temperature as shown in Fig 5.2.4. Temperatures for
evaporation of 10 % (T10), 50% (T50), 90% (T90) and final boiling point (FBP) of fuel
are important features of the distillation curve and their limits or equivalent are specified
in the gasoline standard specifications.
Distillation range influences engine exhaust emissions through its effect on fuel
evaporation characteristics, mixture formation and hydrocarbon composition. HC
emissions during cold start and warm-up may be influenced by the front-end volatility
(T10). An increase in T50 has been seen to decrease HC emissions. A lower T90 has been
seen to increase CO and NOx emissions in some engines but it reduces other air
pollutants; butadiene and formaldehyde which are known as ‘air toxics’.

10. Write short notes on Reid Vapour Pressure.

Reid Vapour Pressure
Reid vapour pressure (RVP) is measured at 37.8º C in a closed bomb having 4 times the
volume of liquid fuel. At low ambient temperatures for good cold starting and faster
engine warm-up a high vapour pressure is required. But, in warm and hot ambient
conditions, a high Reid vapour pressure results in high evaporative emissions and may
overload the carbon canisters of the evaporative control system with the hydrocarbon
vapours. RVP has good correlation with the fuel evaporation losses during refuelling and
from the fuel tank and carburettor. Evaporative hydrocarbon emissions as a function of
RVP and ambient temperature are shown on Fig. 5.2.5.

Part – C

1. Describe briefly valve timing and lift using residual gas trapping method for
CAI operation.
Methods to Obtain CAI
The following parameters have been used to obtain the required temperature, pressure and
composition of charge for CAI operation:
• Residual gas content or EGR
• Compression ratio
• Intake mixture temperature
• Intake mixture pressure
• Fuel-air ratio
• Coolant temperature
• Injection timing in gasoline direct injection engines
The practical engines have to operate in CAI/SI dual mode. The SI engine mode at high
loads is required to have good specific power output. The auto ignition of gasoline or
natural gas requires CR >20:1. Such high CR would be unacceptable at high loads when
fuel-air ratio is to be increased as severe engine knock would result. The engine CR is to
be limited to around 10:1. Hence, increase of CR to obtain CAI operation has not been a
practical option. Intake mixture heating by using the waste heat of the exhaust gas
although helpful but gives a further loss in volumetric efficiency as already a highly
diluted charge is used to control the heat release rates subsequent to auto ignition.
The most practical approach for CAI operation is use of large amounts of hot residual
gases. Trapping of the residual gases inside the cylinder also termed as ‘internal EGR’ has
been found a more acceptable approach. A negative valve overlap period is used to retain
high amount of residual gases in the cylinder. The exhaust valve is closed before the
piston reaches top dead centre in the exhaust stroke and to prevent backflow of the
burned gases in the intake system, the intake valves open well after TDC. The relative
valve timings for a standard SI engine and for CAI operation are compared in Fig. 5.3.1.

To get maximum expansion work ideally the exhaust valves are to be opened at the usual
time in the cycle but are to be closed earlier. The intake valve is to open late while they
should close as in the normal SI engine operation. To obtain this flexibility in SAI-SI dual
mode operation fully flexible, variable valve actuation systems are necessary which are
very complex in construction and presently are not in production. In the practical engines,
 use of low valve lift cam profile provides substantial reduction in valve opening period.
This approach along with variable cam timing devices has been used in prototype
engines. By varying the exhaust valve closing time load can be varied. As the exhaust
valve closes earlier to trap more residual gases, less fresh charge is admitted resulting in
lower engine output. The valve timings with lower valve lift are also shown on Fig. 5.3.1.
The trapping of residual gas in the cylinder results in high charge temperatures. At high
loads, the auto ignition however, may occur too early and high rates of pressure rise
would result.

