UNIT - I

1 Software Process
and Agile Development
Syllabus
Introduction to software engineering, Software process, Perspective and specialized process
models, Introduction to Agility, Agile Process, Extreme programming, XP process.

Contents
1.1 Introduction to Software Engineering ...........................Dec.-13, 17,.............................Marks 4
1.2 Goals and Objectives of Software
1.3 Difference between Software Product and Program
1.4 Layered Technology
1.5 Software Process ...............................................Dec.-10,17, ..............................Marks 7
1.6 Prescriptive Process Models ....................................... May-05,06,09,15,16,17,18,
...............................................Dec.-06,09,11,16,17,19 ......... Marks 16
1.7 Specialized Model ....................................................... Dec.-13,14,15,17,
...............................................May-16,19, .............................Marks 16
1.8 Introduction to Agility
1.9 Agile Process ...............................................Dec.-16,19, May-19, ...............Marks 4

Two Marks Questions with Answers

Long Answered Questions

(1 - 1)
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1.1 Introduction to Software Engineering AU : Dec.-13, 17, Marks 4

“Software engineering is a discipline in which theories, methods and tools are applied to
develop professional software product.”
In software engineering the systematic and organized approach is adopted. Based on
the nature of the problem and development constraints various tools and techniques are
applied in order to develop quality software.
The definition of software engineering is based on two terms :
 Discipline: For finding the solution to the problem an Engineer applies appropriate
theories, methods and tools. While finding the solutions, Engineers must think of
the organizational and financial constraints. Within these constraints only, he/she
has to find the solution.
 Product: The software product gets developed after following systematic theories,
methods and tools along with the appropriate management activities.

1.1.1 Defining Software

Software is nothing but a collection of computer programs and related documents that
are intended to provide desired features, functionalities and better performance.
Software products may be :
1. Generic - That means developed to be sold to a range of different customers.
2. Custom - That means developed for a single customer according to their
specification.

1.1.2 Software Characteristics

Software development is a logical activity and therefore it is important to understand
basic characteristics of software. Some important characteristics of software are :
 Software is engineered, not manufactured
 Software development and hardware development are two different activities.
 A good design is a backbone for both the activities.
 Quality problems that occur in hardware manufacturing phase can not be removed
easily. On the other hand, during software development process such problems can
be rectified.
 In both the activities, developers are responsible for producing qualitative product.
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 Software does not ware out

 In early stage of hardware development process the failure rate is very high because
of manufacturing defects. But after correcting such defects the failure rate gets
reduced.
 The failure rate remains constant for some period of time and again it starts
increasing because of environmental maladies (extreme temperature, dusts, and
vibrations).
 On the other hand software does not get affected from such environmental maladies.
Hence ideally it should have an “idealized curve”. But due to some undiscovered
errors the failure rate is high and drops down as soon as the errors get corrected.
 Hence in failure rating of software the “actual curve” is as shown below :

Fig. 1.1.1 Failure curves for hardware and software

 During the life of software if any change is made, some defects may get introduced.
 This causes failure rate to be high. Before the curve can return to original steady state
another change is requested and again the failure rate becomes high.
 Thus the failure curve looks like a spike. Thus frequent changes in software cause it
to deteriorate.
 Another issue with software is that there are no spare parts for software.
 If hardware component wears out it can be replaced by another component but it is
not possible in case of software.
 Therefore software maintenance is more difficult than the hardware maintenance.
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 Most software is custom built rather than being assembled from components
 While developing any hardware product firstly the circuit design with desired
functioning properties is created.
 Then required hardware components such as ICs, capacitors and registers are
assembled according to the design, but this is not done while developing software
product.
 Most of the software is custom built.
 However, now the software development approach is getting changed and we look
for reusability of software components.
 It is practiced to reuse algorithms and data structures.
 Today software industry is trying to make library of reusable components.
 For example : In today’s software, GUI is built using the reusable components such
as message windows, pull down menus and many more such components. The
approach is getting developed to use in-built components in the software. This
stream of software is popularly known as component engineering.

1.1.3 Categories of Software

Software can be applied in a situation for which a predefined set of procedural steps
(algorithm) exists. Based on a complex growth of software it can be classified into
following categories.
 System software - It is collection of programs written to service other programs.
Typical programs in this category are compiler, editors, and assemblers. The
purpose of the system software is to establish a communication with the hardware.
 Application software - It consists of standalone programs that are developed for
specific business need. This software may be supported by database systems.
 Engineering/Scientific software - This software category has a wide range of
programs from astronomy to volcanology, from automative stress analysis to space
shuttle orbital dynamics and from molecular biology to automated manufacturing.
This software is based on complex numeric computations.
 Embedded software - This category consists of program that can reside within a
product or system. Such software can be used to implement and control features
and functions for the end-user and for the system itself.
 Web applications - Web application software consists of various web pages that can
be retrieved by a browser. The web pages can be developed using programming
languages like JAVA, PERL, CGI, HTML, DHTML.
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 Artificial Intelligence software - This kind of software is based on knowledge

based expert systems. Typically, this software is useful in robotics, expert systems,
image and voice recognition, artificial neural networks, theorem proving and game
playing.

