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 AP® CHEMISTRY EQUATIONS AND CONSTANTS
UNIT SYMBOLS UNIT CONVERSIONS METRIC PREFIXES
gram, g Factor Prefix Symbol
mole, mol 1 hertz = 1 s−1
109 giga G
liter, L
meter, m 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr 106 mega M
second, s
103 kilo k
hertz, Hz K = °C + 273.15
atmosphere, atm 10−2 centi c
millimeter of mercury, mm Hg 1 joule
1 volt = 10−3 milli m
degree Celsius, °C 1 coulomb
kelvin, K
1 coulomb 10−6 micro μ
joule, J 1 ampere =
1 second
volt, V 10−9 nano n
coulomb, C
10−12 pico p
ampere, A

ATOMIC STRUCTURE E = energy

E = hν ν = frequency
λ = wavelength
c = λν
F = force
q1q2 q = charge
Fcoulombic ∝
r2 r = separation
Planck's constant, h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s
Speed of light, c = 2.998 × 108 m s−1
Avogadro's number = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1

GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLUTIONS P= pressure

V = volume
PV PV
1 1
= 2 2 T = temperature
T1 T2
n= number of moles
PV = nRT X = mole fraction
moles A m= mass
PA = Ptotal × X A , where X A = M = molar mass
total moles
D= density
Ptotal = PA + PB + PC + ...
KE = kinetic energy
m v= velocity
n=
M M = molarity
m A= absorbance
D= ε = molar absorptivity
V
b= path length
1 2
KE = mv c= concentration
2
Gas constant, R = 8.314 J mol−1 K −1
n
M = solute = 0.08206 L atm K −1 mol−1
L solution
STP = 273.15 K and 1.0 atm
A = ε bc Ideal gas at STP = 22.4 L mol−1
KINETICS
[A]t − [A]0 = − kt k = rate constant
t = time
ln[A]t − ln[A]0 = − kt
t 1 = half-life
2
1 1
− = kt
[A]t [A]0
0.693
t1 =
2 k

EQUILIBRIUM
[C]c [D]d
Kc = , where a A + b B  c C + d D Equilibrium Constants
[A]a [B]b
Kc (molar concentrations)
(PC )c (PD ) d
Kp = Kp (gas pressures)
(PA ) a (PB )b
Kw (water)
+ − −14
K w = [H 3O ][OH ] = 1.0 × 10 at 25°C Ka (acid)
pK w = 14 = pH + pOH at 25°C Kb (base)

pH = − log[H 3O+ ], pOH = − log[OH − ]

[H 3O+ ][A − ] [OH − ][HB+ ]

Ka = , Kb =
[HA] [B]

pK a = − log K a , pK b = − log K b

K w = K a × Kb , pK w = pK a + pK b

[A − ]
pH = pK a + log
[HA]

THERMODYNAMICS/ELECTROCHEMISTRY
q = heat
q = mc∆T
m = mass

∆H reaction = ∑ ∆H f products −∑ ∆H f reactants c = specific heat capacity
T = temperature

∆Sreaction = ∑ S products −∑ Sreactants

S° = standard entropy

∆Greaction = ∑ ∆G f −∑ ∆G f H° = standard enthalpy
products reactants
G° = standard Gibbs free energy
∆G ° = ∆H ° − T ∆S ° R = gas constant
K = equilibrium constant
= − RT ln K
n = number of moles of electrons
= −nFE ° E° = standard potential
q I = current (amperes)
I =
t q = charge (coulombs)
 RT t = time (seconds)
Ecell = Ecell − ln Q
nF Q = reaction quotient
Faraday's constant, F = 96, 485 coulombs / 1 mol e−
 1 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS 18
1 2
H He
1.008 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.00
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.30 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba 57-71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra 89-103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.5 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
†Actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03
AP Chemistry Periodic Table of the Elements 1 of 1
© 2020 College Board
 AP CHEMISTRY Test Booklet

Unit 1 Test Version A

1.
Ionization Energies for element X (kJ mol-1)

First Second Third Fourth Fifth

580 1,815 2,740 11,600 14,800

The ionization energies for element X are listed in the table above. On the basis of the data, element X is most likely
to be

(A) Mg
(B) Al
(C) Si
(D) P

2.

