This handout contains following:

• DRDO and Challenges in Indigenization of Defence in India

• Missiles
• Submarines and Ships
• Air Force
• Emerging trends in warfare and role of technology
o DEWs
o Hypersonic Weapons
o Weaponization of space
o AI in warfare
o Cyber Warfare, Information Warfare
o Drones

* Students must remember that rather than mugging up facts, understanding and
appreciating the topics are much more important. Questions will be from current affairs,
this handout along with classroom discussion will help you in appreciating the relevance
of topics covered in newspaper.

DRDO
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is India's premier
agency responsible for the research and development of state-of-the-art defense.
technologies and systems.

Objectives of DRDO:
• Research and Development: To conduct design and development leading to
the production of world-class weapon systems
• Indigenization and self -reliance: To develop infrastructure and committed
quality manpower and build strong indigenous technology.
• Support and Partnership: To develop a strong partnership with academia,
industries, national and international entities.
• Promotion of Innovation: To provide technological solutions and create a
culture of innovation in the defence sector.

Challenges for Indigenization in Defence:

• Historical Dependence: Post-independence, India lacked a strong industrial

base for defence manufacturing and relied heavily on imports to meet immediate
military needs.
• Lack of a Strong R&D Ecosystem
o Insufficient Investment in R&D: India spends only about 0.7% of GDP
on R&D, much lower than countries like the U.S. or China.
o Limited Industry-Academia Collaboration: For Example: DRDO
(defence Research and Development Organization) operates in silos with
limited industry integration.
o Talent Retention Issues: Many talented engineers and scientists move
to better-paying, research-intensive sectors or abroad.
• Bureaucratic Hurdles: Projects like the Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) faced
delays of decades due to procedural and technological hurdles.
• Private Sector Participation: Until recently, India's defense sector was largely
state-controlled (e.g., HAL, BEL). It's only in the last few decades that private
sector participation has been encouraged, which is essential for fostering
competition and innovation.
• Technological Challenges
 • High Entry Barriers: Advanced defense technologies like stealth, hypersonic
missiles, and AI-enabled systems require years of sustained investment and
expertise.
• Dependence on Critical Components: Even when India produces
indigenous platforms, many critical subsystems (e.g., avionics, engines, and
sensors) are imported.

• Need for Immediate Defense Capabilities: In the face of threats from

adversaries like China and Pakistan, India often opts for quicker solutions through
imports rather than waiting for domestic developments.

How India Can Improve Defense Indigenization?

1. Strengthen R&D and Innovation

• Increase R&D Funding: Raise defense R&D spending to at least 2% of GDP,
with a focus on emerging technologies like AI, quantum computing, hypersonics,
engines, avionics, and sensors .
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Encourage collaboration between DRDO,
private firms, and academia to pool resources and expertise.
• Reverse Brain Drain: Offer competitive salaries and research opportunities to
retain top talent in defense R&D.

2. Reform Procurement Policies

• Prioritize "Make in India": Implement policies that favor indigenously designed
and manufactured systems over imports.
• Streamline Processes: Simplify the defense acquisition procedure to reduce
delays and inefficiencies.

3. Empower the Private Sector: Open defense manufacturing to private players and
encourage joint ventures with global defense companies.

4. Leverage Geopolitical Alliances

• Technology Transfers: Negotiate for meaningful technology transfers as part of
defense deals.
o Example: Agreements with Russia (BrahMos missile) and the U.S. (GE
engine for fighter jets).
• Collaborative Development: Partner with friendly nations to co-develop
advanced systems.
o Example: The India-Israel Barak missile system.

2. Build a Defense Industrial Base: Establish defense manufacturing hubs with

specialized infrastructure and skilled workforce.
• Example: Defense corridors in Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.

3. Cultivate an Export-Oriented Industry: Position India as a global supplier of

defense equipment, targeting markets in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• Example: Recent export of the BrahMos missile to the Philippines.

There have been improvements in recent years: There has been a around three-
fold increase in the value of production since 2014-15. The contribution of the private
sector in this value of production is 21%.
Amid a growing push to increase exports of indigenous defence equipment, the U.S.,
France and Armenia have emerged as the top three customers for Indian military
exports. (https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/us-france-armenia-emerge-as-
indias-top-three-defence-export-customers/article68805429.ece)
Missiles:
Missiles are guided airborne weapons that can carry conventional or nuclear munitions.
They are used to destroy enemy war assets such as aircraft, tanks, bunkers, ships, or
other missiles. They can be launched from land, air, sea, or underwater platforms.