Review Questions

1. What is the impact of reusability in software development process? AU : Dec.-17, Marks 4

2. Write a note on the unique characters of a software. AU : Dec.-17, Marks 3

1.2 Goals and Objectives of Software

While developing software following are common objectives.
1. Satisfy users requirements - Many programmers simply don’t do what the end
user wants because they do not understand user requirements. Hence it becomes
necessary to understand the demand of end user and accordingly software should
be developed.
2. High reliability - Mistakes or bugs in a program can be expensive in terms of
human lives, money, and customer relation. For instance, Microsoft has faced many
problems because earlier release of windows has many problems. Thus software
should be delivered only if high reliability is achieved.
3. Low maintenance costs - Maintenance of software is an activity that can be done
only after delivering the software to the customer. Any small change in software
should not cause restructuring of whole software. This indicates that the design of
software has poor quality.
4. Delivery on time - It is very difficult to predict the exact time on which the software
can be completed. But a systematic development of software can lead to meet the
given deadline.
5. Low production costs - The software product should be cost effective.
6. High performance - The high performance software are expected to achieve
optimization in speed and memory usage.
7. Ease of reuse - Use same software in different systems and software.
Environments reduce development costs and also improve the reliability. Hence
reusability of developed software is an important property.
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1.3 Difference between Software Product and Program

Sr. No. Program Software product
Programs are developed by individual user Software product is developed by multiple
1.
and it is used for personal use. users and it is used by large number of
people or customers.
Programs are small in size and possessing Software product consists of multiple
2.
limited functionality. program codes, related documents such as
SRS, design documents user manuals, test
cases and so on.
Generally only one person uses the program, Good graphical user interface is most
3.
hence there is a lack of user interface. required by any software product.
Program is generally developed by Software product is developed by software
4.
programmer. engineers who are large in number and
work in a team. Therefore systematic
approach of developing software product
must be applied.
For example : For example :
5.
Program of sorting n elements. A word processing software.

1.4 Layered Technology

 Software engineering is a layered technology. Any software
can be developed using these layered approaches. Various
layers on which the technology is based are quality focus
layer, process layer, methods layer, tools layer.
 A disciplined quality management is a backbone of software
Fig. 1.4.1 Layered
engineering technology.
technology
 Process layer is a foundation of software engineering.
Basically, process defines the framework for timely delivery of software.
 In method layer the actual method of implementation is carried out with the help of
requirement analysis, designing, coding using desired programming constructs and
testing.
 Software tools are used to bring automation in software development process.
 Thus software engineering is a combination of process, methods, and tools for
development of quality software.
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1.5 Software Process AU : Dec.-10,17, Marks 7

Software process can be defined as the structured set of activities that are required to develop
the software system.

The fundamental activities are :

 Specification  Design and implementation
 Validation  Evolution
A software process model is an abstract representation of a process. It presents a
description of a process from some particular perspective.

1.5.1 Common Process Framework

The process framework is required for representing the common process activities.

Fig. 1.5.1 Software process framework

As shown in Fig. 1.5.1, the software process is characterized by process framework

activities, task sets and umbrella activities.
Process framework activities
 Communication
 By communicating customer requirement gathering is done.
 Planning - Establishes engineering work plan, describes technical risks, lists
resource requirements, work products produced and defines work schedule.
 Modeling - The software model is prepared by :
 Analysis of requirements
 Design
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 Construction - The software design is mapped into a code by :

 Code generation
 Testing
 Deployment - The software delivered for customer evaluation and feedback is
obtained.
Task sets - The task set defines the actual work done in order to achieve the software
objective. The task set is used to adopt the framework activities and project team
requirements using :
 Collection of software engineering work tasks
 Project milestones
 Software quality assurance points
Umbrella activities - The umbrella activities occur throughout the process. They focus
on project management, tracking and control. The umbrella activities are
1. Software project tracking and control - This is an activity in which software team
can assess progress and take corrective action to maintain schedule.
2. Risk management - The risks that may affect project outcomes or quality can be
analyzed.
3. Software quality assurance - These are activities required to maintain software
quality.
4. Formal technical reviews - It is required to assess engineering work products to
uncover and remove errors before they propagate to next activity.
5. Software configuration management - Managing of configuration process when
any change in the software occurs.
6. Work product preparation and production - The activities to create models,
documents, logs, forms and lists are carried out.
7. Reusability management - It defines criteria for work product reuse.
8. Measurement - In this activity, the process can be defined and collected. Also
project and product measures are used to assist the software team in delivering the
required software.

1.5.2 Capability Maturity Model (CMM)

 The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) has developed a comprehensive process
meta-model emphasizing process maturity. It is predicated on a set of system and
software capabilities that should be present when organizations reach different
levels of process capability and maturity.
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 The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is used in assessing how well an

organization’s processes allow to complete and manage new software projects.
 Various process maturity levels are :
Level 1 : Initial - Few processes are defined and individual efforts are taken.
Level 2 : Repeatable - To track cost schedule and functionality basic project
management processes are established. Depending on earlier successes of projects with
similar applications necessary process discipline can be repeated.
Level 3 : Defined - The process is standardized, documented and followed. All the
projects use documented and approved version of software process which is useful in
developing and supporting software.
Level 4 : Managed - Both the software process and product are quantitatively
understood and controlled using detailed measures.
Level 5 : Optimizing - Establish mechanisms to plan and implement change.
Innovative ideas and technologies can be tested.
Thus CMM is used for improving the software project.