The four species above have the same electron configuration, . Which of the following statements
correctly identifies the species with the largest radius and provides an explanation based on Coulomb’s law?

(A) , because its nuclear charge exerts the least attractive force on the electrons in the 3p sublevel.
(B) , because it is a neutral atom and the net force on the electrons in the 3p sublevel is zero.

(C) , because the loss of an electron results in a smaller attractive force between the nucleus and
the electrons in the 3p sublevel.

(D) , because the large positive charge on a cation causes increased repulsion among the
electrons in the 3p sublevel.

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Unit 1 Test Version A

3.

Element Known Oxides

H H2O, H2O2
Li Li2O, Li2O2
Na Na2O, Na2O2, NaO2
K K2O, K2O2, KO2

Based on the information above and periodic trends, which of the following is the best hypothesis regarding the
oxide(s) formed by Rb?
(A) Rb will form only Rb2O.
(B) Rb will form only Rb2O2.
(C) Rb will form only Rb2O and Rb2O2.
(D) Rb will form Rb2O, Rb2O2, and RbO2.

4.

Ionization
Energy
(kJ / mol)

First 786

Second 1,577

Third 3,232

Fourth 4,356

Fifth 16,091

Based on the successive ionization energies of element X shown in the table above, which of the following is most
likely the formula of the compound produced when element X reacts with fluorine?

(A) XF
(B) XF2
(C) XF4
(D) XF5

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 Test Booklet

Unit 1 Test Version A

5.

The mass spectrum of element X is presented in the diagram above. Based on the spectrum, which of the following
can be concluded about element X?

(A) X is a transition metal, and each peak represents an oxidation state of the metal.
(B) X contains five electron sublevels.
(C) The atomic mass of X is 90.
(D) The atomic mass of X is between 90 and 92.

6. A student is given two 10g samples, each a mixture of only NaCl(s) and KCl(s) but in different [Link]
of the following pieces of information could be used to determine which mixture has the higher proportion of
KCl(s)?

(A) The volume of each mixture

(B) The mass of Cl in each mixture
(C) The number of isotopes of Na and K
(D) The reaction of each mixture with water

7.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Total mass of Mass of C in Mass of Mg in Mass of Ca in Molar mass of Molar mass of Molar mass of
sample (g) sample (g) sample (g) sample (g) C (g / mol) Mg (g / mol) Ca (g / mol)

98.5 12.0 2.4 36.1 12.0 24.3 40.1

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 Test Booklet

Unit 1 Test Version A

A sample of carbonate rock is a mixture of CaCO3 and MgCO3. The rock is analyzed in a laboratory, and the
results are recorded in the table above. Which columns in the table provide all the information necessary to
determine the mole ratio of Ca to Mg in the rock?

(A) 1, 2, 5
(B) 2, 5, 6
(C) 3, 4, 6, 7
(D) 2, 3, 4, 5

8. A compound made up of only carbon and hydrogen is completely combusted in excess O2(g). Equimolar
quantities of CO2(g) and H2O(g) are produced. Which of the following could be the molecular formula of the
compound?

(A) CH4
(B) C2H2
(C) C2H4
(D) C2H6

9. Which of the following numerical expressions gives the number of particles in 2.0 g of Ne?

23
6.0×10 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙
(A) 2.0 𝑔
23
6.0×10 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙
(B) 20.18 𝑔
2.0 𝑔 23
(C) 20.18 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
(6. 0 × 10 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
20.18 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 23
(D) 2𝑔
(6. 0 × 10 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙)

10. Of the following electron configurations of neutral atoms, which represents an atom in an excited state?
(A) 1s2 2s2 2p5
(B) 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2
(C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
(D) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

11. Which of the following lists Mg, P, and Cl in order of increasing atomic radius?
(A) Cl < P < Mg
(B) Cl < Mg < P
(C) Mg < P < Cl
(D) Mg < Cl < P

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Unit 1 Test Version A

12. A student determines that an unknown compound contains 49 percent C by mass, Which of the following could
be the compound?

