Course objectives

"Downhole oil and gas production" (Production Engineering) is a single field of science for the
analysis of technological processes of oil extraction and gas, management methods and making optimal
decisions for them. The main goal set for the process of teaching this discipline is to study methods for
researching oil and gas wells, methods for selecting optimal technological modes of wells for extracting
oil and gas from a field, selecting and applying operating methods, methods for increasing the
productivity of oil and gas wells, rules for carrying out repairs of wells.

Lecture 1. Introduction

Petroleum production involves two distinct but intimately connected general systems: the
reservoir, which is a porous medium with unique storage and flow characteristics; and the artificial
structures, which include the well, bottomhole, and wellhead assemblies, and the surface gathering,
separation, and storage facilities.
"Production engineering is that part of petroleum engineering which attempts to maximize
production (or injection) in a cost-effective manner. One or more wells may be involved. Appropriate
production engineering technologies and methods of application are related directly and interdependently
with other major areas of petroleum engineering, such as formation evaluation, drilling, and reservoir
engineering. Some of the most important connections are summarized below.
Modern formation evaluation provides a composite reservoir description through three-
dimensional (3-D) seismic, interwell log correlation, and well testing. This description leads to the
identification of geological flow units, each with specific characteristics. Connected flow units form a
reservoir.
Drilling creates the all-important well, and with the advent of directional drilling technology it is
possible to envision many controllable well configurations, including very long horizontal sections or
multiple horizontal completions, targeting individual flow units. Control of drilling-induced, near-
wellbore damage is critical, especially in long horizontal wells.
Reservoir engineering in its widest sense overlaps production engineering to a great degree. The
distinction is frequently blurred both in the context of study (single versus multiple well) and in the time
duration of interest (long versus short term). Single well performance, undeniably the object of
production engineering, may serve as a boundary condition in a field-wide, long-term, reservoir
engineering study. Conversely, findings from material balance calculations or reservoir simulation further
define and refine the forecasts of well performance and allow for more appropriate production
engineering decisions.
In developing a petroleum production engineering thinking process, it is first necessary to
understand important parameters that control the performance and the character of the system.

Lecture 2. Well design. Well completion, typical bottomhole design. Work-in-progress well
design.
The completion phase of a well development is a term generally used for a well that is prepared
for production after drilling is completed. It follows therefore that during the exploration, appraisal and
development testing of wells, a temporary completion (often referred to as a Drill Stem Test String) is
used as the well is temporarily produced to gain valuable reservoir data for the future development of the
field.
There are many different completion types and methods. The technique, like all others within the
industry, is continually evolving especially with the onset of new drilling methodology such as horizontal
wells and multi-lateral well development.
The completion components will differ depending upon whether the well is eruptive or
noneruptive.
Non-eruptive wells require “artificial lift” methods to give the extra energy required to drive the
effluent to surface. These methods include the familiar “nodding donkey pump” or sucker-rod pump
usually associated with on-land low producing wells, gas lift or electrical submerged pumps for the higher
rate wells.
 Eruptive wells have sufficient bottom hole pressure to provide the energy required to transmit the
effluent to surface. It is also possible for wells which were initially eruptive to become non-eruptive as
the well depletes and this must also be taken into account by the completion design engineer.
Apart from the specialised equipment associated with the artificial lift technique chosen, there are
still many components common to both systems. We will categorise these components into the following
basic groups;
· Production Tubulars
· Packers
· Flow Control
· Subsurface Safety Systems
· Ancillary Components.
 Completion Techniques. Communication between the formation and the wellbore will directly
affect the productivity of the well. Factors such as hydrocarbon saturation, porosity, permeability, fluid
properties and geometry can be measured or inferred from the measurements but they cannot usually be
controlled. By contrast, completion can be controlled and thus affect well performance. During the
drilling, logging and testing phase of the well, valuable information will have been gained and the
relevant completion technique chosen. There are two main categories of completions to consider with, of
course, many variations;
·Open hole Completions.
·Cased Hole Completions.
Openhole Completions
An openhole completion is when the well is drilled to the top of the target formation and the
casing is cemented at this stage. Drilling is continued across the target formation and then the well is
completed and produced. Openhole completions are only possible in “competent” rocks that will hold
their form and not cave in or crumble – so called hard rock environments. This technique is generally
associated with older, cheaper methods of drilling and completing wells and today would only be used in
very low profile applications, if at all. Variations on the straight forward open hole completion include
gravel packing with slotted liners used to contain the pack. Whereas this technique offers the least
restriction to flow from formation to wellbore and as mentioned is an economical completion, it has many
apparent disadvantages;
· No possibility for selectively producing or treating different zones.
· Limited control of water or gas encroachment.
These two factors alone can play a significant part in the future management of the well, and this
coupled with safety issues has lead the industry down the road of cased hole and perforated completions.
 Examples of Different Perforating Techniques

Lecture 3. Selection of the immersion depth and diameters of the lifting lift pipes. Well
development, flow creation and flow equations.

3.1 Hydrodynamic indicators of the well.

The process of product flow in a porous medium is accompanied by certain filtration resistances,
which are unknown.
In the bottomhole zone of the well, additional filtration resistances arise, associated, firstly, with
the presence of the well itself and, secondly, with its specific execution.
To compare wells with each other and evaluate each specific well, the concepts of a
hydrodynamically perfect well and hydrodynamically imperfect wells are introduced.
On fig. 3.1 shows diagrams of hydrodynamically perfect and hydrodynamically imperfect wells.
By hydrodynamically perfect, we mean a well that has opened a productive horizon for its entire
thickness h and in which there are no fastening elements (casing, cement stone, etc.), i.e. open-hole well
(Fig. 3.1, a).
When production flows into such a well, filtration resistances are determined only by the
characteristics of the productive horizon and are the minimum possible.
Most real wells are hydrodynamically imperfect.
Among the hydrodynamically imperfect wells, there are:
1. Imperfect according to the degree of opening - (Fig. 3.1, b);
2. Imperfect by the nature of the opening - (Fig. 3.1, c);
3. Imperfect according to the degree and nature of the opening - (Fig. 3.1, d).
 For such wells, additional filtration resistances appear in the bottomhole zone, determined by the
type of imperfection.

Figure 3.1 Schemes of hydrodynamically perfect (a) and hydrodynamically imperfect wells: b - according
to the degree of penetration; c - by nature opening; d - according to the degree and nature of the opening.
1 - casing string; 2 - cement stone; 3 - perforation hole; 4 - perforation channel

The coefficient of hydrodynamic perfection of the well φ is the ratio of the flow rate of an
imperfect well Qimp to the flow rate of a perfect well Qwf:

The expression makes it possible to evaluate the contribution of each type of hydrodynamic
imperfection of wells to the reduction in the flow rate of a perfect well.
So, for a well that is imperfect in terms of penetration degree (С2 = 0, and radius of the filtration
resistance rfr = rwf), the coefficient of hydrodynamic perfection φ imperfection will be:

For a well that is imperfect by the nature of opening (С1 = 0, δ = 1), the coefficient of
hydrodynamic perfection φ imperfection will be:

Note that dependences characterize how the flow rate of a perfect well is affected only by a
change in the geometry of the production flow, and do not take into account any physical phenomena that
occur both in time after the initial opening (before the inflow and development), and during the flow of
production in the cases under consideration.
Accounting for the hydrodynamic imperfection of the well can be done in another way. Let us
introduce the concept of the reduced well radius rred.
 The reduced well radius is the radius of such a fictitious perfect well Q fp, the flow rate of which is equal
to the flow rate of a real imperfect well Qimp real.

Equating the right sides of expressions . From this expression or

Thus, the reduced well radius relates the real well radius to the coefficient of hydrodynamic
imperfection C.
The numerical value of the reduced well radius can be determined from the results of well testing
in a non-stationary mode, which will be discussed below.
Currently, the hydrodynamic perfection of wells is calculated based on the results of experimental
determination of the reduced radius rred, which significantly increases the accuracy, because there is no
need to determine the coefficients C 1 and C2 according to special charts with possibly unreliable
information.

Lecture 4. Theoretical foundations of lifting a gas-liquid mixture.

Calculation of the fountain lift

Flow rates of fountain wells vary widely both in terms of the amount of liquid and the amount of
associated gas. On the one hand, fountain wells are known, producing more than 1000 m 3/day of oil. On
the other hand, there are fountain wells with a flow rate is about 5 m3/day.
To ensure flowing, all wells are equipped with flow pipes (tubing), which are lowered into the
well, usually before the bottom hole, and with the help of which flow wells are developed and cause
inflow into them.
The most common (about 85%) are pipes with a diameter of 73 mm. Only for fountain wells
with a flow rate of several hundred cubic meters per day, 89 mm pipes are used.
The choice of diameter of flow pipes is determined both by the flow rate of the well and by the
convenience and technical conditions of normal operation. From time to time, it is necessary to lower
various instruments for research, such as borehole thermometers, pressure gauges and flow meters into
the wells. There is a need to run samplers to take fluid samples from the bottom of the well. All these
devices have an external diameter of about 40 mm, and for their free descent to the bottomhole, without
stopping the operation of the well, it is necessary to have an internal diameter of pipes of at least 73 mm.
Finally, the widespread use of 73-mm pipes is also due to the fact that the operation of fountain
wells, as a rule, is accompanied by the deposition of paraffin on the inner walls of the pipes, to remove
which often mechanical scrapers are used, lowered on a steel wire into the fountain pipes through a
lubricator.
Any fountain lift works at one or another relative immersion

Usually, these values lie in the range of 0.3 - 0.65. For the condition 0.3 < ε <0.65, the efficiency
of the lift during its operation in the optimal (qopt) and maximum (qmax) modes differ little from each other.
Therefore, one should strive to ensure that the fountain lift operates in an intermediate mode
between qopt and qmax.
Work near the point qmax is most stable.
Operation near the point q opt is characterized by some instability, which manifests itself in the
pulsation of the operation of the fountain lift.
 This is explained by the fact that small random changes in gas flow correspond to significant
changes in flow rate (dq/dV > 0).
This served as the basis for A.P. Krylov to recommend for practical use simple formulas for
determining the supply of a gas-liquid lift for these two main modes of operation:

Since A.P. Krylov found that q opt /qmax and (1- ε) relationship, then the supply in the mode of the
highest efficiency will be

If Pshoe > Psat, then in formulas it is necessary to substitute the saturation pressure P sat instead of
Pshoe, and instead of L the distance L sat from the mouth to the point where the pressure is P sat. Formulas can
be solved with respect to the diameter d.
Consequently,

and
According to these formulas, the diameter of the fountain pipes is determined, which is necessary
to ensure in one case the maximum flow , and in the other - the optimal one under other given conditions.
Note that formulas do not determine the flow rate of a flowing well, but only the flow capacity of
flow pipes under given conditions.
For proper coordination of the work of the fountain lift with the work of the formation, it is
necessary that the influx of fluid from the formation into the well, which is determined by the inflow
formula, would be equal to the throughput of the fountain lift at the same pressure at the bottomhole P wf
or pressure at the shoe Pshoe.
The calculation of the fountain lift using the above formulas is reduced to determining the
maximum and optimal feeds for the designed well.
The planned well flow rate qplanned, determined by the inflow formula, should lie between q max and
qopt.
This guarantees high efficiency of the gas-liquid lift and its stable operation.
This approach to the calculation optimizes the operation of the fountain lift for current
conditions, but does not take into account possible changes in the flowing conditions over time.
Typically, flowing conditions worsen over time:
- Water flow increases
- Formation pressure drops,
- Effective GOR decreases,
- The productivity factor also decreases.
Therefore, when planning the fountain operation, it is recommended to calculate the fountain lifts
according to the maximum flow for the initial conditions and according to the optimal one - for the
conditions of the end of the fountain period.
It is quite obvious that an increase in bottomhole pressure Pc reduces the inflow of fluid from
the formation. On the other hand, the same increase in P wf (or Pshoe) increases the supply of the fountain
lift.
Therefore, if the capacity of the fountain lifts is less than the inflow, excess fluid will
accumulate in the well.
The steady operation of this reservoir-well system occurs when the inflow is equal to the
withdrawal.
This steady operation of the reservoir-well system will correspond to some pressure at the
bottomhole Рwf, which can be found from the condition of equality of the inflow and supply of the
fountain lift.

Then lift capacity

 Equality is satisfied for a certain value of Pb, since the remaining quantities are specified.
The left side of equality decreases non-linearly with increasing Pb.
The right side increases in a parabola to the power of 1.5. The intersection of these two curves
gives a value of P6 for which equality is satisfied.
The solution of equality is obtained either by selecting Pb, or by graphical analysis (Fig. 8.1).
Found in this way, the flow rate corresponding to the joint work of the formation and the fountain
lift corresponds to the work of the fountain lift in the maximum flow mode.
It’s possible find the flow rate of the lift in the optimal feed mode.

From equality, by selecting or finding the point of intersection of two curves corresponding to the
left and right sides of the equation, first the pressure Pshoe is determined, and then, according to the inflow
formula, the corresponding well flow rate that satisfies the condition of joint operation of the reservoir
and the fountain lift in the optimal performance mode.

Figure 8.1. Graph-analytical determination of the conditions for the joint operation of the reservoir and
the gas-liquid lift:
1 - the dependence of the supply of the lift on the pressure at the shoe Pshoe in the maximum
performance mode; 2 - dependence of inflow on pressure Рshoe; 3 - dependence of the lift feed on Rshoe
in the optimal performance mode

On figure 8.1 shows the determination of bottomhole pressures Рwf and the corresponding flow
rates in the case of coordinated operation of the reservoir and the fountain lift at the maximum and
optimal performance modes by graphic-analytical solution of the equations.
Shown in fig. 8.1 graphs are built for the following initial data: Рres = 170 105 Pa; Ru = 5 105 Pa;
Rshoe = Rwf; L = H = 2000 m; ρ = 900 kg/m3; d = 0.0503 m (5.03 cm); K = 3.588 10-5 m3 / Pa s; n=0.92;
On the abscissa axis of the graph, the pressure at the bottomhole Pwf, or Pshoe, is plotted, since L
= H (shoe at the bottomhole).
The maximum qmax, optimal supply qopt and fluid inflow from the reservoir q pl are plotted on the
y-axis.
As can be seen from the figure, the work of the reservoir and the lifter is coordinated at a bottom
hole pressure Рwf = 8.55 MPa (the intersection of lines 1 and 2) at the maximum flow rate, while the well
flow rate qmax = 212 10-5 m3/s (183, 2 m3/day) and at bottomhole pressure Рwf = 12.1 MPa (crossing of
lines 2 and 3) in the optimal supply mode at a flow rate qopt = 130 10-5 m3/s (112.3 m3/day).
For any family of q(V) curves constructed for a given pipe diameter, qmax and qopt can be found
and their dependence on the change in relative immersion ε can be traced. As ε increases, the qmax values
also increase according to a curvilinear law. As for qopt, the latter, firstly, always remain less than the
corresponding qmax and, secondly, first increase with increasing ε, and then, at 0.5 < ε < 1, they begin to
decrease. In particular, for ε = 1 the curve q(V) leaves the origin. Therefore, the tangent drawn from the
origin will have a point of contact with the curve q(V) at the origin.
 Figure 8.2. Dependence of optimal qopt and maximum qmax feed on relative loading ε
This means that qopt = 0 for q(V) at ε = 1. Thus, the qopt values must first increase, then decrease,
and vanish at ε = 1. The largest value of qopt is achieved at ε = 0.5 - 0.6 (Fig. 8.2). This is confirmed by
numerous experiments of various researchers. From this we can draw an important conclusion for
practice: in order to achieve the greatest efficiency of the gas-liquid lift, it is necessary to immerse the
lifting pipe under the liquid level by 50–60% (ε = 0.5–0.6) of the entire length of the pipe L.
However, this recommendation cannot always be fulfilled in real conditions due to the low dynamic
level or due to the limited pressure of the gas used for this purpose.

Complications in the operation of flowing wells and their prevention

The operating conditions of various fields and individual productive strata within the same field
can vary greatly from each other. In accordance with this, complications in the operation of flowing wells
can also be varied.
We single out the most typical and frequent or most dangerous complications in terms of their
consequences, which include the following:
a) open uncontrolled flowing as a result of violations of the tightness of wellhead fittings;
b) the formation of asphalt-resinous and paraffin deposits on the inner walls of the tubing and in
the flow lines;
c) pulsation during flowing, which can lead to premature shutdown of the well;
d) the formation of sand plugs at the bottomhole and in the tubing itself during the operation of
unstable formations prone to sanding;
e) salt deposits at the bottom of the well and inside the tubing.

Lecture 5. Joint survey of reservoirs and production wells. Steady and unsteady research modes.

