A.

Common Terminologies

B.1. Measurement
 Thorndike and Hagen (1986) define measurement as the process of quantifying
observations and/or description about quality or attribute of a thing or a person.
The process of measurement involves three steps: identifying and defining the
quality or attribute that is to be measured; determining a set of operations by
which the attribute may be made manifest and perceivable; and establish a set of
procedures or definitions for translating observations into quantitative statement
or degree or amount.
 McMillan (1997) stated that measurement involves using observation, rating
scales, or any other non-test device that secures information in quantitative form.
The term measurement can refer to both the score obtained and the process used.
 Gredler (1997) define measurement as the process of making empirical
observations of some attribute, characteristics, or phenomenon and translating
those observations into quantifiable or categorical form according to clearly
specified procedures or rules.
 Educational measurement refers to the process of determining a quantitative and
qualitative academic attribute of an individual or groups of individuals.

B.2. Testing
 Test is a formal and systematic instrument, usually paper and pencil procedures
designed to assess the quality, ability, skill or knowledge of the students by
giving a set of question in uniform manner
 A test is one of the many types of assessment procedure used to gather
information about the performance of the students
 A test refers to a tool, technique or a method that is intended to measure students’
knowledge or their ability to complete a particular task. In this sense, testing can
be considered as a form of assessment. Tests should meet some basic
requirements, such as validity and reliability.
 Testing is one of the different methods used to measure the level of performance
or achievement of the learners
 Testing also refers to the administration, scoring and interpretation of the
procedures designed to get information about the extent of the performance of the
students

B.2.1. Standardized Testing

 Standardization is the process of trying out the test on a group of people
to see the scores which are typically obtained
 A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a consistent
manner. The tests are designed in such a way that the questions,
conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are
 consistent and are administered and scored in a predetermined and
standard manner (Popham, 2003)
 Standardized tests also determine the student’s academic level. They
become the basis for early tracking then ongoing trucking, reflecting the
belief that homogeneous achievement groups facilitate more efficient and
effective teaching and learning (Perrone, 1991).
 Standardized tests are tools designed to allow measure of student
performance relative to all others taking the same test.

Types of Standardized Testing

1. Norm-referenced testing. It measures performance relative to all

other students taking same test. This is a type of test you can use if
you want to know how a student is compared to the rest. This type of
testing is the commonly found among standardized testing. For
example, if a student is ranked in the 86 th percentile, that means
he/she is better than 86 percent of the others who took the test.
2. Criterion-referenced testing. It measured factual knowledge of a
defined body of material. Multiple-choice tests that people take to
get their license or a test in fractions are both examples of this type
of testing.

Comparison of Norm-referenced Test and Criterion-referenced

Test

Dimension Norm-referenced Criterion-referenced

Test Test
Purpose - to rank each student- to determine whether
with respect to the each student has
achievement of others achieved specific skills
in broad areas of or concepts
knowledge - to find out how much
- to discriminate students know before
between high and low instruction begins and
achievers after it has finished.
Content - Measures broad skill- measures specific
areas sampled from a skills which make up
variety of textbooks, the designated
syllabi, and thecurriculum
judgment of- these skills are
curriculum expert. identified by teachers
and curriculum experts
- each skill is
expressed as an
instructional objective
Item - each skill is usually - each skill is tested by
Characteristics tested by less than at least four items in
 four items order to obtain an
- items vary in adequate sample of
difficulty student performance
- items are selected and to minimize the
that discriminate effect of guessing
between high and low - the items which test
achievers any given skill are
parallel in difficulty
Score - each individual is - each individual is
interpretation compared with other compared with present
examinees and standard for acceptable
assigned a score - achievement. The
usually expressed as a performance of other
percentile rank, a examinees is irrelevant
grade equivalent - a student’s score is
score, and a stanine usually expressed as a
- students percentage
achievement is - student achievement
reported for broad is reported for
skills areas, although individual skills.
some norm-
referenced tests do
report student
achievement for
individual skills