Components of a Missile
• Warhead: The payload carried by the missile, which could be explosive, nuclear,
chemical, biological, or conventional.
• Propulsion System: Provides the thrust required to propel the missile.
o Rocket Engines: Solid-fuel or liquid-fuel engines.
o Jet Engines: Used in cruise missiles.
o Ramjets and Scramjets: For hypersonic missiles.
• Guidance System: Ensures the missile reaches its target with accuracy.
o Types of guidance:
▪ Inertial Navigation System (INS): Uses onboard sensors.
▪ GPS Guidance: Relies on satellite data.
▪ Infrared or Optical Guidance: Tracks heat or visual signatures.
▪ Radar Guidance: Uses radar signals to find the target.
▪ Command Guidance: Controlled remotely.
• Body (Airframe): Protects internal components and is designed for aerodynamic
efficiency.
• Sensors: Detect environmental inputs like wind, heat, or radar signals for target
tracking.

Types of Missiles

Missiles are classified based on various criteria:

1. By Range
• Short-Range Missiles (SRBMs):
o Range: <1,000 km.
o Example: Prithvi missile
• Medium-Range Missiles (MRBMs):
o Range: 1,000–3,000 km.
o Example: Agni-II (India).
• Intermediate-Range Missiles (IRBMs):
o Range: 3,000–5,000 km.
o Example: Agni-III (India).
• Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs):
o Range: >5,000 km.
o Example: Agni-V

2. By Launch Platform
• Surface-to-Surface Missiles (SSM):
o Launched from the ground to strike ground targets.
o Example: BrahMos.
• Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAM):
o Targets aircraft or missiles.
o Example: Akash missile
 • Air-to-Air Missiles (AAM):
o Fired from aircraft to destroy enemy aircraft.
o Example: Astra missile (India).
• Air-to-Surface Missiles (ASM):
o Fired from aircraft to hit ground targets.
• Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM):
o Fired from submarines to strike land targets.
o Example: K-15 Sagarika (India).

4. By Trajectory
• Ballistic Missiles:
o Follow a parabolic trajectory, powered during the initial phase only.
o Example: Agni series.
• Cruise Missiles:
o Powered throughout their flight and follow a relatively flat trajectory.
o Example: Nirbhay
• Hypersonic Missiles:
o Use advanced propulsion systems (scramjets or glide vehicles) for ultra-
high speeds.
o Example: BrahMos-II (in development)

Ballistic Missiles:

• Ballistic missiles are launched directly into the upper layers of the Earth's
atmosphere or beyond.
• After the burnout of the last rocket stage, the missile follows a ballistic trajectory,
essentially free-falling towards its target guided by Earth’s gravity.
• It uses rocket engines (both fuel and oxidizer) which can be solid-fueled, liquid-
fueled, or a combination (hybrid).

Benefits of Ballistic Missiles:

• Range: Ballistic missiles, especially Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs),
can cover vast distances, allowing nations to project power across continents.
• Speed: Due to their trajectory and propulsion methods, ballistic missiles,
especially during their terminal phase, can reach hypersonic speeds, making
interception challenging.
• Payload: Ballistic missiles, particularly ICBMs, can carry large payloads, including
multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs), which allow
one missile to carry several nuclear warheads that can be directed at different
targets.
o Agni V was successfully tested for MIRV capability. Other countries
with this capability are USA, Russia, China, UK and France.

Limitations:
• Detectability: The launch of a ballistic missile is easily detectable due to its
significant thermal and infrared signature.
• Predictable Trajectory: After the boost phase, ballistic missiles follow a
somewhat predictable trajectory, which can be exploited by advanced missile
defense systems during the mid-course phase.

Cruise Missiles:

Cruise missiles maintain a relatively low altitude throughout their flight, following the
terrain to avoid radar detection. This flight path is termed as "terrain hugging." Their
path is not guided by gravity.
They typically fly at subsonic (below Mach 1) but modern cruise missiles can be
supersonic (Mach 1 to Mach 5) or even aim for hypersonic speeds.

Benefits:
1. Stealth and Manoeuvrability: Cruise missiles can fly at low altitudes, which
makes them harder to detect by radar. They are also manoeuvrable throughout
their flight.
2. Precision: Cruise missiles are known for their pinpoint accuracy.
3. Versatility: Cruise missiles can be launched from various platforms.
4. Guidance: They can be guided and redirected throughout their flight.

Limitations:
1. Range: generally shorter than that of comparable ballistic missiles.
2. Speed: Traditional cruise missiles are subsonic and some supersonic, making
them slower than ballistic missiles. There are supersonic and hypersonic cruise
missiles in development.
3. Vulnerability to Advanced Air Defense: Advanced air defense systems can
potentially detect and intercept cruise missiles.
4. Payload: Cruise missiles typically have a smaller payload compared to ballistic
missiles.

Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)

• Launched in 1983 under the leadership of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, this program
aimed to develop a range of guided missiles to meet India's defense
requirements.

Major Missiles Developed:

1. Prithvi (Surface-to-Surface Ballistic Missile):

o Range: 150–350 km.
o Role: Tactical battlefield weapon.
o Successfully inducted into the Indian Armed Forces.