5. 1 Methods and objectives of well testing, hydrodynamic study of a well formation

The main purpose of studying deposits and wells is to obtain information about them for
calculating oil and gas reserves, designing, analyzing, regulating the development of deposits and
operating wells. The study begins immediately after the discovery of deposits and continues throughout
the entire "life" of the field, i.e., it is carried out in the process of drilling and operating wells that provide
direct access to the deposit.
Research can be divided into primary, current and special.
Primary studies are carried out at the stage of exploration and pilot operation of the deposit. Their
task is to obtain the initial data necessary for calculating the reserves and designing the development.
Ongoing research is in progress. Their task is to obtain information to refine the parameters of the
reservoir, make decisions on the regulation of the development process, design and optimize the
technological modes of well operation, etc.
Special studies are caused by the specific conditions of reservoir development and well operation
(introduction of in-situ combustion, etc.).
Allocate direct and indirect research methods.
 Direct measurements include direct measurements of pressure, temperature, laboratory methods
for determining reservoir parameters and fluids from core and fluid samples taken from a well. Most of
the parameters of deposits and wells cannot be directly measured.These parameters are determined
indirectly by recalculation according to the ratios connecting them with other, directly measured side
parameters.
Indirect methods of research on the physical phenomenon that underlies them are divided into:
1) field geophysical,
2) debit and flow meters,
3) thermodynamic
4) hydrodynamic.
Hydrodynamic methods of studying wells and reservoirs based on data on the values of flow rates
of liquids and gas, on pressures at bottomholes or on changes in these indicators, as well as on reservoir
temperature over time, make it possible to determine the parameters of reservoirs and wells.
Determination of reservoir parameters according to the data of these studies refers to the so-called inverse
problems of hydrodynamics, in solving which, according to the measured values in wells (flow rates,
pressure, and temperature), the parameters of reservoirs and wells (permeability, porosity,
piezoconductivity of the reservoir, imperfection of wells, etc.) are established.
The purpose of hydrodynamic studies at the stage of industrial exploration of deposits is to obtain
the fullest possible information about the structure and properties of the reservoirs, which is necessary for
calculating reserves and drawing up a development project.
At the stages of trial operation and industrial development of the field, the tasks of hydrodynamic
studies are:
1) Clarification of data on the hydrodynamic properties of the object being developed, necessary
for further design;
2) Obtaining information about the dynamics of the development process, necessary for its
regulation;
3) Determination of the technological efficiency of measures aimed at intensifying oil production
(treatment of bottomhole zones of wells, hydraulic fracturing, etc.).
At the same time, having additional data obtained from the results of laboratory and geophysical
studies on the viscosity of the fluid and the thickness of the formation, it is possible to accurately
determine the average permeability of the formation in the area of the investigated well or in the area
between two wells.

5.2 Hydrodynamic parameters of reservoirs and wells

To solve many practical problems associated with the design and development of fields, as well as
with the establishment of operating modes for individual wells, it is necessary to determine the
parameters characterizing the hydrodynamic properties of wells and reservoirs:
1) well productivity - K,
2) reservoir hydraulic conductivity - ε ,
3) fluid mobility in the reservoir - k/μ ,
4) reservoir permeability coefficient - k
5) formation piezoconductivity coefficient -χ,
6) coefficient of hydrodynamic perfection of the well - φ.

1) the production well productivity factor (Κ) - the ratio of its production rate Q to the difference
between reservoir and bottomhole pressures corresponding to this production rate - shows how much the
well production rate can change when the drawdown per reservoir changes by one.

From the Dupuis formula, the productivity factor can be defined as:
 2) formation hydraulic conductivity coefficient (ε)
kh
ε=
μ
K and ε are related.

3) fluid mobility in the reservoir k/μ

The determination of this parameter is necessary in the case of studying the inflow to wells of oils
with structural and mechanical properties (anomalously and super-anomalously viscous oils).
4) reservoir permeability coefficient (k) - the most important hydrodynamic characteristic of a
porous medium - characterizes the total cross-sectional area of the pore channels through which the
filtration process takes place, on a unit filtration area.
5) coefficient of piezoconductivity of the formation (χ) characterizes the ability of the formation to
transmit disturbances (pressure changes) caused by a change in the operating mode, and also characterizes
the rate of pressure redistribution in the formation under elastic conditions. For a homogeneous layer:

6) the hydrodynamic perfection of the well is characterized by:

a) the reduced radius of the well
The reduced well radius is the radius of such an imaginary well, which, under similar conditions,
gives the same flow rate as a real well.
Rred=rwf е-с, where с=с1+с2

b) coefficient of perfection

5.3 Conditions for the use of hydrodynamic studies of wells and reservoirs
At present, the following hydrodynamic methods for studying wells and reservoirs have been
developed and implemented by industry to varying degrees:
1. Study of wells under steady-state operating conditions.
2. Research of wells in unsteady operating modes.

5.3.1 Well testing under steady state conditions (the so-called test pumping method or inflow
study);
The method has been used since 1930.
Research features - the well flow rate (fluid filtration in the reservoir) is determined by the
pressure drop (drawdown on the reservoir), which occurs between the pressure at the supply circuit (Pres)
and at the bottom of the well (Pwb). The distribution of pressure in the reservoir from the well to the
supply circuit has the form of a logarithmic dependence (Fig.1). The rotation of this line around the axis
of the well forms a depression funnel.
The concept of "steady-state conditions" provides for the practical invariance of well performance
for several days.
It consists in a sequential change in the operating mode of the well and measurement of Q and
the corresponding Рwf at each steady state.
Purpose: to determine the dependence of fluid inflow on the bottomhole pressure or the position
of the dynamic level [Q(Pwf)] - indicator diagram (ID), (without this dependence it is impossible to
determine reasonable well flow rates and technical means for lifting fluid), as well as ε, k.
 Figure.1 Graph of pressure distribution across the reservoir from the well to the feed contour

From Fig. 1 it can be seen that the main pressure drop (80%-95%) is spent on overcoming friction
forces at a distance of up to 10-20 m from the well.
Thus, by conducting studies in steady-state conditions, we will determine the reservoir parameters
in the bottomhole zone of the well (BHZ).
This type of well survey is based on three assumptions:
1st assumption - the well can be surrounded by a coaxial cylindrical surface of a certain radius Rk,
on which a constant pressure Pres is maintained during the study period.
For an oil reservoir, a circle with an average radius equal to half the distance to neighboring
wells is usually taken as the well feed contour.
Assumption 2 - disturbances produced in the well are not transmitted outside this zone.
Assumption 3 - the well operation mode is considered to be steady if the flow rate and bottomhole
pressure practically do not change over time.
The transition time from one mode to another mode is called the stabilization period.
Ceteris paribus, Tstab is less when filtering a single-phase liquid in the reservoir and more when
filtering a carbonated liquid.
The sequence of research:
1. Several modes of well operation are set (usually at least 4 modes - to build an indicator
diagram and qualitatively interpret the graph).
As a rule, this is achieved by a forced change in the well flow rate, and for each flow rate, Pwf is
determined.
For gas wells, this is the installation of fittings of various diameters at the wellhead.
For oil wells:
a) installation of fittings at the wellhead in the flow line for the flow and artesian operation.
b) change of the mode of operation in the mechanized mode of operation.
At most fields developed at Pres > Psat, wells are operated in each mode from 1 to 5 days. Flow
rate and pressure are measured at the end of the settling period. After that, the well is transferred to a new
mode.
The mode of operation of injection wells is changed with the help of control devices at the
pumping station, and the bottomhole pressure is determined by a pressure gauge installed at the wellhead.
2. The following parameter values are measured:
a) oil (gas) flow rate;
b) reservoir pressure;
c) bottomhole pressure;
d) the amount of sand removed;
e) the amount of water carried out;
f) GOR of well production.
 Depending on the specific conditions, the measurement program can be shortened. So, if for all
operating modes Рwf>Psat, then the GOR can be determined only in one cycle mode or use the data of
previous studies.
In cases where there is complete confidence that the indicator diagram for the well should be
straight-line (homogeneous reservoir, single-phase filtration, laminar filtration), it is enough to limit the
change in flow rate to only one mode.
3. Based on the results of the research, plots of well flow rate (Q) versus bottomhole pressure Рwf
or drawdown (Рres - Рwf), called indicator diagrams (ID), are built.
Indicator diagrams (ID) of production wells are located below the abscissa axis, and water
injection wells - above this axis.
Indicator diagrams Q = f(Рwf) are built in those cases when wells are operated at relatively large
drawdowns (more than 0.5 ... 1.0 MPa). In this case, measurement errors usually do not lead to a large
scatter of points when constructing ID in the coordinates Q = f(Рwf) .
At low depressions (of the order of 0.2 ... 0.3 MPa), the scatter of points can be so large that the
indicator diagram in the coordinates
Q = f(Pwf) cannot be constructed.
In these cases, in each mode, both Рwf and Рres should be measured, and the indicator diagram
should be built in the coordinates Q = f(∆P).
The depression determined in each mode has a smaller relative error than Рwf, because when
measuring for one descent of the device, the absolute errors Рr and Рwf are approximately the same and
therefore they almost do not affect the difference ∆P =Рr-Рwf.

Figure 2. Indicator diagram Q=f(Рwf)

It is believed that the pressure at the bottom after some time after the well is stopped becomes
approximately equal to the average reservoir pressure established on a circular contour with a radius equal
to half the average distance between the well under study and its adjacent, surrounding ones.
The indicator diagram Q=f(Рwf) is designed to assess the formation pressure, which can be
determined by continuing the indicator line until it intersects with the Y-axis (Fig. 2).

Figure 3. Indicator diagram Q = f(∆P)

 The above formulas are valid for the case of studying a hydrodynamically perfect well (which has
penetrated the reservoir to its entire thickness and has open bottomholes) and the measured values (flow
rate, dynamic viscosity, etc.) are reduced to reservoir conditions.
In the case of measuring the flow rates of a hydrodynamically imperfect well in surface
conditions, this should be taken into account as follows.
The productivity factor determines the hydraulic conductivity and permeability of the formation in
the zone adjacent to the well:

where and - volumetric coefficient and density of degassed oil;

Rc is the radius of the feed contour, rwf is the radius of the well along the bit;
h is the effective thickness of the reservoir penetrated by the well;
c - additional filtration resistance to the inflow of fluid to the well, caused by its imperfection (by
the degree or by the character of the opening).

Figure 4. Actual build-up

Reasons for the curvature of the real pressure build-up:

In zone I:
- Influence of fluid inflow after well shut-in;
- Violation of the flow geometry in the bottomhole zone due to the imperfection of the well;
- Violation of the operating mode of the well before shutting it down;
- Non-isothermal pressure recovery;
- The presence of free gas in the volume of the well,
- Reservoir properties of the BHP deteriorated as a result of drilling and operation in comparison
with the remote one.
In zone III:
- reservoir heterogeneity along strike (decrease in the angle of inclination - improvement of
reservoir properties of the most remote zone compared to the remote one - line 2, increase in the angle of
inclination - deterioration of reservoir properties - line 3);
- The presence of impermeable boundaries near the well (tectonic screens, formation wedging
zones) - line 4.
II zone:
- The middle section is straight in theory. The length of the section is limited, because Pwf tends
to Pr, i.e. to the horizontal asymptote. The scope of this interpretation method for the II section of the
buildup is limited by the conditions under which the elastic regime formula is valid: the well is a source
of constant intensity; layer - endless and homogeneous; it is possible to instantly stop the flow of fluid
into the well.
 Thus, the interpretation of the results of well studies in transient filtration modes allows us to
quantify the values of the parameters characterizing the reservoir and the well (hydraulic conductivity,
permeability and piezoconductivity of the reservoir, reduced radius, perfection and well productivity
coefficients). This data is required for:
1. Using them in the calculation of development indicators in the preparation of field development
projects.
2. Comparison of them (characterize the remote zone of the formation) with similar data obtained
from the results of studies in steady-state operating modes (characterize the bottomhole zone).
3. Determination of reservoir parameters in time to assess the technological effectiveness of
measures related to the use of enhanced oil recovery methods and to control development.

Lecture 6. Theoretical foundations of lifting a gas-liquid mixture.

Flow in porous media is a very complex phenomenon and as such cannot be described as
explicitly as flow through pipes or conduits. It is rather easy to measure the length and diameter of a pipe
and compute its flow capacity as a function of pressure; in porous media, however, flow is different in
that there are no clear-cut flow paths that lend themselves to measurement.
The analysis of fluid flow in porous media has evolved throughout the years along two fronts—the
experimental and the analytical.
Physicists, engineers, hydrologists, and the like have examined experimentally the behavior of
various fluids as they flow through porous media ranging from sand packs to fused Pyrex glass. On the
basis of their analyses, they have attempted to formulate laws and correlations that can then be utilized to
make analytical predictions for similar systems.
The mathematical forms of these relationships will vary depending upon the characteristics of the
reservoir. The primary reservoir characteristics that must be considered include:
• Types of fluids in the reservoir
• Flow regimes
• Reservoir geometry
• Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
The mathematical expressions that are used to predict the volumetric performance and pressure
behavior of the reservoir vary in forms and complexity depending upon the number of mobile fluids in the
reservoir.
There are generally three cases of flowing systems:
• Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)
• Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water)
• Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)
The description of fluid flow and subsequent analysis of pressure data becomes more difficult as
the number of mobile fluids increases.

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow

When several fluid phases are flowing simultaneously in a horizontal porous system, the concept
of the effective permeability to each phase and the associated physical properties must be used in Darcy’s
equation.
For a radial system, the generalized form of Darcy’s equation can be applied to each reservoir as
follows:
 The effective permeability can be expressed in terms of the relative and absolute permeability

Using the above concept in Darcy’s equation and expressing the flow rate in standard conditions
yield:

In numerous petroleum engineering calculations, it is convenient to express the flow rate of any
phase as a ratio of other flowing phase. Two important flow ratios are the “instantaneous” water-oil ratio
(WOR) and “instantaneous” gas-oil ratio (GOR). The generalized form of Darcy’s equation can be used
to determine both flow ratios.
The water-oil ratio is defined as the ratio of the water flow rate to that of the oil. Both rates are
expressed in stock-tank barrels per day, or:

The instantaneous GOR, as expressed in scf/STB, is defined as the total gas flow rate.
 When two or more phases flow simultaneously in pipes, the flow behavior is much more complex
than for single-phase flow. The phases tend to separate because of differences in density. Shear stresses at
the pipe wall are different for each phase as a result of their different densities and viscosities. Expansion
of the highly compressible gas phase with decreasing pressure increases the in- situ volumetric flow rate
of the gas. As a result, the gas and liquid phases normally do not travel at the same velocity in the pipe.
For upward flow, the less dense, more compressible, less viscous gas phase tends to flow at a higher
velocity than the liquid phase, causing a phenomenon known as slippage. However, for downward flow,
the liquid often flows faster than the gas.
Perhaps the most distinguishing aspect of multiphase flow is the variation in the physical
distribution of the phases in the flow conduit, a characteristic known as flow pattern or flow regime.
During multi-phase flow through pipes, the flow pattern that exists depends on the relative magnitudes
of the forces that act on the fluids. Buoyancy, turbulence, inertia, and surface-tension forces vary
significantly with flow rates, pipe diameter, inclination angle, and fluid properties of the phases. Several
different flow patterns can exist in a given well as a result of the large pressure and temperature changes
the fluids encounter. Especially important is the significant variation in pressure gradient with flow
pattern. Thus, the ability to predict flow pattern as a function of the flow parameters is of primary
concern.
Even when empirical correlations were necessary (i.e., for turbulent-flow friction factors), the
accuracy of prediction was excellent. The increased complexity of multiphase flow logically resulted in a
higher degree of empiricism for predicting flow behavior. Many empirical correlations have been
developed to predict flow pattern, slippage between phases, friction factors, and other such parameters for
multiphase flow in pipes. Virtually all the existing standard design methods rely on these empirical
correlations. However, since the mid-1970's, dramatic advances have taken place that improve
understanding of the fundamental mechanisms that govern multiphase flow. These have resulted in new
predictive methods that rely much less on empirical correlations.
A complex mixture of hydrocarbon compounds or components can exist as a single-phase liquid, a
single-phase gas, or as a two-phase mixture, depending on the pressure, temperature, and the composition
of the mixture. Unlike a single component or compound, such as water or carbon dioxide, when two
phases exist simultaneously a multicomponent mixture will exhibit an envelope rather than a single line
on a pressure/temperature diagram. Fig. 3.1 gives a typical phase diagram for a multicomponent
hydrocarbon system. The shapes and ranges of pressure and temperature for actual envelopes vary widely
with composition.

Fig. 3.1.Typical phase diagram

 Flow Patterns. Predicting the flow pattern that occurs at a given location in a well is extremely
important. The empirical correlation or mechanistic model used to predict flow behavior varies with flow
pattern. Brill and Beggs summarized numerous investigations that have described flow patterns in wells
and that made attempts to predict when they occur.
Essentially all flow-pattern predictions are based on data from low-pressure systems, with
negligible mass transfer between the phases and with a single liquid phase. Consequently, these
predictions may be inadequate for high-pressure, high-temperature wells, or for wells producing oil and
water or crude oils with foaming tendencies. A consensus exists on how to classify flow patterns.