2. Explain with neat sketch early in-cylinder injection method in HCCI operation.

Intake Manifold or Port Injection:

With fuel injection in the intake manifold or at the port sufficient time is available for the
fuel to vaporize and mix with air and high degree of mixture homogeneity is achieved. As
the boiling point of diesel fuel is high the fuel vaporization may be enhanced by heating
of intake manifold.
Auto ignition occurs due to compression. In this approach, very low NOx down up to
1/100th of the conventional diesel operation are possible. Smoke is very low, but higher
HC and CO emissions are obtained as considerable fraction of lean homogeneous mixture
may not burn or burns only partially.
Intake charge heating although, improves fuel evaporation and charge homogenization,
but results in early ignition causing high rate of pressure rise and noisy combustion. If no
intake heating is used, some fuel may remain in liquid state until late in the compression
stroke causing locally over rich mixtures resulting in formation of soot. EGR has been
employed along with intake mixture heating to retard auto ignition and control rate of
combustion. Use of very lean mixtures also results in retard of ignition but it limits imep
to very low values that can be obtained without knocking combustion. Use of a lower
engine compression ratio to retard ignition results in loss of engine efficiency. Thus,
intake manifold fuel injection is not considered a practical approach for HCCI operation
due to its negative effects on fuel efficiency and hydrocarbon emissions and low knock
limited value of imep.
Early In-Cylinder Injection:
This approach has two advantages:
(i) Higher temperatures and density compared to intake air are available. Hence,
External heating of air is not necessary and,
(ii) One injection system can be used for early injection for HCCI operation and also
for the conventional diesel combustion operation at higher loads.

Sufficient time is available when the fuel is injected early in the compression stroke to
fully vaporize and form homogeneous mixture with air at the time of ignition.
One of the problems faced in practice is that the fuel is injected early during compression
when the density of air is low. It results in long length of spray penetration and the liquid
fuel may impinge on the combustion chamber and cylinder walls. To prevent fuel
impingement redesigning of the injection system may be necessary. Some of the
approaches used are:
 • Injector in the centre of the cylinder with more number (numbering up to 30) of
smaller holes
• Use of two side injectors opposite to each other so that spray travel distance is
larger compared to the central injector.
• Multiple injection events with small quantities in each injection. A multiple
injection strategy using common rail injection system is shown in Fig 5.3.2. The
first injection is made around 90º btdc followed by equally spaced several
injection pulses. It allows each fuel pulse to mix well with air. The main injection
is made at tdc.

The engine compression ratio is reduced to13.5 - 14:1 so that ignition delay is long to
allow formation of a homogeneous mixture. In split/multiple injection approach, the first
injection is made at least 50 to 60 º btdc. Cooled EGR is used to retard start of
combustion of the premixed charge so that a higher engine power is obtained before
knock combustion results. The low temperature auto ignition is obtained near tdc just
prior to main injection. The main fuel injection is made slightly after tdc. This strategy
shows improved combustion efficiency without excessive CO and HC emissions.

3. Briefly explain types of hybrid electric vehicles with diagrams.

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES (HEV)
Motivating factors for HEV development are:
• Power required by vehicle to operate within cities may be around 4 to 7 kW
although the rated engine power ranges from 25 to over 100kW. The engine thus,
operates in the city under very low load conditions giving high fuel consumption
and emissions.
• Small engine can be employed and operated at constant load and speed at the
point of its
 • maximum efficiency, and another propulsion system can take care of the transient
operation. High vehicle fuel efficiencies are thus, obtained.
• Engine can be tuned to its lowest emissions at the operating load and speed point
• Emission control and exhaust after-treatment at steady engine load and speed
operation is
• more efficient.
• Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) allows achieving precisely this objective. The
hybrid electric vehicle employs two different energy storage and two different
propulsion systems:
• A conventional propulsion system like IC engine, and
• An on-board rechargeable electric energy storage system coupled with electric
motor(s).
Types of HEVs
Two basic types of HEV are
(i) Series and
(ii) Parallel type.
Other variants of the two basic types have also been developed. The HEV configurations
are shown in Fig 5.3.3.