2. Agni (Ballistic Missile):

 o Range: Varies from 700 km (Agni-I) to 5,000+ km (Agni-V).
o Role: Strategic missile for nuclear deterrence.
o Fully operational and forms the backbone of India’s nuclear triad.

3. Akash (Surface-to-Air Missile):

o Range: 30–40 km.
o Role: Medium-range air defense system against aircraft and UAVs.
o Inducted into the Army and Air Force.
o
4. Nag (Anti-Tank Guided Missile):
o Range: 4–7 km.
o Role: Fire-and-forget missile to destroy enemy tanks.
o Successfully tested and inducted; variants like HELINA can be launched
from helicopter.

5. Trishul (Surface-to-Air Missile):

o Range: 9 km.
o Role: Short-range air defense against low-level attacks.
o Development discontinued; experience gained contributed to other
programs.

Agni Series (Ballistic Missiles)

• Agni-I to Agni-V:
o Ranges from 700 km (Agni-I) to 5,000+ km (Agni-V, intercontinental).
o Role: Strategic deterrence, nuclear delivery.
o Agni-V is India’s first ICBM, enhancing global strategic capabilities and
recently achieved MIRV capability.
• Agni-P (Prime):
o A surface to surface two-stage, solid propellant ballistic missile with a
range of 1,000–2,000 kilometers.
o A canisterized, medium-range ballistic missile capable of carrying nuclear
warhead.
• A canisterized missile is stored, transported, and launched from a
sealed cylindrical container (canister).
• Canisters allow missiles to be transported and stored safely.
• Canisterized missiles can be launched directly from the container,
reducing the preparation time for launch.
• Examples: Agni-P and Agni V missiles
• Agni V
o a surface-to-surface inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM) range of
5,000–6000 kilometers.
o can carry a 1.6-tonne nuclear warhead.
o uses a three-stage solid-fuelled engine.
o Canisterized launch

BrahMos Cruise Missile Program

• A joint venture between India and Russia
• Named after Brahmputra and Moskava river.
• One of the World’s fastest supersonic cruise missile, capable of precision strikes.

Key Features:
• Speed: Mach 2.8–3.0.
• Range: Initially 290 km, extended to 450 km and further to 800 km
• Deployment: Can be launched from land, sea, air, and submarines.
• BrahMos-II (Hypersonic): Under development with speeds > Mach 7.
K Series (Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles - SLBMs)
• Part of India’s nuclear triad, these missiles are launched from nuclear-powered
submarines (SSBNs) such as INS Arihant and INS Arighat.
• Developed for the Arihant-class submarines.
• K-15 Sagarika: Range of 750 km.
• K-4: Range of 3,500 km.

Nirbhay Cruise Missile Program

• India’s first indigenously developed subsonic cruise missile.
• Range: 1,500 km.
• Role: Precision strikes with terrain-hugging capability.
• Status: Successfully tested; induction is in progress.

Anti-Satellite Missile Test (Mission Shakti)

• In 2019, India conducted an anti-satellite missile test using a ballistic missile
interceptor.
• Successfully destroyed a satellite in low Earth orbit, showcasing India’s space
defense capability.

Barak Missile Systems (Joint Development with Israel)

• Collaborative program with Israel for air and missile defense systems.
• Variants:
o Barak-1: Short-range defense.
o Barak-8: Medium-range surface-to-air missile with advanced radar and
guidance systems.

Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile (QRSAM)

• Developed by DRDO for rapid deployment against aerial threats.
• Range: 30 km.
• Key Features: Mobility, fast response, and all-weather capability.

Prahaar Missile
• Tactical short-range surface-to-surface missile designed to replace Prithvi.
• Range: 150 km.
• Role: Battlefield support and precision strikes.
India's Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) System
India's BMD program is designed to provide a multi-layered defense against ballistic
missile attacks. Initiated in the early 2000s, the program has progressed through two
primary phases:

Phase I:
• Intercept ballistic missiles with ranges up to 2,000 km.
• Components:
o Prithvi Air Defence (PAD): Exo-atmospheric interceptor designed to
engage targets at altitudes of 50–80 km.
o Advanced Air Defence (AAD): Endo-atmospheric interceptor targeting
missiles at altitudes of 15–30 km.

Phase II:
• Enhance interception capabilities against missiles with ranges up to 5,000 km.
 • Components:
o AD-1 and AD-2 Interceptors: Designed for both exo and endo-
atmospheric interception of longer-range ballistic missiles.

Russia's S-400 Triumf Air Defense System

The S-400 Triumf is one of the most advanced and versatile air defense systems
globally, developed by Russia to counter a wide array of aerial threats.