Flow-Pattern Classification in Wells. For upward multiphase flow of gas and liquid, most
investigators10 now recognize the existence of four flow patterns: bubble flow, slug flow, churn flow,
and annular flow. These flow patterns, shown schematically in Fig. 3.4, are described next. Slug and
churn flow are sometimes combined into a flow pattern called intermittent flow. It is common to
introduce a transition between slug flow and annular flow that incorporates churn flow. Some
investigators have named annular flow as mist or annular-mist flow.
Bubble Flow. Bubble flow is characterized by a uniformly distributed gas phase and discrete
bubbles in a continuous liquid phase. Based on the presence or absence of slippage between the two
phases, bubble flow is further classified into bubbly and dispersed- bubble flows. In bubbly flow,
relatively fewer and larger bubbles move faster than the liquid phase because of slippage. In dispersed-
bubble flow, numerous tiny bubbles are transported by the liquid phase, causing no relative motion
between the two phases.
Slug Flow. Slug flow is characterized by a series of slug units. Each unit is composed of a gas
pocket called a Taylor bubble, a plug of liquid called a slug, and a film of liquid around the Taylor bubble
flowing downward relative to the Taylor bubble. The Taylor bubble is an axially symmetrical, bullet-
shaped gas pocket that occupies almost the entire cross-sectional area of the pipe. The liquid slug,
carrying distributed gas bubbles, bridges the pipe and separates two consecutive Taylor bubbles.
Churn Flow. Churn flow is a chaotic flow of gas and liquid in which the shape of both the Taylor
bubbles and the liquid slugs are distorted. Neither phase appears to be continuous. The continuity of the
liquid in the slug is repeatedly destroyed by a high local gas concentration. An oscillatory or alternating
direction of motion in the liquid phase is typical of churn flow.
Annular Flow. Annular flow is characterized by the axial continuity of the gas phase in a central
core with the liquid flowing upward, both as a thin film along the pipe wall and as dispersed droplets in
the core. At high gas flow rates more liquid becomes dispersed in the core, leaving a very thin liquid film
flowing along the wall. The interfacial shear stress acting at the core/film interface and the amount of
entrained liquid in the core are important parameters in annular flow.

Lecture 7. Flow-Pattern Classification in Annulus.

The experimental data collected by Caetano et al reveal that, although the same flow patterns
described for wellbores occur in annuli, their characteristics can be substantially different. Thus, it is
essential to define the flow patterns in these configurations. Figs. 3.5 and 3.6 show flow patterns in
concentric and fully eccentric annuli, respectively.
Bubble Flow. The gas phase is dispersed into small discrete bubbles in a continuous liquid phase,
forming an approximately homogeneous flow through the annulus cross-sectional area. The discrete
bubbles occur in two different shapes, namely spherical bubbles and cap bubbles. The spherical bubbles
are very small, on the order of 3 to 5 mm diameter, compared with the annulus-cap bubbles, which are
relatively larger but still always smaller than half of the configuration hydraulic diameter. The upward
movement of the small spherical bubbles follows a zig-zag path, whereas the cap bubbles follow a
straight path with a faster rise velocity. In a fully eccentric annulus, there is a tendency for the small
bubbles and the cap bubbles to migrate into the widest gap of the annulus cross-sectional area. This
causes a higher local void fraction relative to the cross-sectional average void fraction. At high liquid
velocities, the mixture appears to flow at the same velocity with no slippage between the phases,
regardless of the annulus geometry.
Slug Flow. This flow is characterized by large cap bubbles of gas moving upward, followed by
liquid slugs that bridge the entire cross-sectional area and contain small spherically distributed gas
bubbles. The large gas bubbles, which occupy almost the entire cross-sectional area of the annulus, are
similar to the ones occurring in pipe flow and also are termed Taylor bubbles. The Taylor bubbles do not
occupy the total cross-sectional area because they have a preferential channel through which most of the
liquid ahead of the bubble flows backward (see Fig. 3.5). This preferential channel exists from the top to
the bottom of the bubble and from the tubing wall to the casing wall. Because of the presence of this
channel, no symmetry is observed for the Taylor bubble with respect to either vertical or horizontal
planes. The liquid phase flows backward in the form of films, around the Taylor bubble, and through the
preferential channel, wetting both the tubing and the casing walls. This tends to create a high turbulent
region behind the Taylor bubble. Contrary to the concentric annulus case, for a fully eccentric annulus
(see Fig. 3.6) the preferential liquid channel always is located where the pipe walls are in contact.
Churn Flow. The characteristics of churn flow are similar to those of pipe flow. There is no
change in flow characteristics observed with the annulus configuration.
Annular Flow. The gas is a continuous phase flowing in the core of the annulus cross-sectional
area. The liquid flows upward, partially as wavy films around the tubing and casing walls and partially in
the form of tiny spherical droplets entrained in the gas core. The outer film that wets the casing wall is
always thicker than the inner film flowing on the tubing wall.
Liquid accumulation near the pipe-wall contact point is an additional characteristic of annular flow
in a fully eccentric annulus. This accumulation results from the merging of the casing and tubing liquid
films, which probably happens as a result of the low local gas velocities.
Comparison among flow patterns occurring in upward vertical flow in a pipe and in an annulus
reveals that the existence of an inner pipe in the annulus changes the characteristics of slug flow and
annular flow. The Taylor bubbles in an annulus are
not symmetric, having a preferential liquid flow
channel through which most of the liquid phase is
shed backward. Two films exist in the annular-
flow pattern, one flowing around the tubing wall
and one around the casing wall. These flow
modifications seem to be a function of the pipe-
diameter ratio and the eccentricity of the annulus.

Pressure-Gradient Prediction
The methods used to predict pressure
gradient can be classified as empirical correlations
and mechanistic models.
Empirical Correlations. The empirical
correlations to be discussed can be placed in one of
three categories:
Category "a." No slip, no flow pattern
consideration. The mixture density is calculated
based on the input gas/liquid ratio. That is, the gas
and liquid are assumed to travel at the same velocity. The only correlation required is for the two-phase
friction factor. No distinction is made for different flow patterns.
Category "b." Slip considered, no flow pattern considered. A correlation is required for both liquid
holdup and friction factor. Because the liquid and gas can travel at different velocities, a method must be
provided to predict the portion of the pipe occupied by liquid at any location. The same correlations used
for liquid holdup and friction factor are used for all flow patterns.
Category "c." Slip considered, flow pattern considered. Not only are correlations required to
predict liquid holdup and friction factor, but methods to predict which flow pattern exists are necessary.
Once the flow pattern is established, the appropriate holdup and friction- factor correlations are
determined. The method used to calculate the acceleration pressure gradient also depends on flow pattern.

Lecture 8. Multiphase-Flow Pressure-gradient prediction.

Flow in porous media is a very complex phenomenon and as such cannot be described as
explicitly as flow through pipes or conduits. It is rather easy to measure the length and diameter of a pipe
and compute its flow capacity as a function of pressure; in porous media, however, flow is different in
that there are no clear-cut flow paths that lend themselves to measurement.
The analysis of fluid flow in porous media has evolved throughout the years along two fronts—the
experimental and the analytical.
Physicists, engineers, hydrologists, and the like have examined experimentally the behavior of
various fluids as they flow through porous media ranging from sand packs to fused Pyrex glass. On the
basis of their analyses, they have attempted to formulate laws and correlations that can then be utilized to
make analytical predictions for similar systems.
The mathematical forms of these relationships will vary depending upon the characteristics of the
reservoir. The primary reservoir characteristics that must be considered include:
• Types of fluids in the reservoir
• Flow regimes
• Reservoir geometry
• Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
The mathematical expressions that are used to predict the volumetric performance and pressure
behavior of the reservoir vary in forms and complexity depending upon the number of mobile fluids in the
reservoir.
There are generally three cases of flowing systems:
• Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)
• Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water)
• Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)
The description of fluid flow and subsequent analysis of pressure data becomes more difficult as
the number of mobile fluids increases.
Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
When several fluid phases are flowing simultaneously in a horizontal porous system, the concept
of the effective permeability to each phase and the associated physical properties must be used in Darcy’s
equation.
For a radial system, the generalized form of Darcy’s equation can be applied to each reservoir as
follows:
 The effective permeability can be expressed in terms of the relative and absolute permeability

Using the above concept in Darcy’s equation and expressing the flow rate in standard conditions
yield:

In numerous petroleum engineering calculations, it is convenient to express the flow rate of any
phase as a ratio of other flowing phase. Two important flow ratios are the “instantaneous” water-oil ratio
(WOR) and “instantaneous” gas-oil ratio (GOR). The generalized form of Darcy’s equation can be used
to determine both flow ratios.
The water-oil ratio is defined as the ratio of the water flow rate to that of the oil. Both rates are
expressed in stock-tank barrels per day, or:

The instantaneous GOR, as expressed in scf/STB, is defined as the total gas flow rate.
 Lecture 9. Restricted flow into the wellbore. Flow characteristics (IPR) for single-phase
liquid, gas flow (shower), multiphase flow resistance.

 porous medium,
 completion (stimulation, perforations, and gravel pack),
 vertical conduit with safety valves and chokes,
 artificial lift system such as pumps, gas lift valves, etc,
 horizontal flowlines with chokes, and other piping components e.g. valves, elbows, etc.
Reservoir deliverability is defined as the oil or gas production rate achievable from reservoir at a
given bottom-hole pressure. It is a major factor affecting well deliverability. Reservoir deliverability
determines types of completion and artificial lift methods to be used. A thorough knowledge of reservoir
productivity is essential for production engineers.
Reservoir deliverability depends on several factors including the following:
• Reservoir pressure
• Pay zone thickness and permeability
• Reservoir boundary type and distance
• Wellbore radius
• Reservoir fluid properties
• Near-wellbore condition
• Reservoir relative permeabilities
• Well completion method (vertical, horizontal, fracturing, and multilateral wells)
Reservoir deliverability can be mathematically modeled on the basis of flow regimes such as
transient flow, steady-state flow, and pseudo-steady state flow. An analytical relation between bottom-
hole pressure and production rate can be formulated for a given flow regime. The relation is called
“inflow performance relationship” (IPR). This chapter addresses the procedures used for establishing IPR
of different types of reservoirs and well completions.
 Typical IPR curve for an oil well
Oil can be produced through tubing, casing, or both in an oil well, depending on which flow path
has better performance. Producing oil through tubing is a better option in most cases to take the advantage
of gas-lift effect. The traditional term tubing performance relationship (TPR) is used in this book (other
terms such as vertical lift performance have been used in the literature). However, the mathematical
models are also valid for casing flow and casing-tubing annular flow as long as hydraulic diameter is
used. This chapter focuses on determination of TPR and pressure traverse along the well string. Both
single-phase and multiphase fluids are considered.

Principle of Nodal Analysis.

The system analysis for determination of fluid production rate and pressure is called “Nodal
analysis” in petroleum engineering. It is widely used in petroleum production engineering to solve
problems involving multiphase flow in wellbores and pipelines.
Fluid properties change with the location-dependent pressure and temperature in the oil and gas
production system. To simulate the fluid flow in the system, it is necessary to “break” the system into
discrete nodes that separate system elements (equipment sections). Fluid properties at the elements are
evaluated locally.
Fig. illustrates the nodes in an oil and gas production system and pressure trend along the flow
path. Abbreviations for elements are defined as follows:
Res -reservoir
Csg -casing
Tbg -tubing
Wh -wellhead
Chk -choke
FL -flowline
Sep -separator
ST -stock tank
Pmp -pump
PL -Pipeline
Cmp -compressor
Deh –dehydrator
 Nodal analysis is performed on the principle of pressure continuity, that is, there is only one
unique pressure value at a given node regardless of whether the pressure is evaluated from the
performance of upstream equipment or downstream equipment. The performance curve (pressurerate
relation) of upstream equipment is called “inflow performance curve”; the performance curve of
downstream equipment is called “outflow performance curve.” The intersection of the two performance
curves defines the operating point, which is, operating flow rate and pressure, at the specified node. The
following section illustrates the principle of Nodal analysis with simplified tubing string geometries (i.e.,
single-diameter tubing strings) and single-phase flow in vertical wells.
 Lecture 10. Analysis of the production system. Joint operation of the reservoir-well system.
Effect of various factors.
Production-systems analysis is a simple engineering tool to couple IPR with the tubing intake,
allowing the determination of surface production rate through the whole production system.
Mathematically, such coupling allows the reservoir to produce fluids into the wellbore and enables the
piping system to lift these fluids to the separator at the surface. Additional pressure losses in the
production system (e.g., through perforations, induced fractures, chokes, and the like) are accounted for
by combining these losses with the appropriate total-system losses, such as those in the tubing or reservoir
system.
This technique is used widely in the design, economic evaluation, and troubleshooting of oil and
gas wells. The graphical presentation of the coupled IPR with the tubing-intake curves often is called the
systems graph. The intersection of these curves is the solution point or natural flowing point and
determines the producing rate and the pressure.
If these curves do not intersect, the well probably is loading up and artificial-lift methods, such as
gas lift or subsurface pumps may mitigate these problems. Fig. 6.14 elucidates this point graphically
before actual problems and sensitivity studies are discussed. This figure shows a typical IPR curve with
three hypothetical intake curves. Intake Curve A does not intersect the IPR curve, indicating this well's
inability to produce to the surface. However, any artificial-lift method will lower this intake curve by
either reducing the total pressure loss in the tubing through aeration of the fluid column or by adding a net
positive pressure change, Ap, to the fluid column at the bottom of the tubing string by use of a subsurface
pump. The production rate improves to qpump as a result of the new pumped well, Intake Curve C. Intake
Curve В is the natural flowing curve with production rate of q0 .
The system sensitivity study is a major engineering application of production-systems analysis. A
system sensitivity is defined as the functional relationship of the production or injection rate with any
system parameter, such as tubing internal diameter, gas/oil ratio (GOR), wellhead pressure, permeability,
and skin among others. This is accomplished by repeating IPR or intake curves in the system graph for
different values of the sensitivity parameter. Once the parameter is optimized, other parameters are
considered. This also is called sequential optimization.
Sequential optimization in single-variant steps is a convenient way to learn the procedure and
troubleshoot. However, multivariant optimization24 enables one to determine the most profitable well
design configuration while considering a number of system parameters simultaneously. A few example
systems analyses with a computer program called PERFORM will show their importance in optimized
production-systems design and troubleshooting. In the input-data tables for the following examples, the
sensitivity parameters are indicated by an asterisk. As mentioned earlier, optimum production refers to the
maximum economic production.
 Production-Systems-Analysis Problem on Effects of Skin and Tubing ID.
This problem shows important effects of tubing ID and skin damage on production performance of
an oil well. Table 6.11 gives the input data.

Solution. The system graph presented in

Fig. 6.15 shows that the damaged well with a high
skin of 12 produces about 22 STBO/D with both
tubing sizes, although the well surges with the
larger 1.5-in. tubing ID. This unstable flow
condition is very apparent from the location of the
point of intersection between the IPR and the
intake curves. For the 1.5-in. tubing ID, the
unstable flow condition continues until production
reaches about 60 STBO/D. This spread in the flow
rate is enough to question the accuracy of the pres-
sure-loss correlation. However, even for the
smaller 0.824-in. tubing ID, the well would surge if
the calculated rate was 18 STBO/D or less. The
rate difference is so marginal that it may need
further verification with another method of
calculation. However, this well offers excellent
opportunity for stimulation. If the source of damage is properly diagnosed, a matrix acid treatment or a
fracture treatment can be used to remove skin. A successful fracture stimulation treatment can reduce the
skin to — 4 or less. Note that this stimulation effect improves the inflow performance to an extent that the
potential for surging with any size tubing is eliminated. Additionally, production will range from 89 to
107 STBO/D, depending upon the tubing size. The larger tubing size not only increases the production by
a factor of five but also completely stabilizes the production. The combination of 1.5-in. tubing ID and a
suitable stimulation optimizes the production system design.

Production-Systems-Analysis Problem on Effect of Water Cut.