Series Hybrid
In the series hybrid, electric motor is the only propulsion unit. It is connected with the
drive wheels. The engine is coupled with an alternator/ generator that runs the motor as
well as charges batteries. All the energy from the engine to the wheel passes through
electric machine and hence, it is called as series HEV. The electric power is always
generated on board. The engine is not required to follow the transient operation needs of
the vehicle.
Parallel Hybrid
In the parallel hybrid, the engine and motor (run by battery) are mechanically connected
to wheels and traction can be provided simultaneously by both the power units. When the
engine is unable to meet the power requirement of the vehicle (such as under
acceleration), energy from the battery supplements the vehicle demand. Engine is thus,
subjected to transient demands and consequently fuel efficiency is poorer and emission
penalties occur. Mixed hybrid
In the mixed hybrid, an alternator run by the engine continues to charge batteries. The
power to the wheels flow directly from the engine as well as from the batteries charged
by the alternator simultaneously as in the parallel hybrids. Toyota Prius car, one of the
most successful HEVs is a mixed hybrid vehicle.
Plug-in hybrid
Most cars run less than 50 to 60 km/day in cities. Thus, a near zero emission vehicle can
be designed if a small size battery pack provides this range during city driving and when
the vehicle needs to run more distance the IC engine drives the vehicle. The batteries are
charged every day by the mains supply. Such hybrids are called as Plug-in- Hybrid
Electric Vehicle (PHEV).
4. Tabulate fuel quality relationship with engine and vehicle performance.

Properties specific to gasoline and diesel are measured by a variety of test methods
described in the relevant ASTM, ISO and other standards. The properties of engine fuel
have been changing since the first engine was developed. A number of factors, most
important being the vehicle emission control, have been responsible for changes in the
fuel properties over the last few decades. The relationship of fuel properties with engine
performance are qualitatively described in Table 5.3.1.
5. Describe the following (i) Distillation (ii) Reid vapour pressure.
Combine Part-B (9) and (10)

6. Describe briefly about ignition quality of diesel fuel with cetane number.
Ignition Quality
Ignition quality is a measure of ease of self-ignition of diesel fuel when the fuel is
injected in hot compressed air in the engine cylinder. Cetane number (CN) is the most
widely accepted measure of ignition quality as it is measured by a test on the engine. The
cetane number scale is defined in terms of blends of two pure hydrocarbons used as
reference fuels:
• A high ignition quality hydrocarbon: n- Hexadecane or Cetane ( n-C16H34) given
CN =100
• Another hydrocarbon with poor ignition quality: Hepta-methyl nonane (HMN)
assigned CN =15.
The cetane number scale is given by:
CN = % n-cetane + 0.15 x % HMN (1)
Cetane number is measured in a standard single cylinder, variable compression ratio CFR
engine according to ASTM D613 method. The test engine is a pre chamber diesel engine.
The test conditions are:
(i) Intake air temperature = 65.6° C,
(ii) Coolant temperature = 100° C, (iii) Engine speed = 900
rpm,
(iv) Injection advance = 13° btdc.
Engine compression ratio is varied to obtain start of combustion at top dead centre i.e.
ignition delay is maintained equal to 13° CA for the test fuel and two blends of reference
fuels that bracket the compression ratio obtained with the test fuel. The reference fuel
blends should not be more than 5 CN units apart. The cetane number of the test fuel is
determined by interpolation from the compression ratio values and the corresponding
cetane numbers of the reference fuel blends.
Correlations of ignition quality with the physical properties of the diesel fuels have also
been developed for ease of quality control during refining. These correlations are
applicable only to the neat petroleum derived diesel fuels when no additives are used to
improve ignition quality. The Calculated Cetane Index (CCI) determined by ASTM D
976 or ASTM D 4737 methods are more commonly used as an alternative to CN for the
neat diesel fuels. The calculated cetane index is not a substitute for ASTM cetane number.
It is only a supplementary parameter for predicting cetane number when used keeping in
view its limitations. The CCI calculation methods are not suitable for pure hydrocarbons,
or nonpetroleum based fuels derived from coal.
ASTM D 976 uses a two variable equation to determine CCI from the mid-boiling point
and density of the diesel fuel as below:
CCI976 = 454.74 - 1641.416 D + 774.74 D2 - 0.554 B + 97.803 (log B)2 (2)
where:
D = density at 15°C (g/ml) determined by Test Method ASTM D 1298.
B = 50% evaporation (mid-boiling) temperature (°C) determined by Test Method ASTM
D 86 and corrected to standard barometric pressure.
ASTM D 4737 is a newer more exhaustive method in which CCI is correlated to four
variables:
 The density and temperatures for evaporation of 10% (T10), 50% (T50) and 90% (T90).
Details are available in the relevant standards and other texts.
CCI values are quite close to the cetane number. Several national fuel standards also
specify cetane index values in addition to cetane number.
Cetane or ignition improvers are used to improve ignition quality of the diesel fuels.
Nitrates like isopropyl nitrate, cyclo-hexyl nitrates, ethyl-hexyl nitrate (EHN) and
peroxides like di-tertiary-butyl peroxide are used as cetane improvers. These compounds
readily decompose at the engine compression temperatures and produce free radicals that
accelerate pre combustion reactions and thereby reduce ignition delay. The cetane
improvers are used typically in dosages of around 500 to 2000 ppm by volume.
With high cetane fuels cold starting is easier and engine warm up is faster. Therefore, use
of high CN fuels results in lower HC emissions during engine warm-up phase and the
reduction in HC is more significant at low ambient temperatures. High cetane number
fuels give shorter ignition delay and thus, reduce the amount of fuel burned in premixed
phase which results in lower peak combustion pressures and temperatures. Therefore,
high CN fuels are expected to give lower NOx emissions.