B.2.2. High Stake Testing

 is any test used to make important decisions about students, educators,
schools, or districts, most commonly for the purpose of accountability
 High-stakes testing is an evaluation process whereby a major
consequence is attached to a standardized test. “High stakes” refers to the
outcome or consequence of the process, which for the student can be a
grade or the potential to fail a course. While any test can be perceived by
the test taker as high stakes if a grade is associated with it, high stakes
here refer to standardized tests developed specifically to evaluate student
achievement and school effectiveness
Four major theories underlie our current reliance on high-stakes tests

1. Motivational theory is the predominant theory underlying test-based

accountability. According to this concept, the extrinsic rewards and sanctions
associated with the high-stakes test serve to motivate teachers to improve
their performance. This presumes that educators require external pressure to
improve their teaching. For those educators who already have a strong
internal sense of responsibility to their profession, the research is
 inconclusive about the effects of external pressure. Some researchers have
found that reward does not decrease intrinsic motivation (Cameron and
Pierce, 1994), while others have concluded that tangible rewards often
undermine internal motivations (Deci et al.1999).

2. The theory of alignment holds that system-wide improvement is most likely

to occur if educators align the major components of the educational system
(standards, curriculum, and assessments) surrounding schools so that they
reinforce each other. Alignment is usually thought of in terms of
synchronizing the surrounding system, but can also be thought of as
alignment between the external accountability of schools and schools' sense
of internal accountability (Abelmann and Elmore, 2004).

3. Information theory maintains that student performance data are useful for
teachers and administrators to make decisions about students and programs
and that providing such data to local educators and giving them incentives to
improve their performance will guide classroom and organizational decision-
making

4. Symbolism theory has also contributed to the growth and prevalence of high-
stakes testing. In this model, the accountability system is seen to signal
important values to stakeholders and, in particular, the public. This particular
theory is manifested in the notion of "public answerability" — that is, the
idea that the public has a right to expect its resources to be used responsibly
and that public institutions are accountable for caretaking the public trust.
High-stakes assessments thus serve as evidence that public education is, in
essence, responsible and rigorous and further provide symbolic of the
system.

Research shows that high-stakes assessments can and do motivate change in

teachers’ instruction. But that these changes tend to be superficial adjustments of
practice that are often focused on modifications in content coverage and test
preparation practices rather than deep improvements to instruction efforts.
 Effects according to the four theories of testing policy

1) High-stakes testing does motivate educators, but responses are often

superficial. In the best cases, high-stakes testing has focused instruction toward
important and developmentally appropriate literacy and numeracy skills — but at
the expense of a narrower curricular experience for students and a steadier diet of
test preparation activities in the classroom.

2) Test-based accountability fosters alignment of the central components of the

educational system. The evidence does suggest that high-stakes testing
encourages educators to align curriculum, standards, and assessments.

3) High-stakes testing regimes have limits as information tools. The data from
high stakes tests are useful to policymakers for assessing school and system-level
performance but insufficient for individual-level accountability and provide
meager information for instructional guidance.

4) Test-based accountability is an appealing political strategy. High-stakes

testing answers a real need for the education system to demonstrate that it is
spending public dollars judiciously.

B.3. Evaluation
 Evaluation originates from the root word “value” and so when we evaluate, we
except our process to give information regarding the worth, appropriateness,
goodness, validity or legality of something for which a reliable measurement has
been made.
 Evaluation is a broader term than the Measurement.
 It is more comprehensive than mere inclusive than the term Measurement.
 It goes ahead of measurement which simply indicates the numerical value.
 It gives the value judgement to the numerical value.
 It includes both tangible and intangible qualities
 Is a process designed to provide information that will help us to make a judgment
about a particular situation
 Involves data collection and analysis and quantitative and qualitative methods
 Often divided into broad categories: formative and summative
 James M. Bradfield defined evaluation as the assignment of symbols to
phenomenon, in order to characterize the worth or value of a phenomenon,
usually with reference to some cultural or scientific standards.
 Thorndike and Hegan said that the term evaluation is closely related to
measurement. It is in some respect, inclusive including informal and intuitive
judgement of pupil’s progress. Evaluation is describing something in term of
selected attributes and judging the degree of acceptability or suitability of that
which has been described.
 Norman E. Gronlund and Robert L. Linn stressed evaluation as a systematic
process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to determine the
extent to which pupils are achievement instructional objectives.