This problem is a typical water-cut-sensitivity analysis in an oil well with three-phase oil, water,
and gas production. Understanding this problem should clarify any other sensitivity analysis where the
same sensitivity parameter is repeated.
Table 6.15 gives the input data.
Solution. Fig. 6.19A is the systems graph with tubing-intake
curves plotted for each water-cut value considered. The intersections of the tubing-intake curves with the
IPR curve give the production rates for each water cut. As the water cut increases, the pressure gradients
in the tubing increase because of the density difference between oil and water and also because of the
reduction of dissolved gas in the fluid system. As the sensitivity plot in Fig. 6.19B shows, the oil
production rate also falls because of the increased water cut. In addition to these problems, formation of
oil/water emulsions in the production tubing at higher water cuts may cause increased viscosity and affect
the oil production rate more drastically. Appropriate use of artificial-lift methods often may mitigate this
problem.
 Production-Systems-Analysis Problem on Effect of Gas/Liquid Ratio (GLR).
GLR uniquely affects oil well production rates. This example demonstrates this sensitivity and
provides an introduction to the application of multiphase-flow theory to artificial-lift design, particularly
gas lift.
Input Data. Table 6.18 gives the input data.
Solution. Fig. 6.22A is a production-systems graph for GLR sensitivity. Increased GLR reduces
the hydrostatic gradient and the mixture density of the fluids in the tubing. As the pressure declines in the
direction of flow, the compressible gas phase expands and gains velocity, increasing the mixture velocity
and the friction losses in the tubing. Thus, the total effect of increasing GLR on the pressure losses in a
producing well is the algebraic sum of the reduced hydrostatic gradient and the increased friction
gradient. With increasing GLR, there is a threshold GLR above which the reduction in hydrostatic
gradient is less than the increase in friction gradient. This often is called the gradient reversal point and
happens at about 700 scf/STBL in this example. As Fig. 6.22B shows, this reversal phenomenon causes
the dome shape of the liquid rate vs. GLR sensitivity curve, In this case, the maximum liquid production
rate is 983 STBL/D and occurs at the optimum GLR of 700 scf/STBL.
Before any artificial-lift installation, this well produces with a GLR of 175 scf/STBL. If gas is injected
into the production string at the lowest possible entry point, the GLR can be increased. For optimized
production, the GLR should be increased to 700 scf/STBL, with a resultant increase in the liquid
production rate to 983 STBL/D. This is also the basic principle of gas lift.
 Production-Systems-Analysis Problem on Effect of Pressure-Gradient-Prediction Method.
A dilemma often facing engineers who must solve multiphase-flow problems is how to decide the
most suitable pressure-gradient-prediction method to calculate pressure losses in the tubulars. Chap. 4
discusses many methods, and the production rates calculated from them can vary substantially. Errors in
production-rate predictions can be caused by other sources, such as the fluid properties calculated from
empirical models. Consequently, a judgment based on experience and real data analysis is often the best
guide to the selection of the proper or most accurate pressure-gradient method. This example illustrates
the discrepancies in pressure-drop calculations for a typical oil well with associated water and gas
production. The pressure gradient or the pressure profile in the tubular is calculated with the different
methods and presented in Fig. 6.18.
Input Data. Table 6.14 provides the input data
 Solution. The gradient curves in Fig. 6.18 show the pressure profiles in the 9,810-ft-deep oil well
producing water and associated gas. The bottomhole flowing pressure, calculated by different methods,
varies between 2,245 and 2,891 psia. The lower value was calculated by the Orkiszewski method and the
higher value by the Aziz et al. and Mukherjee and Brill methods. This is a discrepancy of nearly 30%.
The Ansari et al. method is based on mechanistic modeling of vertical upward flow and comes within 5%
of the Beggs and Brill prediction, which is based on an empirical approach. The Orkiszewski and
Hagedorn and Brown pressure-loss-calculation methods predict lighter pressure gradients in the
production tubing, resulting in higher fluid deliverability when compared with other methods used in this
example. With systems analysis for the well in this example, the Mukherjee and Brill, Aziz et al., Ansari
et al., and Beggs and Brill methods predict conservative production rates in that order. These four
methods underpredict the rate compared with the Orkiszewski and Hagedorn and Brown methods.

Production-Systems-Analysis Problem on Effect of Vertical Permeability in Horizontal Well .

This example uses an openhole gas well to compare the performance of vertical vs. horizontal wells with
vertical permeability as the sensitivity variable. It is important to know that vertical permeability does not
affect the production rate from a vertical well when Darcy-type reservoir-flow equations are used,
although it affects the rate from a horizontal well quite dramatically.
Input Data. Table 6.16 provides the input data.
Solution. The systems graph presented in Fig. 6.20A shows dramatic improvement in productivity
in the horizontal well over the vertical well. The vertical permeability increases over a range of 0.001 to
0.1 md. Fig. 6.20B shows that the horizontal-well performance improves substantially as the vertical
permeability increases. This is a primary reason for economic successes of horizontal wells in naturally
fractured reservoirs with high vertical permeability.
Lecture 11. Well operation in a flowing way. Energy balance in the well. Well flowing conditions.

Oil wells are operated by flowing or mechanized methods.

The rise of liquid and gas from the bottom of the well to the surface is the main content of the well
operation process. This process can occur both due to the natural energy Wn of the liquid and gas coming
to the bottom of the well, and due to the energy Wu introduced into the well from the surface.
The gas-liquid mixture, leaving the wellbore through special wellhead equipment, is sent to separators
(liquid-gas separators) and measuring devices, then enters the field pipelines. To ensure the movement of
the mixture in the field pipelines, one or another pressure is maintained at the wellhead.
Based on the foregoing, the following energy balance can be drawn up:

W1 + W2 + W3 = Wf + Wext
where W1 - energy to lift liquid and gas from the bottom to the wellhead;
 W2 is the energy consumed by the gas-liquid mixture when moving through the wellhead
equipment;
W3 - energy carried away by the jet of liquid and gas beyond the wellhead;
Wf - formation energy;
Wext - energy brought in from outside.
if Wext = 0, then the operation is called flowing;
when Wext not equal 0, exploitation is called artificial lift.
Energy transfer Wext is carried out by compressed gas or air, or by pumps, the operation method
is called gas lift or pumping.
Artesian flowing only from the hydrostatic pressure of the reservoir (Pres) is rare in the practice of
oil field exploitation; flowing condition
Рres > ·g·h.
In most cases, there is gas in the reservoir along with oil, and it plays a major role in well flowing.
This is true even for deposits with a pronounced water drive regime.
The water-driven regime is characterized by the content of gas in the oil, which is in a dissolved
state and is not released from the oil within the reservoir.
Reservoir gas does a double job: it pushes oil out in the reservoir, and it lifts it up in pipes.

11.1 Energy balance in a production well.

The rise of fluids in the wellbore of a production well can occur either due to reservoir energy
(Eres) or due to reservoir (Eres) and artificially introduced from the surface into the well (Eext) energies.
Fluids from the formation come to the bottom of the well, which have potential energy due to the action
of hydrodynamic pressure forces.
In the wellbore, energy is spent on overcoming the gravity of the hydrostatic column of the
mixture (Ecm), the forces of the track (Etr), local (Elocal) and inertial (Ein) resistances, which are
associated with movement, as well as on the transport of well products from the wellhead to collection
points and preparation (Etransp). From here, the energy balance in a working well can be written as:

Еres + Еext = Еmix + Efr + Еloc + Еinertion + Еtransp

An analysis of the results of laboratory and borehole studies convinces us that in the overall
balance, the energy Em is a very small value, so it is neglected. Then the energy balance equation

Еres + Еext = Еmix + Efr + Еinertion + Еtransp

When Eext = 0, the well operates due to only reservoir energy.

This method of its operation is called flowing, and the flowing of the well is possible both due to
the energy of the liquid Eliq, and due to the energy of the compressed gas Еg.
When Eext>0 and Eres>O, the well operation method is called mechanized - gas lift or pumping.
With the gas-lift method, the artificial energy of the compressed gas Eg is additionally introduced into the
well, and with the pumping method, potential and kinetic energies are introduced. Let us consider the
lifting of liquid due to the energy of compressed gas (coming together with oil from the reservoir or
artificially introduced into the well), which is typical for flowing and mechanized methods, i.e., the
operation of a gas-liquid lift.

Qualitative characteristics of the process of movement of a gas-liquid mixture in a vertical pipe.

For body with a constant mass, the density is the less, the larger the volume. With an increase in
the volume of gas in the mixture (its volume flow), its density decreases and, accordingly, H increases.
Thus, the principle of lifting (operation of a gas-liquid lift) is to reduce the density of the medium in the
lifting pipes. The rise of a liquid is also possible when an incompressible working agent is introduced into
it, the density of which is less than the density of the liquid (hollow plastic balls).
Therefore, the working agent introduced into the elevator leads to a decrease in the density of the
mixture in the riser pipes and makes it possible for the liquid to rise to the surface.
 Thus, these are the modern ideas about the physical essence of the processes of movement of gas-
liquid mixtures in vertical pipes. However, some provisions are indisputable, including:
1) Creation of the lowest density of the mixture at the lowest possible consumption of the working
agent. It is obvious that the lower the density of the working agent, the lower the density of the mixture,
other things being equal, can be obtained. Moreover, it is completely indifferent whether a liquid, gas or
solid body will be taken as a working agent;
2) The achievement of the lowest consumption of the working agent is possible in the absence of a
relative velocity of the phases of the mixture and the use of a practically incompressible working agent.
The use of a compressible working agent in an elevator with a large pressure drop between the shoe and
the mouth will lead to the fact that the density of the mixture at the bottom of the elevator will be much
greater than at the top. If the working agent is practically incompressible, then at the same flow rate
(reduced to normal conditions) it is possible to obtain a lower average density of the mixture in the riser
pipes.

Lecture 12. Well Design Applications. Pressure Losses in Production System. Pressure
Losses in Porous Medium. One-phase flow of liquid, gas. Boundary effects. Wellbore pressure –
Production Rate dependence. Fetkovich – Vogel Method.

The mechanics of fluid flow in every component in a well's plumbing system affects the flow
rate. Accurate well design is the key to achieving optimum flow rate. Consequently, understanding the
mechanics of fluid flow through each component, from the reservoir to the first stage of separation, is
imperative for accurate well design.
The plumbing system is an interfacing conduit between the reservoir and the surface handling facilities.
Without it, the hydrocarbons cannot become a tangible asset. For optimal production, a well design
requires complex engineering considerations that depend on well components. Optimal production yields
a maximum return on investment, not a maximum production rate. Fig. 6.1 shows the major components
with substantial pressure losses in a typical well. A production system consists of the following major
components.
• Porous medium.
• Completion (stimulation, perforations, and gravel pack).
• Tubing with safety valve and choke.
• Artificial lift system (pump and gas-lift valves among others).
• Flowline with choke and other piping components (valves, elbows, and other such
elements) from the wellhead to the first-stage separator.
In an oil or gas production system, the fluids flow from the drainage boundary in the reservoir to the
separator at the surface. The average pressure within the drainage boundary is called the average reservoir
pressure. This pressure controls the flow through a production system and is assumed to remain constant
over a fixed time interval during depletion. When this pressure changes, the well's performance changes
and the well may need to be re-evaluated. The average reservoir pressure changes because of normal
reservoir depletion or artificial pressure maintenance with water, gas, or chemical injection.
The separator pressure at the surface is designed to optimize production and to retain lighter hydrocarbon
components in the liquid phase. This pressure is maintained constant by the use of such mechanical
devices as pressure regulators.
As the well produces or in jects, there is a continuous pressure gradient from the reservoir to the
separator. In well design calculations, it is not uncommon to use wellhead pressure for the separator
pressure, assuming that the separator is at or very near the wellhead. Such assumptions imply negligible
pressure loss in the surface flowline. For long flowlines, especially in hilly terrain, to ignore pressure
losses may lead to substantial error in the production-rate calculation.
A node is any point in the production system where the pressure can be calculated as a function
of the flow rates. As shown in Fig. 6.2, the two extreme nodes are the reservoir drainage boundary (Node
8) and the separator (Node 1). The pressures at these nodes are called the average reservoir pressure, pr,
and the separator pressure, psep, respectively. The other two important nodes are the bottomhole (Node 6),
where the bottomhole flowing pressure, pwf, is measured by a downhole gauge, and the wellhead (Node
3), where the wellhead pressure, Pwh, is measured by a gauge attached to the Christmas tree or the flow
arm. If the pressures are measured at each node, the pressure loss between the nodes can be calculated as
a function of the flow rate. Some nodes (Nodes 2, 4, and 5) are called functional nodes. These exist where
a pressure drop occurs because of a choke, safety valve, or other piping component. For each component,
the flow rate, q, is related functionally to the pressure differential, ∆p, across the component, as given in
Eq. 6.1.

q=f(∆p) (6.1)

Production-system analysis combines all component- system design procedures to help in the
design and optimization of the total production system.

Vertical-Flow Performance
Vertical-flow performance is the well's ability to produce under a constant surface-pressure
constraint. In a producing well, this is called tubing intake 4 6 or outflow performance. The rate vs. pressure
loss in Nodes 1 through 6 are considered to calculate the tubing intake. For deliverability calculations that
use any iterative scheme or graphic method, it is convenient to represent the bottomhole flowing pressure
in terms of pressure losses through each of the nodes, starting at a fixed wellhead or separator pressure.
This relationship can be expressed mathematically as

Flow rates calculated in the unstable flow region indicate intermittent production, heading, or loading up
of wells.
 Inflow Performance
Inflow performance relationship (IPR) is defined as the functional relationship between the
production rate from the reservoir and the bottomhole flowing pressure. Gilbert 2 first proposed well
analysis using this relationship. IPR is defined in the pressure range between the average reservoir
pressure and atmospheric pressure. The flow rate corresponding to atmospheric bottomhole flowing
pressure is defined as the absolute open flow potential (AOFP) of the well, whereas the flow rate is
always zero when the bottomhole pressure is the average reservoir pressure, representing a shut-in
condition. Fig. 6.6 presents a typical IPR based on Darcy's law for single-phase liquid flow. The actual
flowing bottomhole pressure also depends on the separator pressure and the pressure loss in the flow
conduits up to the depth of midperforation.
where kg is in Darcies.
Assuming reasonable reservoir drawdowns, [pr - this simple equation often is used to estimate
flow rates from oil wells quickly. Normally, optimized wells flowing naturally or with gas lift should
produce with 50 to 80% drawdown. A 60% drawdown can be assumed without any knowledge of the
system. A 30% drawdown is common when sand production is suspected. A 90% drawdown is likely
when pumps are located just above the top perforations and operated at optimum condition with minimum
fluid level above the suction.
 Boundary Effects. Most reservoir engineering calculations assume radial-flow geometry. Radial
geometry implies that the drainage area is circular and the well is located at the center of the drainage
circle. In many cases, the drainage area is rectangular or of some other noncircular shape. Applications of
equations based on radial geometry to a noncircular drainage area could lead to substantial error. Darcy's
law can be modified for a bounded drainage area of different shapes as

Phase Behavior of Hydrocarbon Fluids. On the basis of fluid samples taken at reservoir
conditions, a pressure/volume/temperature (PVT) analysis generates a phase envelope in a pressure-
temperature diagram. Fig. 6.10 presents a typical black-oil pressure-temperature diagram showing the
physical state of the fluids. When the average reservoir pressure, the bottomhole and wellhead flowing
pressures, and the corresponding temperatures are plotted, one can identify the type of reservoir fluid,
such as single-phase, two- phase, or a combination. Such information helps determine the type of IPR
equation to be used.
For the case of two-phase flow, such as Case E in Fig. 6.10 where pr is below the bubblepoint
pressure, either a Vogel or a Fetkovich IPR is recommended. For composite reservoirs shown in Fig.
6.10, Darcy's law is used above the bubblepoint pressure and a Vogel or a Fetkovich IPR is used below
the bubblepoint.
Vogel IPR. Through simulation of saturated oil reservoirs, Vogel developed this IPR.

Flow rate normalization with q 0ma seemed to make this IPR work in a multiphase system. This IPR
can be modified easily for a composite reservoir system. A Vogel IPR curve can be generated if either the
AOFP, q0wsx, and the reservoir pressure, pr, are known or the reservoir pressure, pr, and a flow rate and the
corresponding bottomhole flowing pressure are known. For either case, a buildup test for pr and a flow
test with a bottom-hole gauge are needed. Though quite simple to apply, the Vogel IPR
is not commonly supported by field data from multirate oilwell tests.
The Fetkovich IPR, on the other hand, quite often is supported by
field data and is more universally used for both oil and gas wells.
Fetkovich IPR. Multipoint or backpressure testing of gas wells is a common procedure to
establish gas-well performance curves or deliverability. Fetkovich applied these tests to oil wells with
reservoir pressures above and below the bubble-point (saturation) pressure. The general conclusion from
these backpressure tests is that, as in gas wells, the IPR in oil wells is of the form transient production
period before the onset of the pseudo-steady state flow, defined in Eq. 6.14. As this equation states, the
lower the permeability of the rock means the longer the transient period. Consequently, many low-
permeability gas reservoirs produce a major part of the recoverable reserve in this transient period,
making transient IPR's useful in the prediction of production decline. Earlougher and Agarwal et al
presented information on transient IPR.
 Infinite Homogeneous Reservoir. For homogeneous reservoirs, the well known infinite-acting
semilog approximation for a well with a skin, s, producing at a constant rate, qa, is given by.

Also known as the transient IPR equation, this equation is valid for the transient radial-flow
period. It is characterized by flowing times less than tpss when pseudo-steady-state flow begins, where

Lecture 13. Natural flow. Artesian natural flow due to gas energy. Joint work of the fountain lift
and the reservoir.

Well flowing regimes and the role of flow pipes.

The technological regime of well operation is the flow rate, product composition, pressure and
temperature at the wellhead. The technological regime also includes the operation parameters of the
equipment that provides one or another method of well operation.
Fluid inflow to the well bottoms occurs under the influence of the difference between reservoir
and bottomhole pressures. If the pressure of the liquid column filling the well to the wellhead is less than
the formation pressure, then the well will overflow to the surface, i.e. will gush.
Depending on the operating mode of the deposit, well flowing can occur
 Due to the energy of hydrostatic head,
 Due to the expansion energy of gas dissolved in oil,
 Due to both energies.
With the same amount of gas, it is not possible to get flowing in every well. If the amount of gas
is sufficient to flow in a 150 mm well, then it may not be enough for a 200 mm well.
The mixture of oil and gas moving in the well is an alternation of oil interlayers with gas
interlayers: the larger the diameter of the lifting pipes, the more gas is needed to lift the oil.
In practice, there are cases when wells of large diameters (150–300 mm), drilled into highly
productive formations with high pressure, were distinguished by high productivity, but their flowing in
most cases was very short. After lowering small-diameter lift pipes into such wells, it is possible to
achieve flowing. Therefore, in order to rationally use the energy of the expanding gas, all wells where
flowing is expected, before development, is equipped with lift pipes with a nominal diameter of 60 to 114
mm, through which fluid and gas move in the well.
The diameter of the lifting pipes is selected empirically depending on the expected flow rate,
reservoir pressure, well depth and operating conditions. The pipes are lowered to the filter of the
production string.
When a well is flown through a string of small-diameter pipes, the GOR decreases, resulting in an
increase in the duration of the flow. This is one of the ways to prolong the flow of low-production wells.