Review Question

1. Explain the CMMI model to access the organization level. AU : Dec.-17, Marks 7

1.6 Prescriptive Process Models

AU : May-05,06,09,15,16,17,18, Dec.-06,09,11,16,17,19, Marks 16
 Definition of Process Model : The process model can be defined as the abstract
representation of process. The appropriate process model can be chosen based on
abstract representation of process.
 The software process model is also known as Software Development Life Cycle
(SDLC) Model or software paradigm.
 These models are called prescriptive process models because they are following
some rules for correct usage.
 In this model various activities are carried out in some specific sequence to make the
desired software product.
 Various prescriptive process models are -
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Fig. 1.6.1 Prescriptive process model

1.6.1 Need for Process Model

The software development team must decide the process model that is to be used for
software product development and then the entire team must adhere to it. This is
necessary because the software product development can then be done systematically.
Each team member will understand - what is the next activity and how to do it. Thus
process model will bring the definiteness and discipline in overall development process.
Every process model consists of definite entry and exit criteria for each phase. Hence
the transition of the product through various phases is definite. If the process model is not
followed for software development then any team member can perform any software
development activity, this will ultimately cause a chaos and software project will
definitely fail without using process model, it is difficult to monitor the progress of
software product. Let us discuss various process models one by one.

1.6.2 Waterfall Model

 The waterfall model is also called as 'linear-sequential model' or 'classic life cycle
model'. It is the oldest software paradigm. This model suggests a systematic,
sequential approach to software development.
 The software development starts with requirements gathering phase. Then
progresses through analysis, design, coding, testing and maintenance. Following
figure illustrates waterfall model.
 In requirement gathering and analysis phase the basic requirements of the system
must be understood by software engineer, who is also called Analyst. The
information domain, function, behavioural requirements of the system are
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Fig. 1.6.2 Waterfall model

understood. All these requirements are then well documented and discussed
further with the customer, for reviewing.
 The design is an intermediate step between requirements analysis and coding.
Design focuses on program attributes such as -
 Data structure
 Software architecture
 Interface representation
 Algorithmic details.
The requirements are translated in some easy to represent form using which coding
can be done effectively and efficiently. The design needs to be documented for
further use.
 Coding is a step in which design is translated into machine-readable form. If design
is done in sufficient detail then coding can be done effectively. Programs are created
in this phase.
 Testing begins when coding is done. While performing testing the major focus is on
logical internals of the software. The testing ensures execution of all the paths,
functional behaviours. The purpose of testing is to uncover errors, fix the bugs and
meet the customer requirements.
 Maintenance is the longest life cycle phase. When the system is installed and put in
practical use then error may get introduced, correcting such errors and putting it in
use is the major purpose of maintenance activity. Similarly, enhancing system's
services as new requirements are discovered is again maintenance of the system.
This model is widely used model, although it has many drawbacks. Let us discuss
benefits and drawbacks.
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Benefits of waterfall model

1. The waterfall model is simple to implement.
2. For implementation of small systems waterfall model is useful.

Drawbacks of waterfall model

There are some problems that are encountered if we apply the waterfall model and
those are :
1. It is difficult to follow the sequential flow in software development process. If some
changes are made at some phases then it may cause some confusion.
2. The requirement analysis is done initially and sometimes it is not possible to state
all the requirements explicitly in the beginning. This causes difficulty in the project.
3. The customer can see the working model of the project only at the end. After
reviewing of the working model; if the customer gets dissatisfied then it causes
serious problems.
4. Linear nature of waterfall model induces blocking states, because certain tasks may
be dependant on some previous tasks. Hence it is necessary to accomplish all the
dependant tasks first. It may cause long waiting time.
Example 1.6.1 Explain how water-fall model is applicable for the development of the following
systems:
a) University accounting system
b) Interactive system that allows railway passengers to find time and other information from
the terminals installed in the station.

Solution :

a) University accounting system : If the software developers who have the experience
in developing the account systems then building university account system based
on existing design could be easily managed with water-fall model.
b) Interactive system that allows railway passengers to find time and other
information from the terminals installed in the station.
For developing such interactive system, all the requirements must be correctly
identified and analyzed before the designing of the project. The requirements of
end-users must be correctly and un-ambiguously understood by the developers
prior to design phase. Once the requirements are well defined then using
disciplined design, coding and testing phases the required system can be built using
water-fall model.
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1.6.3 Incremental Process Model

In this model, the initial model with limited functionality is created for user's
understanding about the software product and then this model is refined and expanded
in later releases.

1.6.3.1 Incremental Model

 The incremental model has same phases that are in waterfall model. But it is
iterative in nature. The incremental model has following phases.
1. Analysis 2. Design
3. Code 4. Test
 The incremental model delivers series of releases to the customer. These releases are
called increments. More and more functionality is associated with each increment.

Fig. 1.6.3 The incremental model

 The first increment is called core product. In this release the basic requirements are
implemented and then in subsequent increments new requirements are added.
 The word processing software package can be considered as an example of
incremental model. In the first increment only the document processing facilities are
available. In the second increment, more sophisticated document producing and
processing facilities, file management functionalities are given. In the next
increment spelling and grammar checking facilities can be given. Thus in
incremental model progressive functionalities are obtained with each release.
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When to choose it ?
1. When requirements are reasonably well-defined.
2. When overall scope of the development effort suggests a purely linear effort.
3. When limited set of software functionality needed quickly.

Merits of incremental model

1. The incremental model can be adopted when there are less number of people
involved in the project.
2. Technical risks can be managed with each increment.
3. For a very small time span, atleast core product can be delivered to the customer.