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

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Unit 1 Test Version A

13. A sample of CaCO3 (molar mass 100. g) was reported as being 30. percent Ca. Assuming no calcium was
present in any impurities, the percent of CaCO3 in the sample is
(A) 30%
(B) 70%
(C) 75%
(D) 100%

14.

The complete photoelectron spectrum of a pure element is represented above. Which of the following correctly
dentifies both the element and the atomic orbitals represented by peak X and peak Y?

Element Peak X Peak Y

A Li 1s 2s

B Li 2s 1s

C Be 1s 2s

D Be 2s 1s

(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) D

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AP Chemistry Page 6 out of 16
 Test Booklet

Unit 1 Test Version A

15.

The photoelectron spectrum for the element nitrogen is represented above. Which of the following best explains how
the spectrum is consistent with the electron shell model of the atom?

(A) The leftmost peak represents the valence electrons.

(B) The two peaks at the right represent a total of three electrons.
(C) The electrons in the 1s sublevel have the smallest binding energy.
(D) The electrons in the 2p sublevel have the smallest binding energy.

16.

The complete photoelectron spectra of neutral atoms of two unknown elements, X and Y. are shown above. Which
of the following can be inferred from the data?

(A) Element X has a greater electronegativity than element Y does.

(B) Element X has a greater ionization energy than element Y does.
(C) Element Y has a greater nuclear charge than element X does.
(D) The isotopes of element Y are approximately equal in abundance, but those of element X are not.

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Unit 1 Test Version A

17. A 5.0 g sample of MgCl2, may contain measurable amounts of other compounds as impurities. Which of the
following quantities is (are) needed to determine that the sample is pure MgCl2?

(A) The color and density of the sample

(B) The mass of Mg in the sample only
(C) The number of moles of Cl in the sample only
(D) The mass of Mg and the mass of Cl in the sample

18.

The complete photoelectron spectrum for an element is shown above. Which of the following observations would
provide evidence that the spectrum is consistent with the atomic model of the element?

(A) A neutral atom of the element contains exactly two electrons.

(B) The element does not react with other elements to form compounds.
(C) In its compounds, the element tends to form ions with a charge of +1.
(D) In its compounds, the element tends to form ions with a charge of +3.

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Unit 1 Test Version A

19.

The photoelectron spectra of the 1s electrons of two isoelectronic species, Ca2+ and Ar, are shown above. Which of
the following correctly identifies the species associated with peak X and provides a valid justification?

(A) Ar, because it has completely filled energy levels

(B) Ar, because its radius is smaller than the radius of Ca2+
(C) Ca2+, because its nuclear mass is greater than that of Ar
(D) Ca2+, because its nucleus has two more protons than the nucleus of Ar has

20.

A sample containing atoms of C and F was analyzed using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The portion of the
spectrum showing the 1s peaks for atoms of the two elements is shown above. Which of the following correctly
identifies the 1s peak for the F atoms and provides an appropriate explanation?

(A) Peak X, because F has a smaller first ionization energy than C has.
(B) Peak X, because F has a greater nuclear charge than C has.
(C) Peak Y, because F is more electronegative than C is.
(D) Peak Y, because F has a smaller atomic radius than C has.

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Unit 1 Test Version A

21.

The complete photoelectron spectrum of an element is given above. Which of the following electron configurations
is consistent with the spectrum?

(A) 1s2 2s2 2p1

(B) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
(C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
(D) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10

22.

The photoelectron spectra for H and He are represented above. Which of the following statements best account
for the fact that the peak on the He spectrum is farther to the left and higher than the peak on the H spectrum?

(A) He has an additional valence electron in a higher energy level thap the valence electron in H.
(B) He has a greater nuclear charge than H and an additional electron in the same energy level.
(C) He has a completely filled valence shell in which the electrons are a greater distance from the nucleus than
the distance between the H nucleus and its electron.
(D) It takes longer for the electrons in He to be removed due to the higher nuclear mass of He.

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Unit 1 Test Version A

Free Response Section

For each question, show your work for each part in the space provided after that part. Examples and equations may
be included in our responses where appropriate. For calculations, clearly show the method used and the steps
involved in arriving at your answers. You must show your work to receive credit for your answer. Pay attention to
significant figures.