Natural Flow due to gas energy

This is the most common way to natural flow oil wells.
During artesian flowing, a non-carbonated liquid (oil) moves in the production pipes, therefore,
in order to overcome the hydrostatic pressure of a column of such liquid, the bottomhole pressure must be
sufficiently high.
When flowing due to gas energy, the density of the GLM column in the fountain pipes is small, so
the hydrostatic pressure of the column of such a mixture will be less. Consequently, for the flowing of the
well due to the energy of the gas, a lower bottomhole pressure will be required.
 When fluid moves along the tubing from the bottom to the mouth, the pressure decreases, and at
a certain height it becomes equal to the saturation pressure Psat, and above it, it becomes lower than the
saturation pressure.
In the zone where Pw < Psat, gas is released from the oil, and this gas becomes greater, the
lower the pressure, i.e., the greater the pressure difference ΔP = Psat - P.
Thus, during flowing, oil is degassed as a result of the release of dissolved gas from it, its
transition to a free state and the formation of GLS with a density significantly lower than the density of
pure oil.
In the described case, flowing will occur at a bottomhole pressure exceeding the saturation
pressure (Pwf > Psat), and gas will be released at a certain height in the tubing.
Another case is possible, when flowing occurs at a bottom hole pressure below saturation
pressure (Pwf < Psat).At the same time, free gas is supplied to the bottom of the well along with oil, to
which, as oil rises along the tubing, additional portions of free gas are added, which are released from the
oil when the pressure decreases. The mass of free gas per unit mass of liquid increases as it rises. The
volume of free gas also increases due to its expansion. As a result, the gas saturation of the flow
increases, and its density decreases accordingly.
Thus, well flowing can occur when the bottom hole pressure Pc is higher or lower than the
saturation pressure Psat.
Consider two cases of flowing:
1. Pwf < Psat (Fig. 1, a).
Free gas is available at the bottomhole itself. A gas-liquid mixture will move to the shoe of the
fountain pipes. During the operation of such a well, the columns of the gas bubbles will be carried away
by the fluid flow and enter the flow pipes.

Figure 1. Scheme of wells during flowing

a - at bottomhole pressure less than saturation pressure (Pwf < Psat);
b - at bottomhole pressure greater than saturation pressure (Pwf > Psat)
However, some of the bubbles moving directly against the casing string wall will slip past the
tubing shoe and enter the annulus.
In the annular space above the shoe, no fluid movement occurs. Therefore, gas bubbles in it will
float up, reach the liquid level and replenish the gas cushion in the annulus. Thus, during flowing, when
Pw < Psat, conditions are created for the continuous accumulation of gas in the annulus.
The intensity of this process depends on many factors:
1. from the speed of the upward flow of GLM, i.e. from the flow rate of the well. The higher the
flow rate, the less gas enters the annulus.
 2. from the size of the gap between the casing string and the production pipes.
3. On the number and size of gas bubbles, this in turn depends on the difference between the
saturation pressure and the pressure at the shoe.
4. from the viscosity of the liquid.
Accumulation of gas in the annulus leads to an increase in pressure P annular and a corresponding
decrease in the liquid level h by such an amount that the bottom hole pressure Pw would remain constant.

This process will continue until the liquid level in the annular space drops to the boot of the
fountain pipes. After that, the process stabilizes. The continuously increasing pressure at the mouth of the
annulus after reaching the maximum is stabilized.
In this case, it is possible to accurately determine the pressure at the boot of the production
pipes Pb, as well as the pressure at the bottomhole Pc from the pressure at the wellhead in the annular
space Ps, without resorting to the laborious process of lowering the pressure gauge into the well.
Thus, in a flowing well, under the condition Pw < Psat, the liquid level in the annular space must
be set at the tubing shoe after the well operation reaches the steady state.
However, this is true if there is no gas leakage from the casing due to its insufficient tightness or
leaks in the fittings and the casing head. In the presence of leaks, the liquid level can stabilize in the
annular space at a certain height, causing such a pressure at the wellhead, at which gas leaks are
compared with its flow from the production pipe shoe.

2. Pwf > Psat (Fig. 1, b).

Free gas in this case does not accumulate in the annulus, since there are no conditions for it to
slip at the shoe of the well pipes. In the pipes themselves, gas will begin to be released at a certain height
from the shoe, where the pressure will become equal to the saturation pressure. Since there is no renewal
of fluid in the annulus during well operation, there are no conditions for replenishment of gas.
Dissolved gas will be partially released from the volume of oil in the annulus, after which the
entire system will come to equilibrium. The liquid level in this case will be at a certain depth h in
accordance with expression

Рс = Р1 + Р2

where P1 = hρg - hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column in the annulus;

P2= Pannular + ΔP is the pressure of the gas in the annulus at the liquid level,
P3 - gas pressure in the annulus at the wellhead;
Different positions of the level will correspond to different pressure P annular. In this case, due to
the uncertainty of the value of h, it becomes impossible to determine the bottom hole pressure Pw from
the value of Pshoe.

Lecture 14. Well operation with a deep pump. Sucker rod pumping method of operation, its
principle of operation and scheme, the choice of pumping machines

14.1. Scheme and principle of operation of a sucker-rod pumping unit

Exploitation of oil wells by rod pumps is one of the main methods of oil production.
The rod pump is a specially designed plunger pump driven from the surface through the rod string.
The pumping unit consists of a pump located in the well and a pumping unit installed on the
surface near the wellhead. The pump cylinder is fixed at the end of the tubing lowered into the well, and
the plunger is suspended on the rod string. The upper rod (polished rod) is connected to the head of the
balancer of the pumping unit by a rope or chain suspension. A travelling valve is installed at the top of the
plunger, and a standing valve is installed at the bottom of the cylinder.
The stuffing box at the top of the tee is designed to prevent fluid leaks along the moving polished
rod (i.e., upper sucker rod).
Through the side outlet in the middle part of the tee, the liquid from the well is directed to the flow
line. The reciprocating motion of the sucker rod string is transmitted from the electric motor through the
gearbox and the crank mechanism of the pumping unit.
 The principle of operation of the pump is as follows. When the plunger moves upwards, the
standing valve opens under the pressure of the liquid, as a result of which the liquid enters the pump
cylinder. The travelling valve is closed at this time, as it is affected by the pressure of the liquid column
that filled the pump pipes. When the plunger moves down, the standing valve closes under the pressure of
the liquid under the plunger, and the travelling valve opens, and the liquid from the cylinder passes into
the space above the plunger.
The stroke length of the suspension point of the rods is changed by rearranging the lower pin of
the connecting rod into a new hole in the crank, i.e., changing the radius of the crank. The stroke length
can be determined from the following expression:
a
l=2 r
b
where r is the working length of the crank;
a - the front shoulder of the balancer (walking beam);
b - rear shoulder of the balancer (walking beam).
The duration and trouble-free operation of the pumping unit depend largely on the degree of its
balance.

Figure. Scheme of a borehole rod pumping unit

1 - control station; 2 – balancer (walking beam); 3 - balancer head (horse head); 4 — stand
balancer; 5 - connecting rod; b - crank; 7 - reducer; 8 - drive motor; 9 - brake; 10 - counterweights; 11 -
metal frame; 12 - concrete foundation; 13 - rope suspension; 14 - traverses; 15 - polished rod; 16 -
wellhead fittings; 17 - rod columns; 18 - tubing string; 19 - pump plunger; 20 - travelling valve; 21 -
standing valve; 22 - pump cylinder; 23 – shank
14.2 Rod pumps
Rod pumps provide pumping out of wells of liquid, water cut up to 99%, absolute viscosity up to
100 MPa s, solid mechanical impurities content up to 0.5%, free gas at the intake up to 25%, hydrogen
sulfide volume content up to 0.1%, water salinity up to 10 g/l and temperature up to 1300С.
According to the method of attachment to the tubing string, plug-in and non-plug-in borehole
pumps are distinguished
 Plug-in borehole pumps
1 - standing valve; 2 - cylinder; 3 - travelling valve; 4 - plunger; 5 - rod; 6 - lock.
Plug-in pumps are completely assembled on the surface of the earth and lowered into the well
inside the tubing on rods. The Plug-in pumps consist of three main units: a cylinder, a plunger and a
cylinder lock support.
Fastening (compacting by landings) takes place on the interlock support, which is previously
lowered onto the tubing. The pump is removed from the well when only the rod string is lifted. Therefore,
it is advisable to use Plug-in pumps in wells with a small flow rate and at large depths of descent.
A non-inserted (pipe) pump is a cylinder connected to the tubing and lowered into the well
together with them, and the plunger is lowered and raised on the rods.
The plunger is connected to the suction valve ball by means of a special rod.
In tubular pumps, to remove the cylinder from the well, it is necessary to lift all equipment (rods
with valves, plunger and tubing).
Non-inserted (pipe) pump are expedient in wells with a large flow rate, a small depth of descent
and a long overhaul period.

Non-inserted borehole pumps:

1 - standing valve; 2 - cylinder; 3 - travelling valve;
4 - plunger; 5 - gripping rod; 6 – catcher
 When using plug-in pumps, round-trip operations during well repair are accelerated by 2-2.5 times
and the work of workers is significantly facilitated. However, the flow of an insertion pump with pipes of
a given diameter is always less than the flow of a non-insertion one.
The sucker rod is designed to transmit the reciprocating motion of the pump plunger.
The rod is a round rod with thickened heads at the ends. Rods are produced from alloyed steels.
Rod length 8-10 m, diameter 12.7 -28.6 mm.
To regulate the length of the rod columns in order to properly fit the plunger into the pump
cylinder, there are also shortened rods (feet) with a length of 1; 1.2; 1.5; 2 and 3 m.
The rods are connected by couplings. Column length is up to 2500m. With a length of more
than 1000 m, the column of rods is made stepped, with an increasing diameter upwards to reduce weight
and achieve equal strength.
They began to produce sucker rods made of fiberglass, which are distinguished by greater
corrosion resistance and allow reducing energy consumption by up to 20%.
A special rod is a wellhead rod connecting the rod string with a rope suspension. Its surface is
polished (polished rod). It is made without heads, and has a standard thread at the ends.
The wellhead equipment of pumping wells is designed for sealing the annulus, the internal cavity
of the tubing, the removal of well production and hanging the tubing string.
The pumping unit converts the rotation of the motor shaft into a reciprocating motion transmitted
to the rod string through a flexible (rope, chain) suspension and a polished rod.
The maximum stroke length of the suspension point of the rods is 1-6 m, the maximum load is 1-
20 tf, and the frequency of strokes per minute is from 5 to 15.
Well products (oil, water) are delivered to the surface through tubing, casing, or hollow rods.
Capacity at constant pumping is up to 300 m3/day.

14.3 Factors affecting pump performance

Consider the plunger pump diagram shown in Fig. The movement of the plunger is carried out
between the bottom dead center (BDC) and the top dead center (TDC) and is characterized by a value
called the stroke length of the plunger Spl. The outer diameter of the plunger Dpl is taken equal to the
inner diameter of the cylinder (although in fact there is a certain difference between these values 2δ; δ is
the gap between the plunger and the cylinder).
When the plunger moves upwards, the travelling valve 4 closes under the action of the weight of
the well fluid located in the tubing string 5. In the pump cylinder 1, the pressure decreases and at a certain
moment the standing valve 3 opens; well production enters the pump cylinder (into the plunger space,
which increases until the plunger reaches TDC).

Schematic diagram of a plunger pump:

1 - cylinder; 2 - plunger; 3 - standing valve; 4 - travelling valve; 5 - tubing string; 6 - column of
rods
 The stroke of the plunger from BDC to TDC is called the suction stroke.
The volume of well production that entered the pump cylinder during the suction stroke is equal
to the volume described by the plunger from BDC to TDC (V):
V = Spl. F [m3]
where F is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder (m2)
Dpl is the diameter of the plunger, equal to the inner diameter of the cylinder, m.
When the plunger moves down (from TDC to BDC), the pressure in the pump cylinder rises, the
standing valve 3 closes, and at a certain point in time the travelling valve 4 opens. The product from the
pump cylinder 1 flows through the plunger 2 into the space above the plunger. The stroke of the plunger
from TDC to BDC is called the injection stroke.
Thus, for one pumping cycle "stroke up - stroke down", the volume of production pumped out of
the well is:

Let us denote the number of double plunger strokes per minute as n. Then the theoretical minute
flow of the pump will be Q'theor.

Turning to the daily supply of the installation, multiply by 1440 (the number of minutes in a day)
and get the daily theoretical supply of the unit QT:

Thus, the conditionally theoretical delivery of the installation can be easily calculated at any time,
for which it is enough to measure (know) the stroke length of the polished rod S.
The actual daily flow of the unit, measured on the surface by liquid (after the separation process)
Qactual may not coincide with Qtheor for a variety of reasons.
The ratio of the actual supply of the installation (Q actual to the conditionally theoretical supply of
its Qtheor condition. Let's call the supply coefficient (α) of the installation:

. Then Qactual =.α Qtheor , - from 0 to 1.

In wells in which the so-called fountain effect is manifested, i.e. in wells partially flowing through
the pump, α there may be more than 1.
The operation of the pump is considered normal if .
Consider what determines the actual supply of the installation (feed rate).
The feed rate depends on a number of factors that are taken into account by the rates

αd - deformation of rods and pipes;

αs - shrinkage of the liquid;
αfd - the degree of filling the pump with liquid;
αlosses - fluid losses.

where Spl is the plunger stroke length (determined from the conditions for accounting for elastic
deformations of rods and pipes); S - stroke length of the wellhead rod (set during design).

,
 where ΔS - total deformation;
ΔSrd - rod deformation;
ΔSpd - pipe deformation.

,
where b is the volumetric coefficient of the liquid, equal to the ratio of the volumes (flow rates) of
the liquid under suction conditions and surface conditions.
The pump is filled with liquid and free gas.
The influence of gas on the filling of the pump is taken into account by the filling factor of the
pump cylinder

where R' is the gas number (ratio of free gas flow to liquid flow under suction conditions);
Kf/s is the coefficient characterizing the share of space, i.e. the volume of the cylinder under
the plunger at its lowest position from the volume of the cylinder described by the plunger. By increasing
the length of the plunger stroke, it is possible to increase αn.
The leakage coefficient αlosses is equal to:

where qlosses is the flow rate of fluid losses (in the plunger pair, valves, tubing couplings);
αlosses is a variable (unlike other factors), increasing over time, which leads to a change in the feed
rate.
Leaks occur due to the pressure difference above and below the plunger. Because this differential
only exists on the upward stroke of the plunger, leaks occur half the time the pump is running.
To determine qlosses, many methods and formulas have been proposed, in some cases extremely
complex and not always justified due to the inaccuracy of some of the data needed for the calculation.
The gap between the plunger and the cylinder can be considered as a rectangular gap with a length s =
πD, where D is the plunger diameter and a width δ equal to half the difference between the cylinder and
plunger diameters, and a length l equal to the plunger length.
The optimal feed rate is determined from the condition of the minimum cost of production and
well workover.
Influence of gas on the filling factor of the pump. A significant amount of free gas at the pump
intake leads to a decrease in the filling factor of the pump up to a supply failure. The main method of
struggle is to reduce the gas content in the liquid entering the pump. When liquid enters the pump, the gas
is partially separated into the annulus. Gas separation is characterized by the separation coefficient, which
is the ratio of the volume of free gas leaving the annulus to the total volume of free gas under
thermodynamic conditions at the pump intake.
Separation (separation) of gas can be improved with the help of protective devices and devices
called gas anchors (gas separators), which are installed when receiving the pump.
The negative impact of sand in the product leads to abrasive wear of the plunger pair, valve
assemblies and the formation of a sand plug at the bottom.
Sand also, at the slightest leakage of tubing, quickly blurs the channels of fluid flow in threaded
connections, wears out rod couplings and the inner surface of tubing, especially in deviated wells.
Even with short stops (up to 10 - 20 min), the plunger in the pump may seize, and with a large
draft, the rods may jam in the pipes.
Sand wells include wells with a sand content of more than 1 g/l.
There are 4 groups of sand control methods during pumping operation:
1. the most effective method is to prevent and control the flow of sand from the reservoir into the
well. The first is carried out either by installing special filters at the bottomhole, or by fixing the
bottomhole zone, and the second - by reducing the selection of fluid.
 At the same time, it is advisable to ensure the planned launch of a sand well by increasing the
stroke length S, the number of oscillations n or adding clean fluid into the well through the annulus (20-
25% of the flow rate).
2. Ensuring the removal to the surface of a significant part of the sand entering the well. Removal
conditions according to A.N. Adonin,

where Vl is the speed of the upward flow of liquid,

Vsand is the rate of free sedimentation of a grain of sand with a calculated diameter equal to the
average diameter of the largest fraction, which makes up about 20% of the total volume of sand.
This is ensured by the selection of combinations of lifting pipes and rods or by pumping clean
liquid (oil, water) into the annulus.
3. By installing sand anchors (separation) and filters at the pump intake, separation of sand from
liquid is achieved.
The work of sand anchors is based on the gravitational principle.
Sand anchor of direct action is at the same time a gas anchor. The use of sand anchors is not the
main, but an auxiliary method of dealing with sand.
The method is effective for wells in which the sand flow is short and its total amount is small.
Anti-sand filters, installed at the pump intake, prevent medium and large grains of sand from
entering the pump (more than 0.01 mm, depending on the ratio of the sizes of sand grains and the
channels of the filter material).
4. Use of special pumps for viscous oils.
The main way to lift high-viscosity oils to the surface is by sucker-rod well-pumping.
When pumping oils with a viscosity of more than 500 MPa s, the rods may "hang" in the liquid
during the downward stroke.
In order to reduce the influence of viscosity, various techniques and technological schemes of
production are used:
- use of special double-plunger pumps,
- increase in the diameter of the tubing, pump and flow sections in the pump valves,
- establishment of low-speed pumping mode (number of pumping up to 3-4 min-1, stroke length
0.8-0.9 m),
- pouring a solvent (low-viscosity oil) into the annulus (10-15% of the flow rate of the produced
oil or water),
- heating the pumped liquid at the pump intake, or pumping hot coolant into the annulus.
To control paraffin deposits, the same methods are used as in the fountain and gas lift operation.