1.6.3.2 RAD Model

 The RAD Model is a type of incremental process model in which there is extremely
short development cycle.
 When the requirements are fully understood and the component based
construction approach is adopted then the RAD model is used.
 Using the RAD model the fully functional system can be developed within 60 to 90
days.
 Various phases in RAD are Requirements Gathering, Analysis and Planning,
Design, Build or Construction and finally Deployment.
 Multiple teams work on developing the software system using RAD model
parallely.
 In the requirements gathering phase the developers communicate with the users of
the system and understand the business process and requirements of the software
system.
 During analysis and planning phase, the analysis on the gathered requirements is
made and a planning for various software development activities is done.
 During the design phase various models are created. Those models are Business
model, data model and process model.
 The build is an activity in which using the existing software components and
automatic code generation tool the implementation code is created for the software
system. This code is well tested by its team. The functionalities developed by all the
teams are integrated to form a whole.
 Finally the deployment of all the software components (created by various teams
working on the project) is carried out.
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Fig. 1.6.4 Rapid application development

Drawbacks of rapid application development

1. It requires multiple teams or large number of people to work on the scalable
projects.
2. This model requires heavily committed developer and customers. If commitment is
lacking then RAD projects will fail.
3. The projects using RAD model requires heavy resources.
4. If there is no appropriate modularization then RAD projects fail. Performance can
be problem to such projects.
5. The projects using RAD model find it difficult to adopt new technologies.
Example 1.6.2 Which type of applications suit RAD model ? Justify your answer

Solution : The RAD model is suitable for information system applications, business
applications and the for systems that can be modularized because of following reasons -
1. This model is similar to waterfall model but it uses very short development cycle.
2. It uses component-based construction and emphasises reuse and code generation.
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3. This model uses multiple teams on scaleable projects.

4. The RAD model is suitable for the projects where technical risks are not high.
5. The RAD model requires heavy resources.
Example 1.6.3 Provide three examples of software projects that would be amenable to
incremental model. Be specific
Solution : There can various examples of software projects that would be amenable to
incremental model. For instance -
1. Banking software service : This service can be personal service. That means for
personal banking system the incremental model can be used. In later state of
increments, this system can implement insurance service, home loans and some
other features of banking services.
2. Web browser application : The base application can be developed and distributed.
This is the basic increment of the application. In the later increments the plugins can
be provided to enhance the experience of web browser applications.
3. Operating system software : The operating system software providing the basic
system handling functionalities is the first increment. After the release of the basic
versions then updates or security patches are provided to the customer in the form
of increments. Various distribution package in the form of versions such as basic
home edition, premium, ultimate and so on can be the increments of operating
system software.

1.6.4 Evolutionary Process Model

While developing the software systems, it is often needed to make modifications in
earlier development phases or the tasks sets. If the development process is linear or in a
straight line (from requirements gathering to deployment) then the end product will be
unrealistic. In such cases, the iterative approach needs to be adopted. The evolutionary
process model is iterative model.

1.6.4.1 Prototyping
 In prototyping model initially the requirement gathering is done.
 Developer and customer define overall objectives; identify areas needing more
requirement gathering.
 Then a quick design is prepared. This design represents what will be visible to user
in input and output format.
 From the quick design a prototype is prepared. Customer or user evaluates the
prototype in order to refine the requirements. Iteratively prototype is tuned for
satisfying customer requirements. Thus prototype is important to identify the
software requirements.
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Fig. 1.6.5 Prototyping

 When working prototype is built, developer use existing program fragments or

program generators to throw away the prototype and rebuild the system to high
quality.
 Certain classes of mathematical algorithms, subset of command driven systems and
other applications where results can be easily examined without real time
interaction can be developed using prototyping paradigm.

When to choose it ?
 Software applications that are relatively easy to prototype almost always involve
Human-machine Interaction (HCI) the prototyping model is suggested.
 A general objective of software is defined but not detailed input, processing or
output requirements. Then in such a case prototyping model is useful.
 When the developer is unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm or the adaptability of
an operating system then prototype serves as a better choice.

Drawbacks of prototyping
1. In the first version itself, customer often wants “few fixes” rather than rebuilding of
the system whereas rebuilding of new system maintains high level of quality.
2. The first version may have some compromises.
3. Sometimes developer may make implementation compromises to get prototype
working quickly. Later on developer may become comfortable with compromises
and forget why they are inappropriate.
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Comparison between prototyping and incremental process model

Sr. No. Prototyping Incremental process model

Some requirements are gathered The requirements are precisely defined and
1.
initially, but there may be change in there is no confusion about the final product of
requirements when the working the software.
prototype is shown to the customer.
The development team has adequate The development team with less domain
2.
domain knowledge. Similarly they can knowledge can be accommodated due to
adopt the new technologies if product iterative nature of this model. The change in
demands. technology in the later phase can not be
tolerated.
All the end-users are involved in all All the end-users need not be involved in all
3.
phases of development. the phases of development.
There can be use of some reusable There is no use of reusable components in
4.
software components in project development process.
development process.

1.6.4.2 Spiral Model

 This model possess the iterative nature of prototyping model and controlled and
systematic approaches of the linear sequential model.
 This model gives efficient development of incremental versions of software. In this
model, the software is developed in series of increments.
 The sprial model is divided into a number of framework activities. These
framework activities are denoted by task regions.
 Usually there are six tasks regions. The spiral model is as shown in Fig. 1.6.6.
(See Fig. 1.6.6 on next page)
 Spiral model is realistic approach to development of large-scale systems and
software. Because customer and developer better understand the problem statement
at each evolutionary level. Also risks can be identified or rectified at each such
level.
 In the initial pass, product specification is built and in subsequent passes around
the spiral the prototype gets developed and then more improved versions of
software gets developed.
 During planning phase, the cost and schedule of software can be planned and
adjusted based on feedback obtained from customer evaluation.
 In spiral model, project entry point axis is defined. This axis represents starting
point for different types of projects.
 For instance, concept development project will start at core of spiral and will
continue along the spiral path. If the concept has to be developed into actual project
then at entry point 2 the product development process starts. Hence entry
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Fig. 1.6.6 Spiral model