• Multi-Target Engagement: Capable of tracking and engaging up to 80 targets

simultaneously.
• Versatile Missile Options: Utilizes multiple missile types to cover various
ranges and altitudes, including the 40N6E missile with a range of up to 400 km.
• Advanced Radar Systems: Equipped with a suite of radars for target
acquisition, tracking, and engagement.
• Mobility: Highly mobile with rapid deployment capabilities, enhancing its
operational flexibility.

Global Deployment: Several countries, including China, Turkey, and India, have
procured the S-400 system to enhance their air defense capabilities.

Major Air Defense Systems Worldwide

1. Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3) – USA:
o Designed to intercept tactical ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and
advanced aircraft.
2. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) – USA:
o Intercepts short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles during
their terminal phase.
3. David's Sling – Israel:
o Targets medium to long-range rockets, missiles, and aircraft.

4. Iron Dome - Israel:

o Designed to intercept and destroy short-range projectiles (e.g., rockets,
mortars, artillery shells) within a range of 70 km before they can hit
populated areas or critical infrastructure.
 Iron Dome

Submarines:

Submarines are specialized watercraft designed to operate underwater.

Submarines control their depth and buoyancy using ballast tanks. These tanks can be
filled with water to make the submarine sink or filled with air to make it rise.

A submarine's hull is specially designed to withstand the immense pressure of deep

water. The inner pressure hull is typically made of thick, high-strength steel to maintain
the shape and integrity of the submarine at depth.

Submarine Power Sources:

1. Diesel-Electric:
• These submarines use diesel engines for surface operations and battery-
powered electric motors when submerged.
• The batteries are charged using the diesel engines when the submarine is
near the surface (often just below, using snorkels to intake air and expel
exhaust).
2. Nuclear-Powered:
• Nuclear submarines use nuclear reactors to heat water and produce
steam, which drives turbines connected to the submarine's propellers.
• The primary advantages of nuclear-powered submarines are their ability to
stay submerged for extended periods (limited mostly by food supply) and
their virtually unlimited range.
 3. Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP):
• AIP systems allow non-nuclear submarines to operate underwater for
longer durations without having to surface or use snorkels.
• Different AIP methods include Stirling engines, fuel cells, and closed-
cycle steam turbines.

Diesel-Electric Powered Submarines of India:

1. Shishumar Class (HDW Type 209):

• Based on the German HDW Type 209 design.
• Conventional attack submarine.

2. Sindhughosh-Class (Kilo-Class) Submarines:

• These are diesel-electric submarines based on the Russian Kilo-class design.
• Conventional attack submarines intended for anti-ship and anti-submarine
warfare.

3. Kalvari Class (Scorpène Class):

• A result of India-France collaboration under Project 75 of the Indian Navy
to acquire six advanced diesel-electric submarines.
• These submarines, known as the Kalvari class, are based on the French
Scorpene design and built in India at the Mazagon Dock Limited in Mumbai
under a transfer of technology agreement with France's Naval Group. The six
submarinea are:
o INS Kalvari
o INS Kandheri
o INS Karanj
o INS Vela
o INS Vagir
o INS Vagsheer
• Project 75I (the 'I' stands for India) is a follow-up to Project 75. Under this
initiative, the Indian Navy aims to acquire six more advanced diesel-electric
submarines with Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) systems. The inclusion of AIP
will allow these submarines to stay submerged for longer durations, enhancing
their operational capabilities.

Features of Kalvari-Class Submarines:

1. Stealth: advanced stealth features that reduce their acoustic, thermal, and radar
signatures, making them harder to detect by enemy vessels.
2. Modern Sensors and Sonar: equipped with state-of-the-art sensors and sonar,
providing them with superior detection capabilities and situational awareness.
3. Advanced Weapon Systems: armed with modern torpedoes, anti-ship missiles,
and mines, offering versatile engagement capabilities.
4. Improved Habitability: designed for better ergonomics and crew comfort,
considering the long durations the crew might spend underwater.

Nuclear Submarines of India:

1. INS Arihant: SSBN (Ballistic Missile Submarine)
• Powered by an 83 MW pressurized water reactor.
• Equipped with K-15 (Sagarika) and K-4 ballistic missiles.
• Capable of carrying nuclear warheads, thus providing India with a second-
strike capability.
• Stealth capabilities to remain undetected underwater.
2. INS Arighat: Arihant-class, SSBN
• Improved and advanced version of INS Arihant.
• Has enhanced missile-carrying capacity compared to INS Arihant.
 3. INS Chakra:
• Nuclear Powered attack submarine (SSN)
• Lease from Russia for 10 years, now returned.

Key Features of Indian Nuclear Submarines:

1. Extended Endurance: The nuclear reactor allows these submarines to remain
submerged for months.
2. Strategic Deterrence: are vital for India's nuclear triad, offering a credible
second-strike capability. They can retaliate with nuclear weapons even if land-
based assets are neutralized.
3. Deep Diving Capability: Nuclear submarines can dive deeper than conventional
submarines, making them harder to detect.
4. High Speed: They can operate at high speeds for extended periods without the
need to refuel.