Lecture 15. Principles of operation of compressor wells. Methods for reducing the starting
pressure of compressor pipes.

In the practice of operating gas-lift wells, especially in the early periods, many practical methods
have been developed for starting gas-lift wells and overcoming the difficulties associated with the
occurrence of high start-up pressures. These methods include the following.
Application of special starting compressors. When using compressor stations as a source of
compressed gas for gas lift wells, these stations install one or more compressors (depending on the need)
that develop an increased pressure sufficient to start the well. Starting compressors work in a special
starting line connecting the compressor station with a gas distribution unit, in which, by switching the
corresponding valves, gas from the starting line can be directed to any gas lift well. After starting the well
at the distribution unit, by switching the valves again, gas from the working line is sent to the gas line of
this well with a pressure corresponding to the working pressure.
Switching the operation of the lift from the annular system to the central one . Switching the well
from the ring system to the central one only for the period of its start-up reduces the start-up pressure with
a single-row lift by about 7.5 times
With a two-row, such a switch has little effect and the starting pressure decreases by only 11%.
With a single row elevator, switching to a central start system can be very effective. After the
well is started, the lift switches to the ring system for its normal operation.Sequential pipe tolerance
method. It can be used in wells with a low productivity factor, it is quite laborious and, to a certain extent,
dangerous. The essence of this method is as follows. The hoist shoe descends to such a depth at which it
is possible to push the liquid level back based on the available injection pressure Рzak. Next, we calculate
the depth of the descent of the pipe shoe. After the shoe is lowered to the estimated depth, gas is supplied
to the well under pressure sufficient to push the liquid level to the shoe and the well is blown; in this case,
a certain volume of fluid is ejected from the well. After that, the wellhead fittings are dismantled and the
tubing string is built up so that the shoe is lowered to a depth below the oil level.
Then the whole procedure is repeated until the shoe descent depth reaches the design value.

Fluid injection into the formation. If the well absorbs liquid well during repression, then by
pumping gas and holding the well under pressure for a sufficiently long time, it is possible to push the
liquid into the formation. The level will drop, reach the shoe and the well will be launched.
A more universal and easily controllable method of reducing the starting pressure is a method
based on reducing the density of the liquid in the well ρzh using special starting holes on the lifter.
Application of openings. In terms of the physical nature of the processes after a gas breakthrough
into the riser, this method does not fundamentally differ from the method of sequential pipe tolerance.
The technological difference is that the breakthrough of gas into the elevator is carried out not through the
shoe of the elevator, but through special launch holes located at the calculated depths along the length of
the elevator below the initial static level Hst. The location of the launch holes and their number depend on
the available working pressure Pp and the depth of the shoe descent Hb.
So-called starting holes are drilled in advance on the column of lift pipes below the static level.
When gas is injected into the annular space, the lowering liquid level exposes the first hole
through which gas enters the tubing, degasses the liquid in them to such an extent that it begins to
overflow. This phenomenon is similar to the operation of a gas lift well with a shoe installed at the level
of the first hole.
In this way, it is possible to lower the level in the annular space to the tubing shoe, after which
the gas lift will switch to normal operation through the shoe. However, during the steady operation of the
gas lift, additional gas leakage will occur through these starting holes, which remain open all the time,
which will lead to an increased specific consumption of injected gas, and, consequently, to a decrease in
the efficiency of the lift compared to its operation when gas only through the shoe.
Therefore, these holes after the transition to normal operation.

Lecture 16. Factors that adversely affect the operation of the sucker rod pump. Control over
the optimal operating mode of the pump. Dynamograph and dynamometers.

Measurement of loads is carried out by a special device called a dynamograph. The graphical
dependence of the load acting in any section of the rods during the pumping cycle (stroke up - stroke
down) as a function of the displacement of this section is called a dynamometer chart. A dynamograph is
a device that registers on a special form the change in load during a pumping cycle. There are many types
of dynamographs, but all of them, according to the principle of operation, can be divided into several
classes: mechanical, hydromechanical, electrical, electronic, etc.
Each class of dynamographs has both advantages and disadvantages.
Depending on the installation location of the dynamograph, they are divided into two groups:
1. Depth dynamographs, usually installed in the lower part of the rod string (above the pump
plunger). They record the loads acting on the plunger during the pumping cycle. Depth dynamographs
have not yet been widely used in oilfield practice.
2. Surface dynamographs installed at the junction of a polished rod with a cable suspension of a
pumping unit (CSPU) and have become quite widespread.
The dynamograph consists of two parts: force-measuring I and recording P.
 Figure 1. Influence of inertial forces on the shape of the dynamometer chart
Thus, when the unit is operating in the dynamic mode, the appearance of the dynamometer chart
only under the action of inertial forces differs significantly from that in the static mode (the ABCD
dynamometer chart is shown in Fig. 1by a dotted line). It should be noted that with the same stroke length
of the polished rod, the plunger stroke length in the case of the manifestation of inertial forces Spl.in is
greater than the plunger stroke length when the unit is operating in the static mode Spl.st.
Dynamometer charts become even more complex when vibration loads occur in the system, a
characteristic feature of which is the appearance of sinusoidal curves during the up and down stroke (Fig.
2).

Figure 2. Influence on the shape of the dynamogram of vibrational processes in the system

Figure 2 shows all the loads acting on the system during the up and down stroke. Theoretical
dynamometer charts can only be built for some cases. In practice, the decoding of dynamograms requires
an individual qualified analysis. At present, for deciphering dynamometer charts, a comparison method is
used, based on an adequate mathematical model of the operation of a deep pumping unit.
The essence of this method is to introduce into the model any malfunction in any element of the
downhole pumping unit, which is reflected in the model dynamometer chart. Comparison of the actual
(field) dynamometer chart with the model one allows to establish the nature of the malfunction (Fig. 3).
This approach allows, using a mathematical model, to construct the required number of model
dynamometer charts, using which it is possible to establish a malfunction based on the type of practical
dynamometer chart.

Figure 3. Practical dynamograms of the Rod Pump operation:

a - normal low-speed operation;
b - influence of gas;
c - excess of the pump supply over the inflow into the well;
g - low landing of the plunger;
e - exit of the plunger from the cylinder of the non-inserted pump;
f - impacts of the plunger on the upper restrictive nut of the plug-in pump;
g - leakage in the discharge part;
h - leakage in the suction part;
i - complete failure of the injection part;
j - complete failure of the suction part;
k - semi-fountain nature of the pump operation;
l - breakage of rods (dotted lines show the lines of the theoretical dynamogram)

Lecture 17. The principle of operation and diagram of centrifugal electric submersible
pumps (CESP). Determination of the depth of suspension or immersion of the pump.

17.1 General installation diagram of a submersible centrifugal electric pump

Insufficiently high flow of rod pumps, the need to install bulky equipment, the risk of rod
breakage at large depths of wells and other reasons limit the scope of rod pumps.
In this regard, rodless pumps are used, of which submersible centrifugal electric pumps and screw pumps
are widely used.
Centrifugal pumps for pumping liquid from a well are not fundamentally different from
conventional centrifugal pumps used to pump liquids on the surface of the earth.
 However, small radial dimensions due to the diameter of the casing strings into which centrifugal
pumps are run, practically unlimited axial dimensions, the need to overcome high heads and the operation
of the pump in a submerged state led to the creation of centrifugal pumping units of a specific design.
Submersible centrifugal electric pumps are multistage centrifugal pumps with up to 120 stages in
one block, driven by a submersible electric motor of a special design.
The electric motor is powered from the surface by electricity supplied through the cable. The
ESCP is lowered into the well under the calculated dynamic level, usually by 150 - 300 m.
The liquid is supplied through the tubing, to the outer side of which an electric cable is attached
with special belts. In the pump unit between the pump itself and the electric motor there is an intermediate
link called a protector or hydraulic protection.

Figure 1. General layout of the well equipment with the installation of a submersible centrifugal
pump

The SCP installation includes:

- oil-filled electric motor - 1;
- hydraulic protection link or protector - 2;
- intake grid of the pump for fluid intake - 3;
- multistage centrifugal pump - 4;
- tubing - 5;
- armored three-core electric cable - 6;
- belts for fastening the cable to the tubing - 7;
- wellhead fittings - 8;
- a drum for winding a cable during tripping and storing a certain supply of cable - 9;
- transformer or autotransformer - 10;
- control station with automation - 11;
- compensator - 12.
The fluid sucked in by the pump sequentially passes through all stages and leaves the pump with a
pressure equal to the external hydraulic resistance.
 SCP are distinguished by low metal consumption, a wide range of performance characteristics,
both in terms of pressure and flow, a sufficiently high efficiency, the possibility of pumping large
amounts of liquid and a long overhaul period.
All pumps are divided into two main groups: conventional and wear-resistant design. The vast
majority of the operating stock of pumps (about 95%) is of conventional design.
The graphical dependences of the pressure H, efficiency η and power consumption N on the
supply of a submersible centrifugal pump Q are called pump characteristics.
The characteristics of the pump are taken during testing on technical water with a density of
1000 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 1 mPa*s and are presented in special literature.

Figure 2. Main characteristics of a submersible centrifugal pump

All types of pumps have a passport performance characteristic in the form of dependency curves H
(Q) (pressure, flow), η (Q) (efficiency, flow), N (Q) (power consumption, flow). Usually these
dependencies are given in the range of operating flow rates or in a slightly larger interval (Fig. 12.2).
Any centrifugal pump, including the SCP, can operate with a closed outlet valve (point A: Q = 0;
H = Hmax) and without counterpressure at the outlet (point B: Q = Qmax; H = 0).
Since the useful work of the pump is proportional to the product of the supply to the pressure, then
for these two extreme modes of operation of the pump, the useful work will be equal to zero, and,
consequently, the efficiency will be equal to zero.
At a certain ratio (Q and H), due to the minimum internal losses of the pump, the efficiency
reaches a maximum value equal to approximately η = 0.5 - 0.6.
Typically, pumps with low flow and small impeller diameters, as well as with a large number of
stages, have a reduced efficiency.
The flow and pressure corresponding to the maximum efficiency are called the optimal operating
mode of the pump.
The dependence η(Q) near its maximum decreases smoothly, therefore, the operation of the SCP
is quite acceptable under modes that differ from the optimal one in both directions by some value.
The limits of these deviations will depend on the specific characteristics of the SCP and should
correspond to a reasonable decrease in pump efficiency (by 3 - 5%).
This determines a whole area of possible modes of operation of the SCP, which is called the
recommended area.
The selection of a pump for wells essentially comes down to choosing such a standard size of
the SCP that, when lowered into the well, it would operate under the conditions of the optimal or
recommended mode when pumping a given well flow rate from a given depth.
The pressure that a pump can overcome is directly proportional to the number of stages.
Developed by one stage at the optimum operating mode, it depends, in particular, on the dimensions of
the impeller, which in turn depend on the radial dimensions of the pump.
For example, with an outer diameter of the pump casing of 92 mm, the average head developed
by one stage (when operating on water) is from 3.69 to 4.2 m.
With an outer diameter of 114 mm, the average head is 5.76 m with fluctuations from 5.03 to
6.84 m.
 17.2 Determining the hanging depth of the SCP
Pump suspension depth (L) is determined by:
1) the depth of the dynamic level of the liquid in the well H dyn during the selection of a given
amount of liquid;
2) the depth of immersion of the SCP under the dynamic level H imm, the minimum necessary to
ensure the normal operation of the pump;
3) backpressure at the wellhead Rb/p, which must be overcome;
4) head loss to overcome the friction forces in the tubing when the flow hf;
5) the work of the gas Hg released from the liquid, which reduces the required total pressure.

Thus, one can write:

Let's give a simplified calculation of the process of movement of gas-liquid mixture in the tubing.
At the pump outlet, the liquid contains dissolved gas. When the pressure is reduced, the gas is
released and contributes to the rise of the liquid, thereby reducing the required pressure by the value of
Hg.
For this reason, Hg enters equation with a negative sign.
During the operation of the SCP, higher values of the coefficient of performance (COP) can be
recommended to assess the efficiency of the gas.
- when extracting clean oil η = 0.8;
- with watered oil 0.2 < Sw < 0.5 η = 0.65;
- with heavily watered oil 0.5 < Sw < 0.9 η = 0.5;
To match H(Q) characteristics of the ESP with the conditions of the well, the so-called pressure
characteristic of the well is built (Fig. 3) depending on its flow rate.

Figure 3. Pressure characteristics of the well:

1 - depth (from the mouth) of the dynamic level, 2 - the required head, taking into account the
pressure on the wellhead, 3 - the necessary head, taking into account friction forces, 4 - the resulting
head, taking into account the "gas-lift effect"

Figure shows the curves of changes in the terms in equation from the flow rate of the well and
determining the resulting pressure characteristic of the well Hwell(Q).
Line 1 - dependence Hdyn(Q), determined by the formulas and built point by point for various
arbitrarily chosen Q.
Obviously, at Q = 0, Hdyn = Hst, i.e., the dynamic level coincides with the static level.
Adding to Hdyn the value of the buffer pressure, expressed in m of liquid column (P wh/ρg), we get
line 2 - the dependence of these two terms on the well flow rate.
 Calculating the value of h fr for different Q and adding the calculated h fr to the ordinates of line 2,
we get line 3 - the dependence of the first three terms in equation on the well flow rate.
Calculating the value of H according to the formula and subtracting its value from the ordinates
of line 3, we obtain the resulting line 4, called the pressure characteristic of the well.
H(Q) is superimposed on the pressure characteristic of the well - the characteristic of the pump
to find the point of their intersection, which determines such a flow rate of the well, which will be equal
to the supply of the SCP when the pump and the well work together (Fig. 4).
Point A - the intersection of the characteristics of the well and SCP (Fig. 4, curve 1). The
abscissa of point A gives the flow rate of the well when the well and the pump are working together, and
the ordinate is the head H developed by the pump.
For efficient and economical operation, it is necessary to select a SCP with such characteristics
so that the intersection point of the characteristics would coincide with the maximum efficiency (Fig. 4,
curve 3) (point B) or, at least, would lie in the area of recommended modes operation of this pump (see
Fig. 4, hatching).

Figure 4. Coordination of the pressure characteristic of the well (2) with the H(Q) characteristic of the
SCP (1), 3 - efficiency line.

As you can see, the point A of the intersection of the characteristics turned out in this case outside
the shaded area.
Wanting to ensure the operation of the pump in the mode ηmax (point D), we find the pump flow
(well flow rate) Qwf corresponding to this mode.
The pressure developed by the pump when supplying Q wf in the ηmax mode is determined by point
B.
In fact, under these operating conditions, the necessary head will be determined by point C.
The difference BC = ΔH is the excess head. In this case, it is possible to increase the pressure at
the wellhead by ΔР = ΔН·ρ·g by installing a fitting or remove part of the pump operating stages and
replace them with liners.
With the above-described matching of the characteristics of the pump well, it is necessary that the
H(Q) characteristic of the SCP correspond to the actual characteristic when it operates on a well fluid of a
certain viscosity and at a certain gas content at the intake. The passport characteristic H(Q) is determined
when the pump is running on water and, as a rule, is overestimated.
Therefore, it is important to have an actual SCP characterization before matching it with the well
characterization.
The most reliable method for obtaining the actual characteristics of the pump is its bench testing
on well fluid at a given percentage of water cut.
 Lecture 18. Fundamentals of gas lift.