Typical effect of CN on NOx emissions is shown on Fig.5.3.4. Ratio of NOx emissions

obtained for 58 CN fuels relative to that obtained with 50 CN fuel are shown at different
engine loads. Depending upon the engine load, up to 6 - 8% lower NOx may result with
increase of CN from 50 to 58. At full engine load however, a slight increase in NOx with
increase in CN was seen.

7. Explain the effect of alcohol fuels like methanol and ethanol in control of
engine emissions.

Alcohols: Methanol and Ethanol

Methanol at present is produced mostly from natural gas although both methanol and
ethanol can be produced from renewable sources. Methanol may be produced near the
natural gas field and it being liquid can be more easily handled and transported over long
distances compared to natural gas.
Ethanol is produced almost entirely from the renewable agriculture sources by
fermentation of sugar, grains, tapioca etc. Alcohols in engines may be used as:
• Low concentration ( 5 to 10% by volume) blends in gasoline
• Neat alcohol or high level ( 85% by volume) blends
Neat ethanol (95% ethanol + 5% water) and anhydrous ethanol blended up to 20% in
gasoline have been widely used in Brazil during 1980’s. In the USA, use of ethanol was
promoted due to agricultural surplus for blending in the reformulated gasoline as
oxygenate. Use of 5 to 10% ethanol as a blending component in gasoline is permitted in
Europe and India. Now, ethanol is the preferred oxygenate replacing MTBE. As
mentioned earlier, methanol due to its toxicity is not permitted any more for blending into
gasoline. The 10 percent ethanol-gasoline blends used in the USA are commonly referred
as
‘Gasohol’.
Key features of alcohols as motor fuel are:
• Alcohols are a preferred alternative for SI engines only due to their high octane
number. A higher engine compression ratio could be used to obtain a higher
engine thermal efficiency.
• Cetane number of methanol and ethanol are close to 5 and 8, respectively.
• Direct injection alcohol engine prototypes operating similar to diesel/CI engines
have also been developed using either a positive source of ignition or high dosage
of ignition quality improvers (3 to 7% by volume).
• Alcohols are not easily miscible in the diesel fuels. To prepare alcohol-diesel
blends high amounts of emulsifiers or solublizers are required.
• Heating value of ethanol is approximately 60 percent and that of methanol is only
45 % of gasoline.
• The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio due to presence of oxygen in the molecule is
much lower than the gasoline.
• The volumetric energy content of stoichiometric mixture (gaseous state) of
alcohols and gasoline however, are not very different. Thus, engine specific power
output that may be obtained with alcohols and gasoline is nearly the same.
• The latent heat of vaporization of methanol and ethanol is nearly 4 and 2.7 times,
respectively compared to gasoline. Cold starting performance with neat alcohol is
therefore, poor compared to gasoline.
• Flames of neat alcohols in air are not easily visible to the naked eye. Hence, 15%
gasoline is mixed to alcohol for making the flame visible in case of an accidental
fire.
A large number of investigations have been carried out with alcohols as engine fuel.
Emissions with low level alcohol blends as well as with neat alcohols have been studied.
CO and NOx emissions show no clear trend although lower flame temperatures with
alcohol may result in lower NOx emissions. With neat alcohol operation, as the emissions
of most of the volatile organic compounds in the exhaust would consist of alcohols or
aldehydes only, the photo-chemical reactivity and the ozone forming potential is lower
with alcohol fuel operation.
 The main advantages and disadvantages of alcohols with respect to conventional gasoline
and diesel fuels are summarized in Table 5.3.2.