23. Bromine (element symbol Br) is the only nonmetal that exists as a liquid at room temperature and 1 atm. Answer
the following questions about bromine.

a. Write the complete ground-state electron configuration of a bromine atom.

b. Following is a partial photoelectron spectrum (PES) showing only the core electrons in bromine.

i. On the PES, circle the peak in the spectrum that corresponds to the 3s electrons of bromine.

ii. Both bromine (Br) and krypton (Kr) have 18 core electrons. Would the peaks for the core electrons
in the PES of krypton be shifted to the right, to the left, or remain unchanged as compared to those
in the PES of bromine? Explain your answer.

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Unit 1 Test Version A

24. Bromine (Br) forms a complex ion with cadmium (Cd) and aluminum (Al).

a. The complex ion is analyzed and determined to be 4.00% Al, 24.98% Cd, and 71.02% Br. Determine the
empirical formula of the compound. Support your answer with a calculation.

b. How many grams of bromine would be in a 2.00 g sample of the compound from 24a? Support your
answer with a calculation.

25. The first eight ionization energies of bromine (Br) and an unknown element J are given below.

Element 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

ionization ionization ionization ionization ionization ionization ionization ionization
energy energy energy energy energy energy energy energy
(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)

Br 1139.9 2103 3470 4560 5760 8550 9940 18600

J 1011.8 1907 2914.1 4963.6 6273.9 21267 25431 29872

a. Is the atomic radius of element J greater than, less than, or equal to the atomic radius of Br? Justify your
prediction in terms of periodic properties and Coulomb’s law.

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Unit 1 Test Version A

b. Does element J have more than, less than, or the same number of valence electrons as Br? Justify your
prediction in terms of periodic properties and Coulomb's law.

26. Three possible mass spectra for a sample of atomic bromine (Br) are represented below. Identify the mass
spectrum that most likely represents the isotopes of bromine. Justify your choice.

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 Test Booklet

Unit 1 Test Version A

EXTRA CREDIT
Please choose ONE of the following questions to answer (27-28). *Note: Point values of each question
are identical; it does not matter which question you choose for the extra credit. You also may not choose
to answer any of the questions.

27*. A new element with atomic number 116 was discovered in 2000. In 2012 it was named livermorium,
Lv. Although Lv is radioactive and short-lived, its chemical properties and reactivity should follow
periodic trends.

a. Write the electron configuration for the valence electrons of Lv in the ground state.

b. According to periodic properties, what would be the most likely formula for the product obtained
when Lv reacts with H2(g)?

c. The first ionization energy of polonium, Po, is 812 kJ/mol. Is the first ionization energy of Lv
expected to be greater than, less than, or equal to that of Po? Justify your answer in terms of
Coulomb’s law.

d. Shown below is a hypothetical mass spectrum for a sample of Lv containing 10 atoms.

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AP Chemistry Page 14 out of 16
 Test Booklet

Unit 1 Test Version A

Using the information in the graph, determine the average atomic mass of Lv in the sample to
four significant figures.

28*. Answer the following questions relating to gravimetric analysis.

In the first of two experiments, a student is assigned the task of determining the number of moles of water
in one mole of MgCl2 ⋅ n H2O. The student collects the data shown in the following table.

a. Explain why the student can correctly conclude that the hydrate was heated a sufficient number
of times in the experiment.

b. Use the data above to

i. Calculate the total number of moles of water lost when the sample was heated

ii. Determine the formula of the hydrated compound.

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 Test Booklet

Unit 1 Test Version A

c. A different student heats the hydrate in an uncovered crucible, and some of the solid spatters out
of the crucible. This spattering will have what effect on the calculated mass of the water lost by
the hydrate? Justify your answer.

d. Starting with the 2.94 g sample of the mixture dissolved in water, briefly describe the steps
necessary to quantitatively determine the mass of the AgCl precipitate.

e. The student determines the mass of the AgCl precipitate to be 5.48 g. On the basis of this
information, calculate each of the following.
i. The number of moles of MgCl2 in the original mixture

ii. The percent by mass of MgCl2 in the original mixture

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AP Chemistry Page 16 out of 16