SSN and SSBN differences:

• SSN:
• Primarily designed for frontline operations such as tracking enemy
submarines and ships, reconnaissance, intelligence gathering, and anti-
submarine warfare.
• Armed with torpedoes, anti-ship, and anti-submarine missiles
• SSBN (like INS Arihant):
• Primarily designed as a strategic deterrence platform.
• Their main role is to remain undetected and provide a secure and
survivable second-strike capability in the event of a nuclear conflict,
Equipped with nuclear-tipped ballistic missiles

Naval Warships: Mainly 4 types:

1. Destroyers
• Destroyers are heavily armed warships designed for high-speed, long-range, and
multi-role capabilities, including anti-aircraft, anti-submarine, and anti-surface
warfare.
• Examples:
o Kolkata-class (Project 15A): INS Kolkata, INS Kochi, INS Chennai
o Visakhapatnam-class (Project 15B): INS Visakhapatnam, INS
Mormugao.

2. Frigates

• Frigates are versatile, smaller than destroyers, and capable of performing various
roles such as escort missions, anti-submarine warfare, and patrol operations.
• Examples
o Shivalik-class (Project 17): INS Shivalik, INS Satpura, INS Sahyadri.
o Talwar-class: INS Talwar, INS Trikand, INS Teg.

3. Corvettes
• Corvettes are small, fast warships designed for coastal defense and short-range
missions.
• Examples in India:
o Kamorta-class (Project 28): INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan,
INS Kavaratti.
4. Aircraft Carriers
• Aircraft carriers serve as mobile airbases at sea, capable of launching and
recovering fighter jets, surveillance aircraft, and helicopters.
• Examples:
o INS Vikramaditya:
▪ Aircraft: MiG-29K fighters and helicopters (e.g., Kamov Ka-31).
• INS Vikrant
o named after India's first aircraft carrier, which had played a vital role in
the 1971 war.
o 262-meter-long carrier, 45,000 tonnes.

o STOBAR (Short Take-Off but Arrested Landing)

o maximum speed of 28 knots.
o Rs 20,000 crores
o indigenous content of 76 per cent

STOBAR Vs CATOBAR Type Of Aircraft Carriers

• STOBAR (Short Take-off But Arrested Recovery): In this type of carrier, the
frontal part of the deck is elevated forming a curve. This is called the ‘Ski-jump’.
Here aircraft uses its own power to launch and is assisted by Ski-jump. Example:
INS Vikramaditya, INS Vikrant

• CATOBAR (Catapult Assisted Take-off But Arrested Recovery): It works

like a catapult, the stored energy in catapult is released and converted in kinetic
energy. Due to this, the object placed on the catapult is launched with the speed.
The same mechanism is applied to the Carriers. Catapults are placed there under
the deck.
o Two types of systems are used to power the catapults.
▪ Steam-powered catapults.
▪ Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS).
• Arrested Recovery: The high-strength arrestor wires are placed on deck. The
aircraft has a tailhook under its fuselage. Thus tail-hook gets arrested in one of
the four wires on the deck. Due to this Aircraft is decelerated rapidly in a short
distance.

Working of RADAR and SONAR:

Radars and sonars are detection systems that use waves to locate objects. Their basic
principles, though applied to different mediums, are quite similar.

Radars (Radio Detection And Ranging):

1. Transmission: A radar system sends out a burst of radio waves.
2. Reflection: These radio waves bounce off objects they encounter.
3. Reception: The radar system receives the reflected waves.
4. Analysis: Based on the time taken for the waves to return and the change in
frequency (due to the Doppler effect), the system can determine the distance,
direction, and speed of the object.

Sonars (Sound Navigation And Ranging):

1. Transmission: A sonar system emits a sound wave (ping).
2. Reflection: The sound waves bounce off underwater objects they encounter.
3. Reception: The sonar system detects the reflected sound waves.
4. Analysis: Using the time taken for the echo to return, the system can determine
the distance to the object. The frequency shift, again due to the Doppler effect,
can indicate the object's speed.
Sonar can be active, where the system sends out its own sound waves, or passive,
where the system listens without transmitting, aiming to detect noises from other
objects, like submarine engines.

Stealth Technology:

Stealth technology aims to make objects (like aircraft, ships, or tanks) less detectable by
radars and sonars.