Principles of Evaluation
Evaluation is a systematic process of determining to what extent
instructional objectives has been achieved. Therefore, evaluation process must be
carried out with effective techniques.

The following principles will help to make the evaluation process an effective
one:

1. It must be clearly stated what is to be evaluated

A teacher must be clear about the purpose of evaluation. He must
formulate the instructional objectives and define them clearly in terms of
student’s observable behavior. Before selecting the achievement measures the
intended learning out comes must be specified clearly.

2. A variety of evaluation techniques should be used for a comprehensive

evaluation
It is not possible to evaluate all the aspect of achievement with the help
of a single technique. For the better evaluation the techniques like objective tests,
essay tests, observational techniques etc. should be used. So that a complete’
picture of the student achievement and development can be assessed.

3. An evaluator should know the limitations of different evaluation techniques

Evaluation can be done with the help of simple observation or highly
developed standardized tests. But whatever the instrument or technique maybe it
has its own limitation. There may be measurement errors. Sampling error is a
common factor in educational and psychological measurements. An achievement
test may not include the whole course content. Error in measurement can also be
found due to students guessing on objective tests. Error is also found due to
incorrect interpretation of test scores.

4. The technique of evaluation must be appropriate for the characteristics or

performance to be measured
Every evaluation technique is appropriate for some uses and inap-
propriate for another. Therefore, while selecting an evaluation technique, one
must be well aware of the strength and limitations of the techniques.

5. Evaluation is a means to an end but not an end in itself.

 The evaluation technique is used to take decisions about the learner. It is
not merely gathering data about the learner. Because blind collection of data is
wastage of both time and effort. But the evaluation is meant for some useful
purpose.
Functions of Evaluation

The main aim of teaching learning process is to enable the pupil to

achieve intended learning outcomes. In this process the learning objectives are
fixed then after the instruction learning progress is periodically evaluated by tests
and other evaluation devices.

1. Evaluation helps in preparing instructional objectives

Learning outcomes expected from class-room discussion can be fixed by
using evaluation results.

2. Evaluation process helps in assessing the learner’s needs

In the teaching learning process, it is very much necessary to know the
needs of the learners. The instructor must know the knowledge and skills to be
mastered by the students. Evaluation helps to know whether the students possess
required knowledge and skills to proceed with the instruction.

3. Evaluation help in providing feed back to the students

An evaluation process helps the teacher to know the learning difficulties
of the students. It helps to bring about an improvement in different school
practices. It also ensures an appropriate follow-up service.

4. Evaluation helps in preparing programmed materials

Programmed instruction is a continuous series of learning sequences.
First the instructional material is presented in a limited amount then a test is
given to response the instructional material. Next feedback is provided on the
basis of correctness of response made. So that without an effective evaluation
process the programmed learning is not possible.

5. Evaluation helps in curriculum development

Curriculum development is an important aspect of the instructional
process. Evaluation data enable the curriculum development, to determine the
effectiveness of new procedures, identify areas where revision is needed.
Evaluation also helps to determine the degree to what extent an existing
curriculum is effective. Thus, evaluation data are helpful in constructing the new
curriculum and evaluating the existing curriculum.

6. Evaluation helps in reporting pupil’s progress to parents

A systematic evaluation procedure provides an objective and
comprehensive picture of each pupil’s progress. This comprehensive nature of
the evaluation process helps the teacher to report on the total development of the
pupil to the parents. This type of objective information about the pupil provides
the foundation for the most effective co-operation between the parents and
teachers.