Gas lift technology increases oil production rate by injection of compressed gas into the lower
section of tubing through the casingtubing annulus and an orifice installed in the tubing string.
Upon entering the tubing, the compressed gas affects liquid flow in two ways: (1) the energy of
expansion propels (pushes) the oil to the surface and (2) the gas aerates the oil so that the effective density
of the fluid is less and, thus, easier to get to the surface.
There are four categories of wells in which a gas lift can be considered:
1. High productivity index (PI), high bottom-hole pressure wells
2. High PI, low bottom-hole pressure wells
3. Low PI, high bottom-hole pressure wells
4. Low PI, low bottom-hole pressure wells
Wells having a PI of 0.50 or less are classified as low productivity wells. Wells having a PI greater
than 0.50 are classified as high productivity wells. High bottom-hole pressures will support a fluid
column equal to 70% of the well depth. Low bottom-hole pressures will support a fluid column less than
40% of the well depth.
Gas lift technology has been widely used in the oil fields that produce sandy and gassy oils.
Crooked/deviated holes present no problem. Well depth is not a limitation. It is also applicable to offshore
operations. Lifting costs for a large number of wells are generally very low. However, it requires lift gas
within or near the oil fields. It is usually not efficient in lifting small fields with a small number of wells if
gas compression equipment is required. Gas lift advancements in pressure control and automation
systems have enabled the optimization of individual wells and gas lift systems.
Gas Lift System. A complete gas lift system consists of a gas compression station, a gas injection
manifold with injection chokes and time cycle surface controllers, a tubing string with installations of
unloading valves and operating valve, and a down-hole chamber.
Fig. depicts a configuration of a gas lifted well with installations of unloading valves and operating valve
on the tubing string. There are four principal advantages to be gained by the use of multiple valves in a
well:
1. Deeper gas injection depths can be achieved by using valves for wells with fixed surface
injection pressures.
2. Variation in the well’s productivity can be obtained by selectively injecting gas valves set at
depths “higher” or “lower” in the tubing string.
3. Gas volumes injected into the well can be “metered” into the well by the valves.
4. Intermittent gas injection at progressively deeper set valves can be carried out to “kick off” a
well to either continuous or intermittent flow.
A continuous gas lift operation is a steady-state flow of the aerated fluid from the bottom (or near
bottom) of the well to the surface. Intermittent gas lift operation is characterized by a startand- stop flow
from the bottom (or near bottom) of the well to the surface. This is unsteady state flow.
In continuous gas lift, a small volume of high-pressure gas is introduced into the tubing to aerate or
lighten the fluid column. This allows the flowing bottom-hole pressure with the aid of the expanding
injection gas to deliver liquid to the surface. To accomplish this efficiently, it is desirable to design a
system that will permit injection through a single valve at the greatest depth possible with the available
injection pressure.
Continuous gas lift method is used in wells with a high PI ($ 0.5 stb/day/psi) and a reasonably
high reservoir pressure relative to well depth. Intermittent gas lift method is suitable to wells with (1) high
PI and low reservoir pressure or (2) low PI and low reservoir pressure.
The type of gas lift operation used, continuous or intermittent, is also governed by the volume of
fluids to be produced, the available lift gas as to both volume and pressure, and the well reservoir’s
conditions such as the case when the high instantaneous bottom hole pressure (BHP) drawdown
encountered with intermittent flow would cause excessive sand production, or coning, and/or gas into the
wellbore.
 The potential of gas lift wells is controlled by gas injection rate or gas liquid ratio (GLR). Four gas
injection rates are significant in the operation of gas lift installations:
1. Injection rates of gas those results in no liquid (oil or water) flow up the tubing. The gas amount
is insufficient to lift the liquid. If the gas enters the tubing at an extremely low rate, it will rise to the
surface in small semi-spheres (bubbly flow).
2. Injection rates of maximum efficiency where a minimum volume of gas is required to lift a
given amount of liquid.
3. Injection rate for maximum liquid flow rate at the “optimum GLR.”
4. Injection rate of no liquid flow because of excessive gas injection. This occurs when the friction
(pipe) produced by the gas prevents liquid from entering the tubing.

Continuous Gas Lift Pressure relationship in a continuous gas lift

GAS FLOW RATE REQUIREMENT. The total gas flow rate of the compression station should
be designed on the basis of gas lift at peak operating condition for all the wells with a safety factor for
system leak consideration, that is,

SPECIAL ISSUES IN INTERMITTENT-FLOW GAS LIFT

 The intermittent-flow mechanism is very different from that of the continuous-flow gas lift. It is
normally applicable in either high-BHPlow PI or low-BHPlow PI reservoirs. In these two reservoir cases,
an excessive high drawdown is needed, which results in a prohibitively high GLR to produce the desired
quantity of oil (liquid) by continuous gas lift. In many instances, the reservoir simply is not capable of
giving up the desired liquid regardless of drawdown.
The flow from a well using intermittent gas lift techniques is called “ballistic” or “slug” flow.
Two major factors that define the intermittent-gas lift process must be understood:
1. Complex flowing gradient of the gas lifted liquids from the well.
2. Contribution of the PI of the well to the actual deliverability of liquid to the surface.

DESIGN OF GAS LIFT INSTALLATIONS

 Gas lift mechanics.

Gas lift consists of compressed gas injection through mandrel valves located along the production
tubing close to the perforations with the purpose of changing net flowing fluid density upward (Fig.).
Wellbore fluid density is reduced with the consequent reduction in pressure loss due to gravity, however
with some additional pressure losses due to slippage (slippage of the gas relative to the oil) and friction.
Reservoir energy is now sufficient to lift the lighter fluid column to the surface at current tubing head
pressure conditions.
Lifting efficiency and hence oil production, is a function of producing Gas/Liquid Ratio (GLR),
Water Cut (WCT), lift gas injection pressure, initial injection point depth, crude composition, pipeline
and formation characteristics.
Gas-lift operating features and limits
The main disadvantages in gas lift are, initial high investment cost for compression, increasing
demand for gas lift during reservoir life and uneconomic oil rates at low reservoir pressures. Generally the
producing rates increase with increasing lift-gas quantities (see again Fig.). There is a maximum gas-lift
amount beyond which the production rate will decline. This is because of the fact, that a continuous
increase of injection pressure will create additional back pressure towards the reservoir. Also, increasing
amounts of gas in the producing tubing will create tremendous friction and pressure drop.
Gas lift is not efficient at very low reservoir pressures, since gas-lift pressure gradient may impose
additional backpressure to the formation and avoid any fluid to be produced. Also, gas lift is not
convenient at high water cut values, because of high water and gas slippage velocities. However, gas lift
is quite effective when there is adequate pressure support and at relatively low water cuts. Moreover, low
maintenance is required along well life cycle.
 Dynamic gas-lift automatic control
Automatic control and optimization is used to inject the optimum gas rate. Given the current
conditions of mass flow rate, tubing head pressure and temperature (controlled variables), a closed-loop
controller will calculate the optimum gas rate and pressure (manipulated variables) that maximizes flow
rate at any time.
For a large number of wells and for variable gas-lift availability (due to compressor plant uptime
and market conditions), dynamic automated gas-lift allocation will permit the optimum field production
subject to current well models and surface production constraints. This is usually worked out by posing a
Linear Programming (LP) problem, solved iteratively on an hourly to daily basis.

Lecture 19. Methods of influence on the formation zone of production wells. Hydraulic
fracturing, reservoir development using acid and thermal methods.
 Hydraulic Fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing is used to create high permeability flow conduit in
tight rocks, increasing the area of flow to wellbore. It is also used in highly permeable rocks as sand
control, liquid dropout prevention or turbulent flow control technique by decreasing pressure drop around
the wellbore. The initiation of a hydraulic fracture in a well is the tensile failure, or breakdown, of the
surrounding rock caused by the injection of fluid (Economides et al., 1994, 1998; Dusterhoft and
Chapman, 1994; Economides and Nolte, 2000; Fan and Economides, 1995; Mukherjee, 1999). Fracture
propagation from the well into the reservoir is extended as fluid at high rate continues to be injected. The
pressure needed to initiate the fracture is often considerably greater than the pressure required to
propagate the fracture. Commonly, at an appropriate instant during injection, proppant is added to the
fracturing fluid to keep the fracture open. Thus, a conductive pathway is created for fluid flow from the
reservoir to the wellbore. In the past, hydraulic fracturing has been used almost entirely to stimulate the
production or injection of wells in low-permeability reservoirs (Economides et al., 1994, 1998;
Mukherjee, 1999; Economides and Nolte, 2000). Such a hydraulic fracture invariably results in a high-
conductivity pathway, and thus, for low-permeability reservoirs the intention has always been to generate
a long fracture allowing considerable penetration of the reservoir by such a high conductivity path. This
goal is conveniently accomplished in unrestricted fracturing. However, in high-permeability reservoirs,
the incremental conductivity obtained under normal circumstances from a traditional fracture treatment
would be very small, leading to a low-conductivity fracture. Low conductivity would also lead to a large
pressure drop along the fracture during production. This would mean wasteful over-treatment because
much of the fracture length would not contribute effectively to well production.
Objectives of high-permeability fracturing
The general objective is to stimulate the production or injection rate of a well. Beyond the obvious
motivation, there are several other objectives in the fracturing of a high-permeability formation, described
below.
Bypassing formation damage. A fracture that penetrates beyond the near-wellbore damage region
effectively bypasses and nullifies the effects of this damage zone. These effects, left unchallenged, would
result in impaired productivity and invariably unwanted larger pressure drawdown. Often, matrix
simulation to remove the near-wellbore damage is either partially effective or totally ineffective.
Reduction of near-wellbore drawdown during production. Pressure drawdown, which is equal to
the reservoir pressure minus the flowing bottom hole pressure, is the sole driving force for flow from the
reservoir to the wellbore. As drawdown increases it may affect the formation stability. Formation
instability may cause fines and sand to migrate into the wellbore region. A short and wide fracture can
overcome this problem by reducing pressure losses and velocities in the reservoir sand near the wellbore.
Improving communication between reservoir layers and the wellbore. In multiple laminated
sand/shale sequences, the thin laminated sand layer may not communicate efficiently with the wellbore
until a fracture is performed to provide a continuous, vertically penetrating, connection to the
perforations.
Reducing the effect of non-Darcy flow in most dry gas and/or gas condensate reservoirs.
Generally, for reservoir permeabilities below 5 md there is little effect from non-Darcy flow. In higher-
permeability reservoirs, the non-Darcy term becomes increasingly important and could significantly
reduce the well production rate. A hydraulic fracture provides further conductivity and the flow velocities
from the reservoir can be reduced enough so that non-Darcy effects are either eliminated or markedly
reduced (Settari et al., 1998).
Candidate well selection for high-permeability fracturing. To determine which well is suitable for
high-permeability fracturing and, of even greater importance, the size and type of fracture treatment,
candidates are classified into two major categories depending on what is expected from the well. For
production enhancement these are:
 • Formations where matrix acidizing is not possible due to mineralogy or because the penetration
of damage is too deep or too severe to be removed by matrix stimulation.
• Multiple pay zones in laminated sand/shale sequences, in which the laminated layers could not
communicate with the wellbore unless a fracture provides the connection.
• Gas wells in high-permeability reservoirs in which production is impeded because of non-Darcy
flow.
A fracture can greatly reduce the non-Darcy effects. According to Settari et al. (1998), for any
reservoir permeability, as the reservoir pressure increases, the fracture becomes less effective in reducing
reservoir turbulence and a longer fracture is needed. For near-wellbore drawdown related problems the
following are suitable:
• Poorly consolidated formations in which fracturing may act as a substitute to gravel pack without
the associated plugging, which almost always appears in gravel packs resulting in large positive skins.
The main mechanism that favors high-permeability fracturing over gravel packs in poorly consolidated
formations is the reduction in the fluid flux at a desired flow rate because of the substantial increase in the
area of contact with the reservoir. This increase in area prevents the de-consolidation of sand and its
migration towards the well.
All wells that are candidates for gravel packing, especially wells in which gravel packs might
reduce the near wellbore permeability, are generally even better candidates for high-permeability
fracturing.
• Low-bottomhole-pressure wells in which formation could not afford the required drawdown for
satisfactory radial flow production.
 Hydraulic fracturing, as a well stimulation technique, is one of the most enduring technologies that
the oil and gas industry has ever developed. Tens of thousands of oil and gas wells worldwide are
stimulated using hydraulic fracturing every year. Commercial developments of unconventional resources
would not be possible today without hydraulic fracturing. There are a wide range of applications for
hydraulic fracturing, including unconventional development, production enhancement in low- and
moderate-permeability reservoirs, bypassing near wellbore damage in high permeability reservoirs,
reducing sand production in loosely consolidated or unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs, and connecting
the natural fractures in a formation to the wellbore.
Hydraulic fracturing is a process in which fluid is pumped into the wellbore, through a perforated
or open hole interval, and into the targeted formation at pressures high enough to break the rock and
create a fracture. As high-pressure fluid injection continues, some fluid leaks off into the formation and
the rest of the fluid keeps the pressure inside the fracture high enough to allow the fracture propagation to
continue. A clean fluid is typically pumped initially to create a fracture.
Once the desired fracture dimensions are achieved, the pumping is switched from the clean fluid to a
mixture of fluid and proppant. Upon the completion of the process, pumping is stopped, but the fluid
inside the fracture continues leaking off into the formation until the fracture closes on proppant.
The goal of hydraulic fracturing is to leave a fracture packed with proppant to create a conductive path
from the wellbore deep into the formation. Part or all of the fracturing fluid remaining inside the fracture
and in the reservoir around the fracture will flow back during the flowback and early production periods.
A hydraulic fracturing treatment is implemented at a well site using an array of specialized equipment,
including high-pressure pumps, blenders, fluid tanks, proppant storage units, and ancillary equipment
such as hoses, pipes, valves, manifolds, etc. Fig. 14.1 provides a simplified view of the process, including
the equipment, the equipment layout at surface, the wellbore, the fracture created, and the proppant
placed. In oilfield terms, fracture and fracturing are often referred to as “frac”.

Fracture models

FRACTURE MODES AND FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

Fracture is literally the cracking or breaking of a solid material. There are three modes of fractures
that can occur when a material fails by external loads:
 • Mode I fracture, also known as the opening mode, which is caused by a tensile stress normal to
the plane of the crack;
• Mode II fracture, also known as the sliding mode, which is caused by a shear stress acting
parallel to the plane of the crack and perpendicular to the crack front;
• Mode III fracture, also known as the tearing mode, which is caused by a shear stress acting
parallel to the plane of the crack and parallel to the crack front.
The opening mode that results in tensile fractures is usually concerned in hydraulic fracturing
applications. Tensile fractures propagate in the direction perpendicular to the least principal stress.
Fracture toughness reflects the resistance of the rock to fracture propagation. In another word,
fracture toughness represents the energy required to propagate the fracture at its tip. When the fracture
length is small, it requires more energy to propagate the fracture. As the fracture becomes larger, the
effect of fracture toughness becomes insignificant. Fracture toughness is a required input parameter for all
realistic fracture simulators.
By definition, a hydraulic fracture is created by fluid injection. For that, pressure and stress are
interchangeable to describe fracture initiation and propagation. Due to the effects of the induced stresses
around the wellbore, the breakdown pressure is larger than the fracture extension pressure (often simply
called fracture pressure), which is the fluid pressure required to propagate the fracture through the
formation, away from the influence of wellbore effects. The fracture pressure is affected by many factors,
including the minimum stresses in various formation layers that the fracture covers, the contrast of
minimum stresses between lithology, the contrast between the minimum and intermediate stresses, rock
properties, fracturing fluid properties, and pumping rates, etc.
CANDIDATE WELL SELECTION
Hydraulic fracturing is an effective well stimulation technique. There are many applications for hydraulic
fracturing, including unconventional development, production enhancement in low- and moderate-
permeability reservoirs, bypassing near wellbore damage in high-permeability reservoirs, reducing sand
production in loosely consolidated or unconsolidated reservoirs, and connecting the natural fractures in a
formation to the wellbore. However, hydraulic fracturing may not be applicable to all types of wells and
reservoirs. Candidate selection, treatment design, production forecasting and economic analysis are the
keys to success of a hydraulic fracture treatment.
Low-permeability wells are obvious candidates for hydraulic fracturing as these wells can hardly become
economic without effective stimulation. However, it is possible that the reservoir permeability is too low
to provide economic production even with effective stimulation. Regardless of the reservoir permeability,
wells suffering from near-wellbore formation damage are always good candidates for hydraulic
fracturing. A short, conductive hydraulic fracture is often a desired solution to stimulate damaged wells.
The stimulation of naturally fractured reservoirs can be very successful, though it can be challenging to
place an adequate amount of proppants into the fracture due to excessive fluid loss from the dilation of
natural fractures during the treatment. Hydraulic fracturing is also commonly used in unconsolidated
high-permeability reservoirs to bypass formation damage and to enhance well productivity, and more
importantly to mitigate sand production.
Candidate well selection for hydraulic fracturing treatments is determined by reservoir properties.
Some of the reservoir characteristics suitable for hydraulic fracturing include:
• Unconventional shale or coalbed methane reservoirs
• Low-permeability formations, or pay zones that have been damaged
• Undepleted reservoirs with medium to high reservoir pressure
• Good stress barriers to minimize fracture growth out of pay zones
• Relatively thick pay zone(s) with enough hydrocarbons in place
Reservoirs that are poor candidates for hydraulic fracturing are basically those that lack the above
characteristics.
TREATMENT PROCEDURE

1. The first fluid pumped into the formation is called “prepad.” The prepad has low viscosity and does not
contain any proppant. A small amount of KCl brine, slickwater, or HCl acid fluid is typically used to
break down the formation and to allow fracture initiation. Acid is often used in the prepad as it dissolves
perforation debris and minerals around the perforation tunnels, and thus reduces the formation break
down pressure.
2. The fluid that follows the prepad is called “pad.” The pad can be a more viscous fluid or simply
slickwater. From this point forward, the fracture propagates into the formation.
Typically, no proppant is pumped during the pad; however, in some cases, very small amounts of
proppant may be added in short bursts in order to clean the perforations and to bridge off smaller cracks
that provides a chance to allow fewer and larger fractures to propagate away from the near-wellbore
region. The goal of pumping a pad is to create a fracture with adequate width to allow proppant to travel
deep in the fracture. Another purpose of the pad is to provide enough fluid volume within the fracture to
account for fluid loss that occurs throughout the entire treatment.
3. After the pad is pumped, the subsequent stages will contain varying concentrations of proppant. The
proppant laden fluid is commonly referred to as “slurry.” During the proppant stages, smaller proppants
or lower proppant concentrations are pumped first, and the proppant concentrations are increased
gradually, to ensure a successful placement of proppants. As proppant laden slurry travels toward the tip
or the outer edge of the fracture, some of the fracturing fluid is lost into the formation due to leakoff,
resulting in an increase in proppant concentration. The fracture width also becomes narrower when it gets
close to the fracture edge. These are the primary reason why to ramp up proppant concentrations as the
treatment continues. The proppant slurry stage is typically divided into a number of sub-stages to allow
the fluid type or the proppant concentration to be specified at each sub-stage. The fluid used in the slurry
can be of many types, including slickwater, linear gel, crosslinked gel, viscoelastic fluid, or foamed fluid,
depending on the type of the design or the type of the reservoir treated.
4. Once the desired amount of fluids and proppants are pumped, the proppant slurry in the wellbore has to
be displaced by a clean fluid. The purpose of the displacement is to flush the previous proppant laden
stage to a depth just above the perforations, so that the wellbore is not left full of proppant and most of the
proppant pumped is placed in the fractures. The final displacement is commonly called the “flush.” The
flush fluid is usually plain water, KCl water, slickwater, or a low gel-loading fluid.
5. Once the treatment is completed, the well is shut down to allow the fracture to close as the fluid
inside the fracture continues leaking into the reservoir or flow back to speed up the fracture closing
processes. Depending on the pad size and treatment design, there is typically a portion of the fracture near
the tip without proppant placed. As a result, there will be two fracture geometries, hydraulic fracture and
propped fracture, as illustrated.