1. Shape Design: Objects are designed with shapes that deflect radar waves away
from the radar source.
2. Radar Absorbent Materials (RAM): These materials absorb radar waves rather
than reflecting them. They can be applied as paint or coatings on the surface of
aircraft and ships.
3. Heat Reduction: Stealth technology aims to reduce the heat signature of an
aircraft or ship, making it less detectable by infrared sensors.
4. Reduced Emission: Stealth platforms might limit their own radar and radio
emissions to avoid detection.
5. Acoustic Stealth: For submarines, stealth involves being as quiet as possible,
using technologies that minimize the noise produced by the vessel's machinery
and propulsion systems, making it harder for sonars to detect.
6. Radio jammers can be used in conjunction with stealth technologies to further
enhance the overall effectiveness of a platform's ability to remain undetected or
to disrupt enemy operations.
• Jammers emit powerful radio waves at specific frequencies to confuse
or overload these sensors and communication devices. This doesn't
make the platform invisible; instead, it makes the enemy's equipment
ineffective or less reliable.

Indian Air Force (IAF) is one of the major air powers in Asia and the world. It
possess a diverse array of weapon systems and platforms.

Fighter Aircrafts

1. Sukhoi Su-30MKI
• Multi-role air superiority fighter.
• Origin: Russia, license-produced by HAL in India.
• 4th Generation
• Key Features:
o Twin-engine, highly maneuverable with thrust vectoring.
o Equipped with BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles and air-to-air missiles.
o Advanced avionics
o Speed: Mach 2.0.
o Range: 3,000 km (without refueling).

2. Dassault Rafale
• Multi-role combat aircraft.
• Origin: France.
• 4.5th Generation
• Key Features:
o Equipped with Meteor (beyond-visual-range air-to-air missiles) and
Scalp (air-to-ground precision missiles).
 o AESA (Active Electronically Scanned Array) radar for superior tracking and
targeting.
o Stealth features, advanced electronic warfare capabilities.
o Capable of refueling mid-air
o Speed: Mach 1.8.
o Range: 3,700 km.

3. HAL Tejas (Light Combat Aircraft)

• Multi-role light fighter.
• Origin: India, by HAL
• 4th Generation
• Key Features:
o Indigenous aircraft with a fly-by-wire system.
o Equipped with R-73 air-to-air missiles and GSh-23 cannon.
o Advanced variants like Tejas Mk-1A include AESA radar, enhanced
weapons systems.
o Speed: Mach 1.6.
o Range: 850 km (combat radius).

4. MiG-29 UPG
• Air superiority and multi-role fighter.
• Origin: Russia.
• 4th Generation
• Key Features:
o Upgraded with advanced avionics and AESA radar.
o Equipped with air-to-air missiles.
o Capable of refueling mid-air.
• Performance:
o Speed: Mach 2.25.
o Range: 1,500 km.

5. Mirage-2000
• Multi-role combat aircraft.
• Origin: France.
• Key Features:
o Equipped with MICA air-to-air missiles and laser-guided bombs.
o Modernized with better avionics and weaponry (Mirage-2000I upgrade).
o Speed: Mach 2.2.
o Range: 1,500 km.

6. SEPECAT Jaguar
• Deep penetration strike aircraft.
• Origin: Anglo-French design, license-built in India by HAL.
• Key Features:
o Equipped with laser-guided bombs, cluster munitions, and AS-30L
missiles.
o Advanced navigation and targeting system
o Speed: Mach 1.6.
o Range: 1,600 km.

Future Fighter Aircraft Programs

1. HAL Tejas Mk-2

• Medium-weight multi-role combat aircraft.
• AESA radar, advanced avionics.
• Increased payload and range compared to Tejas Mk-1.
2. Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)
• Fifth-generation stealth fighter.
• Stealth design, supercruise capability.
• Indigenous AESA radar and electronic warfare suite.

3. MRFA (Multi-Role Fighter Aircraft)

• Procurement of 114 fighter jets under Make in India.
• Contenders:
o Boeing F-15EX and F/A-18 Super Hornet (USA).
o Dassault Rafale (France).
o Saab Gripen (Sweden).

Generation Key Features

1st Gen Jet propulsion, basic aerodynamics, no radar or guided weapons.
2nd Gen Swept wings, early radar, limited air-to-air missiles.
Enhanced radar, supersonic speeds, advanced missiles, multi-role
3rd Gen capabilities.
Fly-by-wire controls, advanced radar, multi-role functionality,
4th Gen supermaneuverability.
Stealth features, AESA radar, advanced avionics, and integrated
4.5th Gen electronic warfare (EW) systems.
Stealth design, supercruise capability, advanced sensor fusion, network-
5th Gen centric warfare.
*Students do not need to mug up this, it is only for awareness purpose.

Surveillance and Early Warning Systems

Monitor airspace, detect threats, and coordinate responses. Example:
• Phalcon AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System):
• DRDO AEW&CS Netra:

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Reconnaissance, surveillance, and strike

missions. Examples:
• Heron and Searcher UAVs:
o Imported from Israel for surveillance and target acquisition.
• Rustom-II:
o Indigenous medium-altitude long-endurance

Emerging trends in Warfare:

1. Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs)

Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) are advanced systems that use highly focused
energy (like lasers, microwaves, or particle beams) to disable or destroy targets.