point 2 is called product development project entry point. The development of the
project can be carried out in iterations.
 The task regions can be described as :
i) Customer communication - In this region, it is suggested to establish customer
communication.
ii) Planning - All planning activities are carried out in order to define resources time
line and other project related activities.
iii) Risk analysis - The tasks required to calculate technical and management risks
are carried out.
iv) Engineering - In this task region, tasks required to build one or more
representations of applications are carried out.
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v) Construct and release - All the necessary tasks required to construct, test,
install the application are conducted. Some tasks that are required to provide
user support are also carried out in this task region.
vi) Customer evaluation - Customer’s feedback is obtained and based on
customer evaluation required tasks are performed and implemented at
installation stage.
 In each region, number of work tasks are carried out depending upon the
characteristics of project. For a small project relatively small number of work tasks
are adopted but for a complex project large number of work tasks can be carried out.
 In spiral model, the software engineering team moves around the spiral in a
clockwise direction beginning at the core.

Advantages of spiral model

 Requirement changes can be made at every stage.
 Risks can be identified and rectified before they get problematic.

Drawbacks of spiral model

 It is based on customer communication. If the communication is not proper then the
software product that gets developed will not be up to the mark.
 It demands considerable risk assessment. If the risk assessment is done properly
then only the successful product can be obtained.

When to choose it ?
1. When the prototypes for the software functionality are needed.
2. When requirements are not very clearly defined or complex.
3. When the large or high budget projects need to be developed.
4. When the risk assessment is very critical and essential
5. When project is not expected within a specific limited time span.

Comparison between Spiral model and Prototyping model

Sr. Spiral model Prototyping model

No.
The development team with less domain The development team has adequate domain
1.
knowledge can be accommodated due to knowledge. Similarly they can adopt the new
iterative nature of this model. The change in technologies if product demands.
technology in the later phase can not be
tolerated.
 1 - 21

All the end-users need not be involved in all All the end-users are involved in all phases of
2.
the phases of development. development.
Funding are not stable for the projects that can Funding are stable for these type of projets.
3.
be developed using spiral model.
The requirements that are gathered and Some requirements are gathered initially, but
4.
analyzed are high reliability requirements. there may be change in requirements when the
working prototype is shown to the customer.

Difference between waterfall model and spiral model

Sr. No. Waterfall model Spiral model

It requires well understanding of It is developed in iterations. Hence the
1.
requirements and familiar technology. requirements can be identified at new
iterations.
Difficult to accommodate changes after The required changes can be made at
2.
the process has started. every stage of new version.
Can accommodate iteration but indirectly. It is iterative model.
3.
Risks can be identified at the end which Risks can be identified and reduced
4.
may cause failure to the product. before they get problematic.
The customer can see the working model The customer can see the working
5.
of the project only at the end. After product at certain stages of iterations.
reviewing of the working model; if the
customer gets dissatisfied then it causes
serious problems.
Customers prefer this model. Developers prefer this model.
6.
This model is good for small systems. This model is good for large systems.
7.
It has sequential nature. It has evolutionary nature.
8.

1.6.4.3 Concurrent Development Model

 The concurrent development model is also called as concurrent engineering.
 In this model, the framework activities or software development tasks are
represented as states.
 The modeling or designing phase of software development can be in one of the
states like under development, waiting for modification, under revision or under review
and so on.
 Fig. 1.6.7 represents these states.
 1 - 22

Fig. 1.6.7 Concurrent development model

 All the software development activities exist concurrently in this model but these
activities can be in various states.
 These states make transitions. That is during modeling, the transition from under
development state to waiting for modification state occurs.
 This model basically defines the series of events due to which the transition from
one state to another state occurs. This is called triggering. These series of events
occur for every software development activity, action or task.
 This model defines various activities that occur concurrently and a network of
activities is defined.

Advantages
1. All types of software development can be done using concurrent development
model.
2. This model provides accurate picture of current state of project.
3. Each activity or task can be carried out concurrently. Hence this model is an
efficient process model.
 1 - 23

Example 1.6.4 Compare and contrast the different life cycle models.
Solution :

Waterfall model Spiral model Prototyping model Incremental model

Requirements must The requirements Requirements The requirements
be clearly understood analysis and gathering analysis can be made analysis can be made
and defined at the can be done in in the later stages of in the later stages of
beginning only. iterations because the development cycle, the development cycle.
requirements get because requirements
changed quite often. get changed quite
often.
The development The development The development The development
team having the team having less team having less team having the
adequate experience of experience of working experience of working adequate experience
working on the similar on the similar projects on the similar of working on the
project is chosen to is allowed in this projects is allowed in similar project is
work on this type of process model this process model. chosen to work on this
process model type of process model.
There is no user There is no user There is user There is user
involvement in all the involvement in all the involvement in all the involvement in all the
phases of development phases of development phases of phases of
process. process. development process. development process.
When the Due to iterative nature When developer is When the
requirements are of this model, the risk unsure about the requirements are
reasonably well identification and efficiency of an reasonably well
defined and the rectification is done algorithm or the defined, the
development effort before they get adaptability of an development effort
suggests a purely problematic. Hence for operating system then suggests a purely
linear effort then the handling real time the prototyping linear effort and when
waterfall model is problems the spiral model is chosen. limited set of software
chosen. model is chosen. functionality is needed
quickly then the
incremental model is
chosen.