8. How hydrogen fuel effects engine emission? Describe in brief.

Hydrogen
Interest in hydrogen as a potential alternative automotive fuel has grown due to need of
reducing greenhouse gas, CO2 emissions and to minimize dependence on fossil fuels.
Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of fossil and non-fossil sources.
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless and non-toxic gas. It burns with an invisible and
smokeless flame. The combustion products of hydrogen consist of water and some
nitrogen oxides. The major hurdles in the use of hydrogen as a fuel are lack of
production, distribution and storage infrastructure.
On board storage of hydrogen is another major challenge. Hydrogen has very low boiling
point (–253º C) and very low volumetric energy density. Volumetric energy density of
compressed hydrogen is just one-third of energy density of natural gas.
Liquid hydrogen also has a very low volumetric energy density, which is about one-fourth
of gasoline. Hydrogen can be stored as compressed gas, as iron, magnesium, titanium or
nickel hydride, or in liquefied form.
The liquid, hydride and compressed hydrogen storage methods are compared in Table
5.3.3 for storing 19 litres of gasoline equivalent in energy.
Hydrogen storage space required is at least 10 to 12 times higher than for gasoline.
Storage and fuel weight for hydrides is 27 times and for compressed H 2 is 4 to 5 times of
gasoline.

Combustion characteristics of hydrogen and its impact on emissions are given below:
• Hydrogen octane rating is 106 RON making it more suitable for spark-ignited
engines.
• The laminar flame speed of hydrogen is 3 m/s, about 10 times that of gasoline and
methane.
• Hydrogen has very wide flammability limits ranging from 5 to 75% by volume (f
=
0.07 to 9), which may lead to pre-ignition and backfiring problems.
• Its adiabatic flame temperature is higher by about 110º C compared to gasoline.
• If inducted along with intake air, the volume of hydrogen is nearly 30% of the
stoichiometric mixture decreasing maximum engine power.
• Hydrogen on combustion produces water and there are no emissions of carbon
containing pollutants such as HC, CO and CO2 and air toxics.
• Trace amounts of HC, CO and CO 2 however, may be emitted as a result of
combustion of lubricating oil leaking into engine cylinder.
• NOx is the only pollutant of concern from hydrogen engines. Very low NOx
emissions can be obtained with extremely lean engine operation (f < 0.05) and/or
injection of water into intake manifold or exhaust gas recirculation which in this
case consists primarily of water vapours.
• NOx emissions of 0.013 g/km have been obtained which are about 1/10th of the
US Tier 2 regulations.
• Hydrogen fuelled engines produces almost no CO 2 and its global warming
potential is insignificant.
Hydrogen fuelled IC engines however are not considered a long term option when
compared to fuel cell. Hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles are expected to have more commercial
potential in the long run. Though it is believed that significant production volumes for
customers will not be available until the 2017-2020 time frame.