7. Evaluation data are very much useful in guidance and counselling

 Evaluation procedures are very much necessary for educational,
vocational and personal guidance. In order to assist the pupils to solve their
problems in the educational, vocational and personal fields the counsellor must
have an objective knowledge of the student’s abilities, interests, attitudes and
other personal characteristics. An effective evaluation procedure helps in getting
a comprehensive picture of the pupil which leads to effective guidance and of
counselling.

8. Evaluation helps in effective school administration

Evaluation data helps the administrators to judge the extent to which the
objectives of the school are being achieved, to find out strengths and weaknesses
of the curriculum and arranging special school programs. It also helps in
decisions concerning admission, grouping and promotion of the students.

9. Evaluation data are helpful in school research

In order to make the school program more effective, researches are
necessary. Evaluation data help in research areas like comparative study of
different curricula, effectiveness of different methods, effectiveness of different
organizational plans, etc.

Most Influential Theories in Learning

1. Behaviorism.

 The basic idea of behaviorism is that learning consists of a change in

behavior due to the acquisition, reinforcement and application of
associations between stimuli from the environment and observable
responses of the individual.
 Behaviorists are interested in measurable changes in behavior.
Thorndike, one major behaviorist theorist, put forward that (1) a
response to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive
rewarding effect, and (2) a response to a stimulus becomes stronger
by exercise and repetition.
 This view of learning is akin to the “drill-and-practice” programmes.
Skinner, another influential behaviorist, proposed his variant of
behaviorism called “operant conditioning”. In his view, rewarding
the right parts of the more complex behavior reinforces it, and
encourages its recurrence. Therefore, reinforcers control the
occurrence of the desired partial behaviors.
 Learning is understood as the step-by-step or successive
approximation of the intended partial behaviors through the use of
reward and punishment.
 The best-known application of Skinner’s theory is “programmed
instruction” whereby the right sequence of the partial behaviors to be
learned is specified by elaborated task analysis.

2. Constructivism
 Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the
idea that learners are not passive recipients of information, but that
 they actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the
environment and through the reorganization of their mental
structures.
 Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording
given information but interpreting it.
 This view of learning led to the shift from the “knowledge-
acquisition” to “knowledge-construction” metaphor.
 The growing evidence in support of the constructive nature of
learning was also in line with and backed by the earlier work of
influential theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner.
 While there are different versions of constructivism, what is found in
common is the learner-centered approach whereby the teacher
becomes a cognitive guide of learner’s learning and not a knowledge
transmitter.

3. Cognitive psychology
 was initiated in the late 1950s, and contributed to the move away from
behaviorism.
 People are no longer viewed as collections of responses to external
stimuli, as understood by behaviorists, but information processors.
 Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental phenomena,
ignored by behaviorists, and was influenced by the emergence of the
computer as an information-processing device, which became analogous
to the human mind.
 In cognitive psychology, learning is understood as the acquisition of
knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs
information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in
memory.
 Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are lecturing and reading
textbooks; and, at its most extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of
knowledge by the teacher.

4. Social learning theory

 A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert
Bandura, who works within both cognitive and behavioral
frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation.
 His theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social
context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as
modeling, observational learning and imitation.
 Bandura put forward “reciprocal determinism” that holds the view
that a person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all
reciprocally influence each other.
 He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from
“model” behavior, which are processes involving attention, retention,
reproduction and motivation.
 The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well
documented.

5. Experiential learning
  Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist
theories of learning, but situate experience at the core of the learning
process.
 They aim to understand the manners in which experiences – whether
first or second hand – motivate learners and promote their learning.
 Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences – in everyday
life – that lead to a change in an individual’s knowledge and
behaviors.
 Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting
that experiential learning is “self-initiated learning” as people have a
natural inclination to learn; and that they learn when they are fully
involved in the learning process.
 Rogers put forward the following insight: (1) “learning can only be
facilitated: we cannot teach another person directly”, (2) “learners
become more rigid under threat”, (3) “significant learning occurs in
an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a
minimum”, (4) “learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is
self-initiated” (Office of Learning and Teaching, 2005, p. 9). He
supports a dynamic, continuous process of change where new
learning results in and affects learning environments. This dynamic
process of change is often considered in literatures on organizational
learning.