Example 1.6.5 For the scenario described below, which life cycle model would you choose? Give
the reason why you would choose this model.
You are interacting with the MIS department of a very large oil company with multiple
departments. They have a complex legacy system. Migrating the data from this legacy
system is not an easy task and would take a considerable time. The oil company is very
particular about processes, acceptance criteria and legal contracts. AU : Dec.-11, Marks 5
Solution : Legacy applications are database management systems. The software
companies normally migrate these applications to some relational databases. For data
migrating projects a cohesive method that enables the developer to cycle or spiral through
 1 - 24

the migration process is required. In this migrating process following steps need to be
followed -
1. Analyze the data.
2. Extract the data which is to be transformed.
3. Transform the extracted data.
4. Validate the transformed data.
5. Load the validated data to the target system.
These above mentioned steps are repeated until the migration is successfully
completed. The risk management must be done properly. All these factors suggest that
the spiral model is suitable for the given project.
Example 1.6.6 Describe at least one scenario where
1. RAD model would be applicable and not the waterfall model.
2. Waterfall model is preferable to all other models. AU : Dec.-11, Marks 10
Solution : 1. RAD model would be applicable and not the waterfall model :
Following are some scenario where RAD model would be applicable and not the
waterfall model.
A) The projects in which users are involved in all phases.
B) The projects in which users are experts of problem domain.
C) The project is enhancement of existing system.

2. Waterfall model is preferable to all other models :

In the following scenario waterfall model is preferable to all other models.
The project for which requirements are easily understandable and defined.
Example 1.6.7 How does a spiral model represent a process suitable to represent a real time
problem ? AU : CSE, May-05, Marks 8
Solution : Spiral model represents a process suitable to represent a real time problem
because of following reasons -
1. Software evolves as the project progresses. And at every evolutionary level the risks
are identified and managed and risks are reduced at every stage.
2. It enables the developer to apply the prototype approach at any stage in the
evolution of the product. It helps in adopting the approach systematic stepwise
development of the product.
3. The iterative frameworks help in analyzing the product at every evolutionary stage.
 1 - 25

4. The spiral model demands a direct consideration of technical risks at all stages of
project. The risks are reduced before they get problematic.
Example 1.6.8 Which type of applications suit RAD model ? Justify your answer.
AU : May-06, Marks 10
Solution : The RAD model is suitable for information system applications, business
applications and the for systems that can be modularized because of following reasons -
1. This model is similar to waterfall model but it uses very short development cycle.
2. It uses component-based construction and emphasises reuse and code generation.
3. This model uses multiple teams on scaleable projects.
4. The RAD model is suitable for the projects where technical risks are not high.
5. The RAD model requires heavy resources.
Example 1.6.9 Discuss the major differences between software life cycle model and a process
model.

Solution :

Software life cycle model Process model

This model is based on common four activities : This model is based on problem definition,
analysis, design, code and testing. technical development, software integration and
existing status.

The software development process can be clearly The software development process cannot be
and systematically defined in phases. clearly defined in phases.

Customer interaction is possible in every stage of Customer interaction is only at initial stage of
software development process in this model. software development.

Large scale projects can be handled using this Large scale projects may be caught in chaotic
approach. situation using this approach.

Example 1.6.10 As you move outward along with process flow path of the spiral model, what can
we say about the software that is being developed or maintained ?
AU : CSE, May.-09, Marks 4
Solution : When software engineering team moves around the spiral, the first circuit
around the spiral results in development of product specification. The subsequent passes
around the spiral might be used to develop prototype in more subsequent manner. In
each pass, through planning region, some adjustments to project plan are made. Cost and
schedule adjustments can also be made according to customer feedback.
 1 - 26

Example 1.6.11 A software project which is considered to be very simple and the customer is in
position of giving all the requirements at the initial stage, which process model would you
prefer for developing the project ? AU : IT, Dec.-09, Marks 16
Solution : The linear sequential model or a waterfall model is appropriate when a simple
project has to be developed with already known requirements.
Waterfall model - Refer section 1.6.2
Example 1.6.12 Assume that you are the technical manager of a software development
organization. A client approached you for a software solution. The problems stated by the
client have uncertainties which lead to loss if it not planned and solved. Which software
development model you will suggest for this project – justify. Explain that model with its
pros and cons and neat sketch. AU : Dec.-16, Marks 16
Solution : The uncertainties in problem statement leads to risks in the project. Hence the
spiral model can be used for development of such project.
Spiral model - Refer section 1.6.4.2.
Example 1.6.13 What is the role of user participation in the selection of a life cycle model?

AU : May-16, Marks 8
Solution : Due to users' participation , their understanding about the project or system
increases. Following are the issues that depict the role of user participation in selection of
life cycle model.
1. Prototype model and RAD model are the life cycle model in which user
involvement is expected in all the phases.
2. There is no user involvement expected in all the phases of waterfall, spiral model
and evolutionary development model.
3. The waterfall model, spiral model, iterative enhancement model or evolutionary
development model do not require limited user participation.
4. RAD model and Prototype model does not allow limited user participation.
5. Prototype model, RAD Model, Evolutionary development model require that the
users must be experts of problem domain. They should understand the system
properly well in advance.
6. For the selection of waterfall model, it is not necessary that the user has expertise of
problem domain.
7. The prototype, iterative enhancement model, spiral model and Evolutionary model
can be selected by the users having no previous experience of participation in
similar projects.
8. For selection of waterfall model and prototype model, the users must have
participated earlier in similar type of projects.
 1 - 27

Example 1.6.14 Describe the type of situations where iterative enhancement model might lead to
difficulties. AU : May-16, Marks 8
Solution :