Acidizing.
The general common objective of well stimulation via matrix acidizing or hydraulic fracturing is
to reduce pressure restrictions around wellbore and the increase flow rate.
Matrix acidizing
The purpose of matrix acidizing is to dissolve rock material and remove drilling mud and clay creating
new flow paths and increasing permeability in near wellbore area. Acid is used to remove damage from
carbonate and sandstone formations and to stimulate production and injectivity in carbonates. Acid is
used for both matrix and fracture treatments in carbonates.
Matrix acid candidates have permeability greater than 10 md in oil wells and 1 md in gas wells. Acid frac
candidates have permeabilities less than 10 md in oil wells and 1 md in gas wells. Matrix acidizing is
performed below the fracturing rate and pressure of the formation, where acid travels through existing
pores and natural fractures. Fracture acidizing is performed above the fracturing rate and pressure of the
formation, where the rock is cracked and an etched fracture is created.
Matrix acid treatments are commonly used to increase injectivity in disposal and injection wells. If
acidizing injection and disposal wells is needed on a regular basis to maintain injection rates, water
quality should be examined. Carbonate rocks, mainly conformed by limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2), rapidly dissolve in HCl and create reaction products, calcium chloride (CaCl2),
magnesium chloride (MgCl2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) that occur under the following
balanced equations:

In carbonates, the rate of dissolution is limited mainly by the speed with which acid can be delivered to
the rock surface. This results in rapid generation of irregularly shaped channels, called wormholes. The
acid increases production by creating bypasses around the damage rather than directly removing it.
Silicate matrix acidizing is different from carbonates. Sandstone, mainly conformed by silicon
dioxide (SiO2), reacts with hydrofluoric acid (HF) to produce silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). As a secondary
reaction, silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) will react with more hydrofluoric acid (HF) to produce silicon
hexafluoride (SiF6 2-). Hydrochloric acid does not react with silicate materials. SiO2 and HF reactions
occur under the following balanced equation:

By comparison, the reaction rate between HF and sandstones is much slower than HCl. Mud
acidizing seeks to unblock existing pathways for production by dissolving wellbore damage and minerals
filling the interstitial pore space, rather than creating new pathways. The HF reacts mainly with the
associated minerals of sandstones, rather than the quartz. The acid reactions caused by the associated
minerals (clays, feldspars and micas) can create precipitants that can cause plugging. Much of the
sandstone acid’s purpose is to prevent this possibility. A considerable improvement in the success rate of
sandstone matrix acidizing was achieved by monitoring, in real time on the field, the evolution of skin
effect and damage removal. Such monitoring evaluates whether the fluids are adequate with regards to
their composition and volume. It also assesses the required modification for the treatment or for future
improvements in other treatments. Another challenge that must be faced in either lithology is how to
direct the acid flow. As acid is pumped, it flows preferentially along the most permeable path into the
formation. The acid opens these paths up even more, and less permeable, damage zones are almost
guaranteed not to receive adequate treatment. A technique to divert the treatment fluid towards damage
formations or damage perforations is therefore mandatory. There is a variety of diversion techniques.
Treatment fluid can be directed exclusively towards a low permeability zone using drill-pipe or coiled
tubing conveyed tools, equipped with mechanical packers. The diversion of treatment fluids can also be
achieved by bull heading acid at maximum injection rate below the fracture pressure. This maximum
injection rate maintains a sustained differential pressure in the near wellbore area to be treated.
Alternatively, flow can be blocked at individual perforations. In carbonates, bridging agents such as
benzoic acid particles or salt can be used to create a filter cake inside wormholes, encouraging the acid to
go elsewhere. In sandstones, microscopic agents such as oil-soluble resins can create a filter cake on the
sand face. Chemical diverters such as viscous gels and foams created with nitrogen are used to block high
permeability pathways.
The requirements on any diverting agent are stringent. The agent must have limited solubility in
the carrying fluid, so it reaches the bottom of the hole intact. It must not react adversely with formation
fluids; it must divert the acid. Finally, it must clean up rapidly so as not to impede later production. Ball
sealers drop in the rat hole as soon as injection halts or, if they are of the buoyant variety; they are caught
in ball catchers at the surface. Benzoic acid particles dissolve in hydrocarbons. Oil-soluble resins are
expelled or dissolved during the ensuing hydrocarbon production. Gels and foams break down with time.
Matrix Acidizing.
Matrix (stimulation) treatments are a common form of well intervention aimed at removing this
formation damage and restoring the well to its natural, undamaged inflow performance. An alternative
stimulation technique - propped hydraulic fracturing. This latter well treatment can bypass this damage
and/or increase the effective wellbore radius. Either of these stimulation treatments may be carried out
immediately after drilling the well is completed or at any time in the well’s producing lifetime when they
can be economically justified.
WELL INFLOW AND STIMULATION. The well-known, steady state, radial-flow equation
describes the well inflow:
CANDIDATE SELECTION
In general, acid will only penetrate several feet into the formation for matrix acidizing treatments,
resulting in removal of near-wellbore damage or slight increase of permeability. On the other hand, acid
fracturing will create fractures which can propagate much deeper into the formation. For sandstone
formations, if the permeability is moderate to high, and damage is the main factor limiting
the well production, matrix acidizing is recommended. However, if the permeability is low, such as tight
gas reservoirs or shale reservoirs, hydraulic fracturing is recommended, since even all the damage is
removed, the reservoir still cannot produce economically due to the low permeability.
Similar rules also apply for carbonate formations. To remove or bypass the damage in the near wellbore
region in moderate or high permeability formations, the well should be stimulated by matrix acidizing.
Otherwise, acid fracturing should be applied for low-perm carbonate formations.
DISSOLVING POWER OF ACIDS
A more convenient way to express reaction stoichiometry is the dissolving power. The dissolving power
on a mass basis is called gravimetric dissolving power and is defined as
ACID INJECTION RATE AND PRESSURE
Acid injection rate should be selected on the basis of mineral dissolution and removal and depth of
damaged zone. Selecting an optimum injection rate is a difficult process because the damaged zone is
seldom known with any accuracy and the competing effects of mineral dissolution and reaction product
precipitation. Fortunately, research results have shown that acidizing efficiency is relatively insensitive to
acid injection rate and that the highest rate possible yields the best results. McLeod
(1984) recommends relatively low injection rates based on the observation that acid contact time with the
formation of 24 hours appears to give good results. da Motta (1993) shows that with shallow damage,
acid injection rate has little effect on the residual skin after 100 gal/ft of injection rate; and with deeper
damage, the higher the injection rate, the lower the residual skin. Paccaloni et al. (1988) and Paccaloni
and Tambini (1993) also report high success rates in numerous field treatments using the highest injection
rates possible.
There is always an upper limit on the acid injection rate that is imposed by formation breakdown
(fracture) pressure pbd. Assuming pseudo-steady-state flow, the maximum injection rate limited by the
breakdown pressure is expressed as

The acid injection rate can also be limited by surface injection pressure at the pump available to
the treatment. This effect is described in the next section.
In most acid treatment operations, only the surface tubing pressure is monitored. It is necessary to predict
the surface injection pressure at the design stage for pump selection. The surface tubing pressure is related
to the bottom-hole flowing pressure by
 Lecture 20. Well maintenance and workover. Well overhaul period (WOP).
Workovers to eliminate undesired water and/or gas production. Various options to reduce lifting
and/or water handling costs are available for wells that produce large amounts of water or gas. These
include water shut-off treatments using gelled polymers, lifting costs reduction, power options to reduce
electrical costs, and separation techniques. Not all wells imply the use of any or all of these techniques,
but under the right circumstances, major economic benefits can be realized.
Water and gas conformance analysis. Complex water and gas conformance problems may involve
one or more of the following situations:
 injection induced or natural reservoir fractures;
 significant permeability area and vertical variation;
 open hole completions.
Water shut-off treatments using gelled polymers. The majority of polymer treatments to control water
production in producing wells are performed in fractured carbonate/dolomite formations associated with a
natural water drive. Gelled polymers are created when dry polymer is mixed in water and crosslinked
with a metal ion (usually chromium triacetate or aluminium citrate). Gelation is controllable, ranging
from a few hours to weeks. Slower gelation time allows for more volume and deeper placement. Different
polymer systems are available from different service providers. Creating a pressure response during
treatment is the single most important indicator of a potentially successful water control project. A slow,
steady pressure increase over a period of time during pumping will tell the operator one of two things: the
formation is reaching fill-up of polymer into the problem zone; or the reservoir temperature is causing the
polymer to crosslink and build viscosity. Pressure response is a product of polymer volume, injection rate
and gel strength. Altering any or all of these factors can improve the success of the treatment if reservoir
resistance is not seen as the gelant is being pumped. Increasing polymer volume is typically the first step
recommend if the Hall plot indicates only a slight increase of pressure near the end of the treatment. The
advantage of pumping a larger volume is that greater in-depth reservoir penetration can improve the
longevity and effectiveness of the treatment. The disadvantage of more volume is increased treatment
costs due to longer pump times and additional chemicals. Usually injection rates are increased at the
beginning of the treatment in order to determine how easily the formation can accept a viscous fluid.
Recent research and field experience have shown that higher pump rates can improve the effectiveness of
treatments in carbonates that exhibit secondary permeability and porosity features. Increasing the
injection rate also reduces the service company field time, which translates into a cost reduction for the
operator. Increasing gel strength or gel viscosity is the third method for achieving a pressure response.
This method is typically used at the midpoint of a treatment when the Hall plot shows no increase in slope
or after several treatments in a particular field indicate the need for such action. The improvement gel
strength can be achieved by accelerating the crosslinking, increasing the polymer loading of the gelant, or
using a higher molecular-weight polyacrylamide.
Candidate selection. Best candidates are shut-in wells or wells producing at or near their economic
limit. These wells greatly benefit from a successful treatment and little, other than the treatment cost, is at
risk if the treatment fails. Other selection criteria include significant remaining mobile oil in place, high
water-oil ratio, high producing fluid level, high initial productivity, wells associated with active natural
water drive, structural position and high permeability contrast between oil and water-saturated rock (i.e.,
vuggy and/or fractured reservoirs). Successful treatments have been conducted in both cased and open
hole completions.
Treatment sizing. Only empirical methods exist at this time for sizing treatments. Experience in a
particular formation is most beneficial. However, in many instances larger volume treatments appear to
decrease water production for longer periods of time and recover more incremental oil. Some rules of
thumb include two times the well’s daily production rate as the minimum polymer volume or using the
daily production capacity of the well at maximum drawdown (i.e., what the well would be capable of
producing if it were pumped off) as the treatment volume. In lower fluid level wells the daily production
rate is sometimes used as the minimum polymer volume. Preparation prior to pumping The wellbore
needs to be clean, acidized if necessary (typically 350-500 gal 15% acid, pump away with water). A
maximum treating pressure must be established; a step rate test to determine parting pressure needs to be
run if necessary. An acceptable source of water to blend and pump the treatment must be selected. The
water’s compatibility to form the desired gels needs to be tested. A polymercompatible biocide for the
mix water (typically 5-10 gallons per 500 barrels of mix water) must be selected. Tubing and packer
above the zone to be treated need to be set.
Placing treatments. Stages of increasing polymer concentration must be used. It is necessary to
inject treatment at a rate similar to the normal producing rate. Treatment pressure must be kept below
reservoir parting/fracture pressure. Changing conditions during treatment may warrant design changes
during pumping. The treatment should be over-displaced with water or oil. In some instances, a rapid
pressure response early in the treatment is a sign that the treatment may not be successful.
Water shut-off using cement. When a producing zone has been fully (or almost) watered out, one
recommended technique is to force cement slurry through the perforations to shut-off that offending layer.
Alternatively, cementing operations may be undertaken to set a plug in an existing well from which to
plug a well horizon so that it may be abandoned due to high water-cut or excessive gas production.
 All repair work, depending on their nature and complexity, is divided into current and major
repairs of wells.
Current repairs include the following:
1. Scheduled preventive maintenance (SPM).
2. Revision of underground equipment.
3. Elimination of malfunctions in the underground part of the equipment.
4. Change of the downhole pump
5. Change of operating method, transition from pump to other (SCP to Rod Pumping) or vice versa.
6. Cleaning tubing from paraffin or salts.
7. Replacement of tubing.
8. Changing the depth of the suspension of the pumping unit.
The listed repairs, as well as a number of others, are carried out by underground well repair teams
organized in an oil producing enterprise.
Well workovers include repair work, for which more sophisticated equipment has to be involved,
up to the use of drilling rigs.
Major repairs include the following:
1. Elimination of complex accidents associated with breakage of rods, pipes, cables.
2. Correction of violations in casing strings.
3. Isolation of formation waters.
4. Reservoir penetration and well development in connection with the transition to another
horizon.
5. Drilling the second wellbore.
6. Drilling out dense salt-sand plugs at the bottomhole.
7. Hydraulic fracturing.
8. Hydrochloric acid treatment of wells.
9. Thermal treatment of bottom hole.
10. Well abandonment operations.
Overhaul is carried out by teams of a specialized service organized by associations (sometimes
also by OGPD) and having powerful and diverse technical means and relevant specialists.

Well abandonment

In the process of field development, the stock of wells moves, while some of them are
liquidated for various reasons. The main reasons for abandoning wells are:
1. The inability to use the well for its intended purpose due to a severe accident that cannot be
eliminated, as well as the inability to use the well for a new purpose.
2. The well has not opened a productive horizon and cannot be used for other purposes.
 3. Complete watering of the well, the impossibility of its use as an injection or observation well, as
well as its transfer to another production facility.
4. Force majeure.
5. Circumstances associated with the development of the infrastructure of the region, for example,
with the construction of a reservoir, a village, a city, or as a result of natural disasters (earthquakes,
landslides).
In these cases, the liquidation of wells is mandatory, because they can cause in-situ cross-flows,
pollution of drinking water sources, changes in groundwater levels, etc., which contradicts the conditions
for protecting the subsoil and the environment.
The volume and nature of work to eliminate the well depends on its purpose, design,
fastening and condition of the wellbore.
Works on the abandonment of wells, in which only technical columns are lowered, are as
follows:
- in intervals with weak oil and gas formations or formations that turned out to be unproductive
in a given well, cement bridges are installed.
- above the roof of the uppermost exposed layer, the cement bridge is raised to a height of at
least 50 m. The wellbore is completely filled with a clay solution, which allows creating pressure on the
bottomhole that exceeds the formation pressure.
If pressure mineralized or hydrogen sulfide waters are not found in the well section, cutting and
extraction of technical columns is allowed, while a cement bridge 50 m high is installed in the shoe of the
last column remaining in the well.
The liquidation of wells is carried out under the supervision special organization of the Republic
of Azerbaijan and is executed in accordance with the current regulations.
The mouth of the liquidated well is equipped with a benchmark. A piece of pipe with a wooden
plug is lowered into the column to a depth of 2 m and cement is poured on top. A cement bollard
measuring 1 x 1 x 1 m is installed above the wellhead. Sometimes the wellbore is filled with dry clay.
Well abandonment works are carried out by the overhaul team.