6. Multiple intelligences
 Challenging the assumption in many of the learning theories that
learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience
according to the same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his
theory of ‘multiple intelligences’ in 1983.
 His theory also challenges the understanding of intelligence as
dominated by a single general ability.
 Gardner argues that every person’s level of intelligence actually
consists of many distinct “intelligences”.
 These intelligences include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic,
(3) spatial, (4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and
(7) intrapersonal.
 Although his work is speculative, his theory is appreciated by
teachers in broadening their conceptual framework beyond the
traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and testing.
 The recognition of multiple intelligences, for Gardner, is a means to
achieving educational goals rather than an educational goal in and of
itself.

7. Situated learning theory and community of practice

 “Situated learning theory” and “community of practice” draw many
of the ideas of the learning theories considered above.
 They are developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated
learning theory recognizes that there is no learning which is not
situated, and emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of
knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning
activity for the individuals involved.
  According to the theory, it is within communities that learning
occurs most effectively.
 Interactions taking place within a community of practice – e.g.
cooperation, problem solving, building trust, understanding and
relations – have the potential to foster community social capital that
enhances the community members’ wellbeing.
 Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most
effective when it takes place in communities. He argues that
academic and social outcomes will improve only when classrooms
become learning communities, and teaching becomes learner-
centered.
 Communities of practice are of course not confined to schools but
cover other settings such as workplace and organizations.

8. 21st century learning or skills

 Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has emerged from the
concern about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning
to meet the new demands of the 21st century, which is characterized
as knowledge- and technologically driven.
 The current discussion about 21st century skills lead classrooms and
other learning environments to encourage the development of core
subject knowledge as well as new media literacies, critical and
systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills.
 For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines
the following as key: core subjects (e.g. English, math, geography,
history, civics) and 21st century themes (global awareness, civic
literacy, health literacy, environmental literacy, financial, business
and entrepreneurial literacy); learning and innovation skills
(creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving,
communication and collaboration); information, media and
technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media literacy); and life and
career skills (flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction,
social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability,
leadership and responsibility).
 One main learning method that supports the learning of such skills
and knowledge is group learning or thematic projects, which
involves an inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses real-
world issues and questions

B.4. Types and distinctions of test

B.4.1. Intelligence Test
 Test which measures the intelligence quotient (IQ) of an individual as
genius, very superior, high average, average, low average, borderline or
mentally defective
B.4.2. Personality Test
  This test measures the ways in which the individual’s interest with other
individuals or items of the roles an individual has assigned to himself and
how he adopts in the society

B.4.3. Aptitude Test

 This kind of test is a predictive measure of a person’s likelihood of

benefits from instruction or experience in a given field such as the arts,
music, clerical work, mechanical tasks, or academic studies

B.4.4. Prognostic Test

 This kind forecasts how well a person may do in a certain school subject
or work.

B.4.5. Performance Test

 It is a measure which often makes use of accomplishing the learning task

involving minimum accomplishment or none at all.

B.4.6. Diagnostic Test

 This test identifies the weaknesses of an individual’s achievement in any

field which serves as basis for remedial instruction. Ex. Iowa Silent
Reading Test

B.4.7. Achievement Test

 This test measures how much the students attain the learning tasks

B.4.8. Preference Test

 This test measures of vocational or academic interest of an individual or

aesthetic decision by forcing the examinee to make force options
between members of paired or group items.