1. In the prototyping model, during the first prototype itself, the customer often wants
few fixes rather than rebuilding of new system.
2. Sometimes developer may make implementation compromises to get prototype
working quickly. But later on the developer may become comfortable with
compromises and forget why they were inappropriate.
3. The spiral model is mainly based on customer communication. If the
communication is not proper then the software product that gets developed will
not be up to the mark.
4. During iterative enhancement cycle of project development, if the risk assessment
is not done properly then the product will become total failure.
Example 1.6.15 What is process model ? Describe the process model that you would choose to
manufacture a car. Explain by giving suitable reasons. AU : May-17, Marks 13
Solution : Process model : Refer section 1.6.
The process model that can be used for car manufacture is spiral model.
Spiral model : Refer section 1.6.4.2.
Reasons :
1) This is a model in which risks can be identified and rectified before they get
problematic.
2) The iterative framework of this model helps in analyzing the problem at every
evolutionary stage.
3) The required changes can be made at every stage of new version.
4) This model is good for large systems.

Review Questions

1. Neatly explain the following process models and write their advantages and disadvantages.
i) Spiral model, ii) Rapid application development model. AU : May-15, Marks 8
2. Discuss the prototyping model. What is the effect of designing a prototype on the overall cost of
the software project ? AU : May-16, Marks 8
3. Which process model is best suited for risk management ? Discuss in detail with an example.
Give the advantages and disadvantages of the model. AU : Dec.-16, Marks 16
4. What is the significance of the spiral model when compared with other models.
AU : Dec-17, Marks 3
 1 - 28

5. Which software process model is good for risk management ? Explain the model. Describe how
the model is used to layout the objectives, risks and plans for quality improvement.
AU : May-18, Marks 16
6. Outline the spiral life cycle model with a diagram. AU : Dec.-19, Marks 13

1.7 Specialized Model AU : Dec.-13,14,15,17, May-16,19, Marks 16

The specialized models are used when only collection of specialized technique or
methods are expected for developing the specific software.
Various types of specialized models are -
1. Component based development
2. Formal methods model
3. Aspect oriented software development
Let us discuss them in detail.

1.7.1 Component Based Development

 The commercial off-the-shelves components that are developed by the vendors are
used during the software built.
 These components have specialized targeted functionalities and well defined
interfaces. Hence it is easy to integrate these components into the existing software.
 The component based development model makes use of various characteristics of
spiral model. This model is evolutionary in nature. That means the necessary
changes can be made in the software during the each iteration of software
development cycle.
 Before beginning the modelling and construction activity of software development
the candidate component must be searched and analyzed. The components can be
simple functions or can be object oriented classes or methods.
 Following steps are applied for component based development -
 Identify the component based products and analyze them for fitting in the existing
application domain.
 Analyze the component integration issues.
 Design the software architecture to accommodate the components
 Integrate the components into the software architecture.
 Conduct comprehensive testing for the developed software.
 Software reusability is the major advantage of component based development.
 The reusability reduces the development cycle time and overall cost.
 1 - 29

1.7.2 Formal Methods Model

 This model consists of the set of activities in which the formal mathematical
specification is used.
 The software engineers specify, develop and test the computer based systems
using the mathematical notations. The notations are specified within the formal
methods.
 Cleanroom software engineering makes use of the formal method approach.
 The advantage of using formal methods model is that it overcomes many problems
that we encounter in traditional software process models. Ambiguity,
incompleteness and inconsistency are those problems that can be overcome if we
use formal methods model.

Fig. 1.7.1 Activities for formal method model

 The formal methods model offers defect-free software. However there are some
drawbacks of this model which resists it from getting used widely. These
drawbacks are
 The formal methods model is time consuming and expensive.
 For using this model, the developers need the strong mathematical
background or some extensive training.
 If this model is chosen for development then the communication with
customer becomes very difficult.

1.7.3 Aspect Oriented Software Development

 In traditional software development process, the system is decomposed into
multiple units of primary functionality. But there are other issues of concern that
do not fit into these primary functionalities. Later on this becomes programmers'
duty to code modules corresponding to the primary functionality and to incorporate
all other concerned issues wherever appropriate.
 Programmers need to keep in mind all the things that need to be done, how to deal
with each issue, the problems associated with them and the correct execution. Due
to these concerns there are chances of appearing serious problems during
 1 - 30

application development and maintenance. The coding process for realizing a

concern becomes very critical.
 Aspect-Oriented Software Development focuses on the identification, specification
and representation of cross-cutting concerns and their modularization into
separate functional units as well as their automated composition into a working
system.
 Aspectual requirements define these cross-cutting concerns that have impact on the
software architecture.
 Aspect Oriented Software Development (AOSD) is often referred as Aspect
oriented programming.
 It is a relatively new software engineering paradigm and is not matured enough.
But is likely that it will adopt the characteristics of both the spiral and concurrent
process models.
Example 1.7.1 What are pros and cons of using mathematical approach for software
development? AU : Dec.-15, Marks 6
Solution : Pros : 1) The mathematical approach is useful in building scientific model,
critical systems or simulation of real time systems.
2) The ambiguity or incosistency problems can be eliminated if mathematical
approach is adopted.
3) Developers are exceptionally committed to the project.
4) The controlled and optimized system can be developed using mathematical
approach.
Cons :
1) The developers need the strong mathematical background or some extensive
training.
2) The methods of software development are time consuming and expensive.
3) Many times-if mathematical approach is adopted for software development, then
communication with customer becomes very difficult.
Example 1.7.2 Compare the following life cycle models based on their distinguishing factors,
strengths and weaknesses, - Waterfall Model, RAD Model, Spiral Model and Formal
Methods Model. (Present in the form of table only - use diagrams wherever necessary)
AU : Dec.-13,14, Marks 16; May-19, Marks 13
OR
Elucidate the key features of the software process models with suitable examples.
AU : May-16, Marks 8
 1 - 31

Solution :
Waterfall model RAD model Spiral model Formal methods model
Requirements Requirements must The requirements Requirements must be
must be clearly be clearly analysis and gathering clearly understood and
understood and understood and can be done in iterations defined at the beginning
defined at the defined at the because requirements get only.
beginning only. beginning only. changed quite often.