Examples:
• Laser Weapons:
o Use high-energy laser beams to damage or destroy targets.
o Effective against drones, missiles, aircraft, and ground targets.
 • Microwave Weapons:
o Emit high-frequency electromagnetic waves to disrupt or destroy
electronic systems.
o Ideal for disabling enemy radar, communication systems, and electronics.
• Particle Beam Weapons:
o Use charged or neutral particles accelerated to near-light speeds to
damage targets at the atomic level.
o Experimental and less commonly deployed.

Benefits of Directed Energy Weapons

• Speed of Light Engagement:
• Precision: Highly accurate, reducing collateral damage.
• Low Operational Cost:
• Unlimited Ammo: As long as energy is available, DEWs can fire continuously.

Challenges in Developing DEWs

• High Energy Requirement: Need powerful energy sources to maintain the
intensity of beams over long distances.
• Range Limitations: Atmospheric conditions (e.g., dust, rain, fog) can weaken
laser beams.
• Thermal Management: DEWs generate significant heat during operation,
requiring advanced cooling systems.

DEW in India:
1. Kali (Kilo Ampere Linear Injector):
o military applications as a high-power electron accelerator.
o Can generate intense beams to disable enemy electronics and
communications.
2. Laser Dazzlers:
o Developed by DRDO to blind enemy sensors and personnel temporarily.
3. Anti-Drone Technology:
o DRDO has developed laser-based systems for neutralizing small drones, a
growing threat in modern warfare.
4. Microwave Weapons:
o India is exploring high-powered microwave systems to disable enemy
electronics, though operational details remain classified.

2. Hypersonic Weapons
Hypersonic weapons are advanced systems capable of traveling at speeds greater
than Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound) while maintaining maneuverability. This
makes them difficult to detect, intercept, and counter using existing air defense systems.

Types of Hypersonic Weapons

1. Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (HGVs):
o Launched atop a rocket.
o Glides at hypersonic speeds through the atmosphere after reentry.
o Examples: Russia’s Avangard.
2. Hypersonic Cruise Missiles (HCMs):
o Powered by scramjets, enabling sustained hypersonic flight within the
atmosphere.
o Examples: China’s DF-ZF and U.S. HAWC.

Propulsion Systems in Hypersonic Weapons: Ramjet and Scramjet

Jet, Ramjet and Scramjet:

1. Jet Engines
• Used in conventional aircraft.
• Can operate from a stationary position and through various speed ranges.
• Combines air compression with turbines for combustion.
• Limited to subsonic and low supersonic speeds (below Mach 3).

2. Ramjet (Ram Air Jet)

• Air is compressed by the forward motion of the engine itself (no compressor).
• The compressed air is mixed with fuel, ignited, and expelled to generate thrust.
• Requires initial high speeds (supersonic) to operate; cannot start from rest.
• No moving parts like turbines or compressors.
• Efficient for supersonic flight and missiles.
• Operates efficiently between Mach 3 and Mach 6.
• Inefficient at speeds below Mach 3 due to insufficient compression.

3. Scramjet (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet)

• Similar to a ramjet, but the airflow remains supersonic throughout the engine.
• Achieves higher speeds by eliminating the need to slow down incoming air to
subsonic speeds.
• Operates efficiently at Mach 6 and above.
• Challenges: Requires precise engineering to maintain stability at extreme speeds
and temperatures.

Challenges of Hypersonic Weapons

• Extreme Temperatures: Hypersonic speeds generate intense heat due to air
friction, requiring advanced thermal protection materials.
• Guidance Systems: Maintaining accuracy while traveling at high speeds and
manoeuvring is technically challenging.
• Cost: Development and deployment of hypersonic systems are expensive due to
advanced technologies.

India’s Progress in Hypersonic Weapons

1. Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV):
o Developed by DRDO to test scramjet engine technology.
o Successfully demonstrated sustained hypersonic flight.
o Provides the foundation for future hypersonic missiles.
2. BrahMos-II:
o A hypersonic cruise missile being jointly developed by India and Russia.
o Expected speed: Mach 8.
o Potential to target high-value assets with unparalleled speed.

Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS)

• It is a weapon delivery system that places a warhead into a low Earth orbit, only
to de-orbit it before completing a full revolution, striking a target on Earth.
• FOBS can theoretically strike any point on Earth, as they are not constrained by
traditional ballistic missile or cruise missile trajectories.
• It can potentially bypass traditional missile defense systems designed to intercept
ballistic missiles with predictable trajectories.
• Even though developed by USSR and later US during cold war, recently it was
used by China for launching a hypersonic missile.
3. Weaponization of Space
Weaponization of space refers to the placement or use of weapons in outer space, or
the use of space-based assets for offensive military purposes. It encompasses a broad
range of activities, including:
1. Deploying space-based weapons capable of striking targets on Earth, in the
atmosphere, or in space.
2. Developing anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) to disable or destroy enemy
satellites.
3. Using satellites for precision targeting, reconnaissance, and missile defense.