B.4.9. Scale Test

 This test is a series of items arranged in the order of difficulty

B.4.10. Speed Test

 This test measures the speed and accuracy of the examinee within the
time imposed. It is also called the alertness test. It consists of items of
uniform difficulty

B.4.11. Power Test

  This test is made up of series of items arranged from easiest to the most
difficulty

B.4.12. Standardized Test

 This test provides exact procedures in controlling the method of

administration and scoring with norms and data concerning the reliability
and validity of the test.

B.4.13. Teacher-made Test

 This test is prepared by classroom teachers based on the contents stated

in the syllabi and the lessons taken by the students

B.4.14. Placement Test

 This test is used to measure the job an applicant should fill in the school
setting and the grade or year level the student/s should be enrolled after
quitting from school
B. High Quality Assessment Components

Key 1: Clear Purpose Key 2: Clear Targets

Who will use the information? Are learning targets clear to the
How will they use it? teacher?
What information, in what detail What kind of achievement are to
is required? be assessed?
Are these learning targets the
focus of instruction

Key 3: Sound Design

Do assessment methods match the learning targets?
Does the sample represent learning appropriately?
Are items, tasks, and scoring rubrics of high quality
Does the assessment control of bias?

Key 4: Effective Communication

Can assessment results be used to guide instruction?
Do formative assessment functions as effective feedback?
Is achievement tracked by learning target and reported by
standard?
Do grades communicate achievement accurately?
 Key 5: Student Involvement
Do assessment practices meet students’ information need?
Are learning targets clear to students?
Will the assessment yield information that students can
use to self-assess and set goals?
Are students tracking and communicating their evolving
learning?

C. Recent trends and focus

D.1. Accountability and Fairness

 Accountability means the quality or state of being accountable; an obligation or

willingness to accept responsibility for one’s action – Meriam Dictionary
 Accountability in assessment means informing parents and the public how well a school
is educating its students and about the quality of the social and learning environment
 Fairness refers to the consideration of learner’s needs and characteristics, and any
reasonable adjustments that need to be applied to take account of them. It is important to
ensure that the learner is informed about, understands and is able to participate in the
assessment process, and agrees that the process is appropriate. It also includes an
opportunity for the person being assessed to challenge the result of the assessment and to
be reassessed if necessary. Ideally an assessment should not discriminate between
learners except on grounds of the ability being assessed.

D.2. Standards-based education

 Standards-based education is a system of teaching and learning that focuses all

elements of the educational experience, including teaching, assessment, grading, and
reporting on standards that span all throughout a student's schooling.
 Standards-based education uses a comprehensive set of standards spanning across grade
levels to guide instruction and determine where students are as they move through their
education. We most commonly see standards-based education in the form of state
learning standards and measures.
 Standards-based education is a style of education that measures students’ proficiency
based on a set of standards to determine mastery. The standards are developed by the
state or determined by a national curriculum
 Standards-based education is important as the process helps teachers design and deliver
specific content that students need to know before they leave K-12 public schools. By
teaching through the standards, all students will have equitable core foundational skills

D.3. Outcomes-based education

  Outcome-based education (OBE) is education in which an emphasis is placed on a clearly
articulated idea of what students are expected to know and be able to do, that is, what
skills and knowledge they need to have, when they leave the school system.
 It is sometimes also called performance-based education and is an attempt to measure
educational effectiveness based on results rather than on inputs such as time students
spend in class.
 The student learning outcomes constitute the criteria by which curriculum is developed or
redesigned, instructional materials are selected, teaching methods are adopted, and
evaluation is conducted.

D.4. Item Response Theory

 Item response theory (IRT) (also known as latent trait theory, strong true score
theory, or modern mental test theory) is a paradigm for the design, analysis, and
scoring of tests, questionnaires, and similar instruments measuring abilities, attitudes, or
other variables.
 It is a theory of testing based on the relationship between individuals' performances on a
test item and the test takers' levels of performance on an overall measure of the ability
that item was designed to measure. Several different statistical models are used to
represent both item and test taker characteristics

 Item response Theory(IRT) is a way to analyze responses to tests or questionnaires with

the goal of improving measurement accuracy and reliability