The development The development The development team The development team
team having the team having the having less experience of having the adequate
adequate adequate experience working on the similar experience of working on
experience of of working on the projects is allowed in this the similar project is chosen
working on the similar project is process model. to work on this type of
similar project is chosen to work on process model.
chosen to work on this type of process
this type of model.
process model.
If the If the development If the development team If the development team has
development team team has less domain has less domain less domain knowledge or
has less domain knowledge or if it knowledge or if it new to if it new to the technology
knowledge or if it new to the the technology then such then such a team is not
new to the technology then such a team is allowed for this allowed for this kind of
technology then a team is not allowed kind of process model. process model.
such a team is for this kind of
allowed for this process model.
kind of process
model.

There is no user There is user There is no user Limited community makes

involvement in all involvement in all involvement in all the use of formal methods
the phases of the phases of phases of development model for their projects
development development process. process. because this methodology is
process. based on mathematical
theorems, formal methods
and automata theory.
Types of Projects : When there is a tight Due to iterative nature of Whenever there is a need to
When the project schedule or this model, the risk build the scientific models
based on mathematical
requirements are project is identification and techniques, or simulation of
reasonably well enhancement of the rectification is done some real time systems or
defined and the existing projects or if before they get when there is a need to
development there is use of problematic. Hence for build the systems that can
effort suggests a reusable components handling real time contribute to the reliability
and robustness (normally
purely linear in the project then for problems the spiral critical systems) then the
effort then the developing such model is chosen. formal methods models are
waterfall model is projects this process used.
chosen model is suitable.
Diagram : Diagram : Diagram : Diagram :
Refer Fig. 1.6.2. Refer Fig. 1.6.4. Refer Fig. 1.6.6. Refer Fig. 1.7.1.
 1 - 32

Review Question

1. Explain the component based software development model with a neat sketch.
AU : Dec.-17, Marks 9

1.8 Introduction to Agility

 The Agile Manifesto, also called the Manifesto for Agile Software Development, is
a formal declaration of four key values and 12 principles to guide an iterative and
people-centric approach to software development.
 The agile methods were developed to overcome the weakness of conventional
software engineering.
 The agile manifesto is represented by following Fig. 1.8.1.

Fig. 1.8.1 Agile manifesto

1.9 Agile Process AU : Dec.-16, 19, May-19, Marks 4

 In 1980’s the heavy weight, plan based software development approach was used
to develop any software product.
 In this approach too many things are done which were not directly related to
software product being produced.
 This approach was rigid. That means if requirements get changed, then rework was
essential. Hence new methods were proposed in 1990’s which are known as agile
processes.
 The agile processes are the light-weight methods are people-based rather than plan-
based methods.
 The agile process forces the development team to focus on software itself rather
than design and documentation.
 The agile process believes in iterative method.
 1 - 33

 The aim of agile process is to deliver the working model of software quickly to the
customer.
 For example : Extreme programming is the best known of agile process.

Conventional Software Development Methodology

 As the software project makes the progress, the cost of the changes increases non
linearly.
 It is easy to accommodate changes during the requirement gathering stage. At this
stage to accommodate the changes - usage scenarios are modified, list of functions
can be extended, or written specification be edited.
 As the progresses and if the customer suggest the changes during the testing phase
of the software development life cycle then to accommodate these changes the
architectural design needs to be modified and ultimately these changes will affect
other phases of software development cycle. These changes are actually costly to
execute.

Agile Methodology
 The agile method proponents claim that if the software development is carried out
using the agile approach then it will allow the software team to accommodate
changes late in a software project without dramatic cost and time impact.
 In other words, if the incremental delivery is combined with agile practices such as
continuous unit testing and pair programming then the cost of changes can be
controlled.
 The following graph represents the how the software development approach has a
strong influence on the development cost due to changes suggested.

Fig. 1.9.1 Influence of software development approach on agile process

 1 - 34

1.9.1 Agile Principles

There are famous 12 principles used as agility principles -
1. Satisfy the customer by early and continuous delivery of valuable software.
2. The changes in the requirements must be accommodated. Even though the changes
occur late in the software development process, the agile process should help to
accommodate them.
3. Deliver working software quite often. Within the shorter time span deliver the
working unit.
4. Business people and developers must work together throughput the project.
5. Motivate the people who are building the projects. Provide the environment and
support to the development team and trust them for the job to be done.
6. The working software is the primary measure of the progress of the software
development.
7. The agile software development approach promote the constant project
development. The constant speed for the development of the product must be
maintained.
8. To enhance the agility there should be continuous technical excellence
9. The proper attention to be given to technical excellence and good design.
10. The simplicity must be maintained while developing the project using this
approach.
11. The teams must be the self-organizing team for getting best architecture,
requirements and design.
12. At regular intervals the team thinks over the issue of becoming effective. After the
careful review the team members adjusts their behavior accordingly.

Review Questions

List the principles of agile software development.

Define Agility. List any five principles of agility.
What is agility ? Elaborate the agile principles.