Challenges in Tackling Weaponization of Space

• Ambiguity in Dual-Use Technologies: Many space technologies, like satellites,

have both civilian and military applications
• Lack of Comprehensive Regulation: The Outer Space Treaty (1967)
prohibits the placement of nuclear weapons in space but does not address
modern threats like ASAT weapons or DEWs.
• Proliferation of Space Players: The increasing number of countries and private
companies operating in space complicates regulation and monitoring.
• Space Debris: Weaponization tests, such as ASAT, generate significant debris,
• Escalation and Arms Race: Weaponization risks escalating geopolitical
tensions, with countries pursuing counter-space capabilities to deter adversaries.
• Example: U.S. establishment of the Space Force, Russia's testing of satellite-
interceptor systems, and China's development of advanced ASAT weapons.

Many experts advocate for a new space treaty to tackle the issue of
weaponization of space with focus on:

• Comprehensive Coverage: Address all types of weapons, including kinetic,

directed energy, and cyber warfare.
• Space Debris Mitigation: Mandate rules to prevent debris creation, such as
banning ASAT tests.
• Dual-Use Regulation: Define clear boundaries between civilian and military
uses of space technology.
• Accountability and Transparency: Establish mechanisms for verification and
monitoring of space activities.
• Inclusion of Private Players: Extend regulations to commercial entities
involved in space activities.

4. Artificial Intelligence in Warfare

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing modern warfare by enhancing decision-

making, automating processes, and enabling unprecedented capabilities across all
domains—land, sea, air, space, and cyberspace. AI's role in warfare includes
autonomous systems, cybersecurity, intelligence gathering, and decision
support systems.

Examples
• Israel's Harop drones: These AI-enabled drones can autonomously patrol and
identify enemy targets, destroying them with precision.
• Surveillance and Reconnaissance: Project Maven (USA):
o Uses AI to analyze video feeds from drones, identifying potential threats
or enemy movements faster than human analysts.
 • Cyber Warfare: AI-based cybersecurity systems like Darktrace:
o Automatically detects and mitigates cyber threats in real time.

Possible Implications of AI in Warfare

Positive Implications
• Enhanced Efficiency and Precision: AI reduces human error, enabling more
accurate targeting and mission success.
• Rapid Decision-Making: AI can analyze large datasets in real-time, assisting
military leaders in making faster and more informed decisions.
• Reduced Human Casualties: Autonomous systems can undertake high-risk
missions, reducing the exposure of human personnel to danger.
• Improved Resource Management: AI optimizes logistics and supply chain
management, ensuring better allocation of resources.

Negative Implications
• Autonomous Lethality: Fully autonomous weapons may act without human
intervention, raising ethical concerns about accountability and proportionality in
warfare.
• Escalation of Conflict: AI-driven systems could misinterpret data, leading to
accidental escalations or unintended consequences.
• Asymmetric Threats: Non-state actors and smaller nations could exploit AI for
cyberattacks, drones, and misinformation campaigns.
• Global Arms Race: AI-powered military capabilities could trigger an arms race
among major powers, destabilizing global security.
• Vulnerability to Hacking: AI systems could be manipulated or hacked, turning
sophisticated technologies against their own operators.

How a Country Should Strengthen Itself in an AI-Driven Warfare Scenario?

1. Develop Indigenous AI Capabilities

• Invest in AI research and development through partnerships between the
government, military, academia, and private companies.
• Example: India’s Defence AI Council (DAIC) and iDEX (Innovations for
Defence Excellence).
2. Focus on Dual-Use AI Technologies
• Develop AI systems with both civilian and military applications, such as advanced
drones, cybersecurity systems, and autonomous vehicles.
3. Build a Skilled Workforce
• Train military personnel and defense scientists in AI, machine learning, and data
science.
4. Strengthen Cybersecurity
• Protect critical infrastructure, communication networks, and AI-based military
systems from cyber threats.

5. Cyber Warfare:
Nation-states and non-state actors exploit vulnerabilities in cyber infrastructure to cause
damage, spy, or disrupt operations. This includes attacking power grids, financial
systems, or military networks.

6. Information Warfare:
The battle for influencing and controlling information, perceptions, and narratives has
become integral. This encompasses psychological operations, propaganda, and
disinformation campaigns, often amplified by social media.
7. Drone Warfare:
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAVs) are
increasingly used for surveillance, reconnaissance, and even strike missions. Drone
swarms—large groups of coordinated drones—are a newer development that poses
unique challenges.